ALFRED THE GREAT CONFRONTS THE DANISH INVASIONS OF 865-878. Viking BY ERIC NIDEROST T WAS THE CUSTOM FOR KING ALFRED OF WESSEX TO celebrate the Twelve Days of Christmas at his royal palace at Dorchester, in the county of Dorset. Alfred’s great hall was the heart of the palace, a great timber structure that was the setting for the many feasts that marked the holiday. ie Digs et hig edie dpe hang ed ec f ett earl ar by drink must have quickly cleared. § liquor loosened to loud boasts ang The winter of ab 8 ‘ypical one. The Eng! bound, cold, and forbid sed the sides of a waterfille snded from a r00 wished King A rus (literally in Old English). Mus nglish counties of Wiltshin ered only around 300 ada hu 5,000 battle-hardened, pr Gutheum made his mo} Night, seizing the royal my of perhaps sof mythic war ly after Twelftheon of Norse gods, which made years. His decision would not only affect Wes: hea- sex, but would ¢ English history qual gusto, slaughtering the monks, his th nuns who had the misfortune of as Alfred satin his D crossed into France. Others stayed falling into their hands, score of ealdormen and thegns looking to him and submitted to V Alfred would not Alfred was only 28 at the time, hut he pos- for leadership the situation seemed well nigh submit surrender was sessed a wisdom and experience beyond his hopeles. He could fle to France, as some of his thegnsand ealdormen hal done, but to Alfred this was also out ofthe question. He decided to retreat to Somerset, in what is now called the West Country: Inthe ninth cen- tury the area was a patchwork of dal marshes and thick alder forests, ideal for concealment and defense. There were scartered villages, and some land was under cultivation, bur these were islands of civilization tenaciously rising above a vast wilderness. Poor drainage con- spired with spring tides and westerly gales to inundate whole sections of Somerset to a depth of five or six Feet in places. The king and a small retinue made their way to these Somerset marshes, eventu- ally deciding to make Athelney cheie hhome base. Athelney was a small patch of about 30 acres that barely rose 40 feet above the surrounding marshes. Alfred sent his men to work felling tim ber, and soon a fort was constructed that would serve asthe king’ home for the next few months. There was no question that Alfred was in reduced circumstances or thatthe situa tion was sill blak. The king was suffering a kind of internal exile, far from the povser and prestige he had enjoyed on his royal estates or in his capital at Winchester. The timbered palace halls, full the rich tapestries and books heloved, was now replaced by a rude fortina ‘swamp. The praises of retainers and the songs ‘of minstrels were rudely replaced by the plain tive croaking of frogs, ot only was Alfred’ kingdom reduced to few scant acres, bu his subjects now were just a small band of loyal retainers. There were few thegs, forthe most part members ‘of his bodyguard; some court officials; and most likely 2 handful of servants. In a sense, ‘fred became a kind of *Robin Hood” pro torype, a charismatic fugitive who started 0 stage hit-and-run raids on a far more power ful enemy. Athelney became Alfred's “She. wood Forest,” but there the parallel ends Alfred needed to be more than a guerilla leader if he hoped to wrest his kingdom from the Vikings rapacious grasp. Who were these Vikings who were poised on the brink of conquering all England? “Viking” isa kind of generic term for war: sors wino hailed from Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. They buest upon an unsuspecting Europe like @ plague of locust, consuming everything ther path, They fanned out in all directions, seeking plunder, slaves, and glory Historians still debate the underiying reasons for ths sudden wanderlust, and theories run the gamut from the nee for personal prestige to overpopulation. For the most pare, Danish Vikings ravished Britain, while Norwegians ranged to such northern climes as leland and Geeenland, Swedish Vikings, called “Rutosi* by the Finns, traveled ro Rosi, whose name i probably derived from that erm. The Vikings—the term probably comes from the old Norse term vik, or “creek” —were pagans who relished wat. Their pirate raids ‘were facilitated by their longsips, some ofthe fines vessels ever erated by the hand of man. ‘The longship was superbly crafted, sleek and swift, and its shallow draught allowed it to toss oceans or navigate rivers with equal aplomb. Is square rig was such that it could tack against the wind always useful fo escap ing an alien shore after a rai. ‘The average longship carted about 40 men, more if absolutely necessary. But recently archaeologists uncovered the remains of long. ship near Roskilde, Denmark, that measured ama2ing 118 fee from prow to ster. Ie is prime it must have carried a hued men, and was propelled by about 40 rowers on each side. Not all Viking ships were cis giganti, bur it underscores the sophistication of Norse naval engineering. ‘The first Viking raid on England occurred in the summer of 787 ab, when three Viking long ships landed on a beach near Dorchester. A royal reeve (official) named Beaduherd rode out to investigate, thinking that these were foreign merchants out to sll thee waves. Bur these is itors were out for plunder, not profit, and the Anglo-Saxon Chromite laconcally notes that “he was killed on the spot and all those that 89 ‘were with him." This was the beginning of a series of Viking incursions that were to las in ‘one form or another until 1066, Coastal monasteries were among the first to fall victim to Norse depredations. They were enormously rich, accessible, and vietually defenseless. In 793 the great monastery at Lind: isfarne was sacked and burned, an act of van- lism that senta shockwave of terror through England and western Europe, Lindisfarne was literally an outpost of civilization, a place where monks tried to keep the light of learning alive ina barbaric age. Today the illuminated Lind: isfarne Gospels are considered one of the treasures of the Western world Years of burning, pillaging, and rapine alternated with years of relative peace. The English would patiently rebuild, ionalizing that these attacks were God's punishment for their sins. During, lulls berween raids some dared hope their prayers had been nswered, and if tarthe “heathens” would no longer visit their shores. Iwasa hope shared by much of western Europe. “A furore normanmorunt lena nos, Domine," they prayed, “From the fury ofthe Northen deliver us, 0 Lor.” The Vikings deserved mach ofthis had press, but modern historiane try to prevent & more balanced picture. They point out that the Vikings were great craftsmen, shrewd me 1s, and bold explorers. Nevertheless, they mmadea mistake in atacking monasteries, how- ‘ver ripe the pluckings. Monks were iterate at atime when most could not read or write, and ic was they who wrote the histories. The Vikings were skilled in arms, but the haved rmoniks fought back by recording Norse mis- deeds Inthe context ofcenures the monkish ‘pen was mightier than the Viking sword ‘There was also a certain iony inthe Viking raids. The Anglo-Saxons had once been pagan invaders; now the tables were turned. Around 450 ab Germanic bands of Angles, Saxons, and tes poured into Britain, dispossessng the native Romano-Celte population. Those that ‘were not pu 1 the sword were forced to flee ito the mountain fasiness of Wales or Seot- land. By 700 the Anglo-Saxons had become Christan, and the island was divided into a number of small kingdoms. ‘The former Roman province of Britannia was now Angle- land, or England Around 850 the Anglo-Saxon kings con- sisted of Northumbria, East Anglia, Mercia, and Wessex. Aled was 2 member of the House ‘of Cerdic, a dynasty that had ruled Wessex since its founding in the 6th century, When he was born in 849 his chances of ruling seemed_ wolf, then a widower, took a Frankish prin. named Juith as his second wife. The not perversion, lay atthe root of ' nuptials. Judith ‘of Emperor Charles the Bold, and one could b= promise the kingdom was div and son, and bloodshed rocked by more scandal when Ethel bald, mesmerized by his stepmother’ beauty, ¢ mere boys. If thelced, chance Hl something happened to vee 5 that the Witan, the king's would El F il Alfred as the next king. In the autumn of 2] Alfred works at rebuilding walls in London in 886, OPPOSITE: Alfred the Great from a conterpo- large and rapacious host led by tw rary coin Jalfdan and Ivar the Bonel Ragnar Lothbrok (Leather B in York, The councryside had hiefain infamous for sailing up the Seine and clean, plundered a Ethelred responded with alaerity. The Vikings ac sacking Paris in 845. According to leg Northumbria was a broken reed, pliant and the city as their base of operations. Safely had no bones in his skeleton, only or _ submissive in the hands of ts conquerors. Hav- ensconced behind the city’s stout walls, the griste. Although he had no backbone, he was ing created a desert and called it peace, the Danes refused to core out and give hatte, By igs knew it was high time to move on tothe same token, the Anglo-Saxon army seem The Danes landed in East Anglia, the small: ied lands to the south, Mount- to have lacked the strength or the ex . est of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, They thor: a {ng host—called lay siege to Nottingham or breach its wall. ‘oughly cowed the East Anglians, who were the “Great Army” by fearful Anglo-Saxon The campaign an embarrassing nore than happy to supply them with horses chroniclers—began ther migration in late 867. fiasco, and ended when the Vikings themselves for their campaign. Northumbria was the ini- Mercia, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom w ial target, a kingdom already weakened by nzernal dissention. The Viking Danes met and utterly defeated the Northumbrians at York The year 867 saw the Danes still entrenched neighboring Wessex, was the York about a year, chen began a mass exes uthred, the Mercian k to East Anglia in the fll of 869. It had been th vi ster. fed four years since the Vikings had landed in Fnready cooperation had left them relatively unscathed. Now they were going to regret sis ‘one-sided pact they had made with the “devil.” King Edmund of East Anglia was a man noted for his piety and goodness, but these ster ling qualities left him ill equipped to deal with such a hard, merciless man as Ivar the Bone less. Ivars men fanned out into the countryside, burning, looting, and raping with impunity. As always, monasteries were singled out for special attention. Gold-encrusted altar pieces, reli {quaries,and sacred vessels were carted off, and defenseless monks were cut down to lie in spreading pools of cher own blood ‘var demanded that Edmund become his vassal, bur the mete suggestion of such an arrangement filled the East Anglian king swith loathing and horror. Legend insists that Edmund was capcured by an advance party of Vikings while at his royal manor at Hoxne. Enraged at Edmund's stubborn refusal to become his vassal, Ivar had the hapless monarch seized and bound to a tree Archers began to shoot arrows into the writhing body of the king, aiming the lethal shafts in such a way that they only wounded, not killed outright. This torture lasted for some time, until Edmund's entire body resembled, it was Said, “a hedgehog,” Punctured and bleed: ing from several dozen wounds, the king still lived. Tring ofthe sport the Vikings finally had his head cut off Since he had refused toa and had died at the hands of he cept a pagan lord hens, Edmund was honored as a martyr tothe faith. He soon became canonized and joined che Catholic communion of saints. The mareyrking was eventually laid co res in a Suffolk town that took his name, Bury St. Edmunds, But Saxon England needed a savior, not a not offer prayers inthe next. There were now ‘only two independent Anglo-Saxon kingdoms left, Mercia and Wessex. The bonds between them were strengthened when Alfred married warrior who could fight in this world, Ealhswith, 2 Mercian noblewoman who had blood ties to the Mercian royal hou In December 870 the Danes were on the move again, traveling southwest into Wessex. No doubt Ethelred and the West Saxons had anticipated the attack, preparing themselves as best they could for the coming onslaught. The previous four or five years of intermittent fight ing had transformed Alfred into a seasoned warrior but this campaign would cruly test his mettle. The Vikings poured into Wessex like a plague of avenging furies, seizing the Berkshire town of Reading as a bas. Ie was an ol tac, but nature itself came co the ad of the invaders. The Kerner and Thames Rivers formed a threesided natural moat around the Danish encampment, and the raiders los no time in theowing up an embank ment on the fourth side. While some of the Vikings were busy digging into the Wessex eatth, others formed foraging partes that ranged far int the countryside. “The Vikings grew careless as they scoured the countryside for provisions. One foraging party ted by ajarl chief) named Sideoc was surprised by Enhelwulf, Ealdoeman of Berkshice, and « band of Saxon warriors. The Vikings were routed, and though the encounter was little more than a skirmish t put fresh hear int the AngloSaxons. But when Ethelred and Alfe tried ro ake the Viking earthworks at Reading they were repulsed with heavily casualties. Ea: dorman Ethelwulf was numbered among the slain, causing recent elation to tuen to gloom. Luckily the Vikings chose to give hal, hewn the safety of rivers and earthworks for the risks of combat. The frst real battle of the campaign was fought ar Ashdown (Ash dune), “Hill of the Ash," somewhere on the northern slope of the Berkshire plain. Early medieval dates are sometimes hard to pin dow, but the clash probably took place on January 8, 871, The Viking army was led by Halfdan and Bacsecp, two chieftains medieval chroniclers call “kins,” and a host of lesser leaders called jal. The Vikings, who had the advantage of hh round, deployed their men in wo divisions. The two “kings” commanded one division, while the jarls led the other. On the “1) surface there was lite ro outwardly distinguish the rival forces. Both preferred to fight on foot toa Viking, a horse was merely convenient transportation to the battlefield. The basic tac tical formation was the shield wall, the scild: bburb (literally “shield fort). Each man’s shield ‘was positioned in such a way he shield of the man co his lf. Because the “pagans” had divided theie army into 1wo divisions, Etheled felt he had ‘no choice but to follow suit. The Anglo-Saxon army was likewise divided, Ethelred assigning Alfred to watch the jars component while he ‘opposed the Viking "kings. bartles were not ser pieces, but they did con: tain certain time-honored rituals. To bolster Fighting spirit andl weaken enemy moral, rival armies indulged in battle cries, shouts, insults. This “psychological warfare meant to goad an enemy into a rash and pos sibly premature attack. The Saxons grimly waited for the signal to advance, bearded faces peering over ther round strelds Iron helmets glined inthe early morn ing sun, ies rays sparkling ike diamonds over the smooth metal, and the Golden Dragon of Wessex standard flew above a prickly sea of spears. Saxons began to shout, hundreds of male voices joining in the battle cries, We don't know what was shouted, but monkish chroni- cers ofa later period recorded Ur Ur (Old Eng: lish for “Outl, Out!"), Godemite (“God Almighty") and Olicrosse (“Holy Cross!"), No doubt the monks omirted the bawdier utter ances, preferring the sacred tothe profane. ‘The battle cries andl ritual taunts rose to a swelling crescendo, the voices amplified as they reverberated against the hacks ‘Vikings probably replied with their own shours and cris, bur this verbal dt! could rot las fo ever. Each Saxon warrior had a thrusting spear and two or three javeins, the latter held with the shield hand, Viking javelins—light throw: ing spears—were launched at the Saxons, and the Saxons replied Ninth-century hields, The ith their own missles. The javelins were nor aimed weapons, best for throwing at large, dense bodies of men. They had enough inertia to puncture shields with a dull thud, and here and there an anguished cry marked where a javelin hit living flesh Alfred was eager to come to grips with the ‘enemy, but needed Ethelred's. signal. to advance. Where was his royal sibling turned out that Etheleed was in his tent, calmly hearing Mass. Alfred sent a messenger urging the king to make haste, bur Ethelred would have none of it. Choosing piety over pruxlence, he declared he would not leave until divine services were endeda es Alfred boldly sets his shins against those af te invading Vikings. This left Alfred with a terrible dilemma. The ofthe praise But Ethelred and Alfred could not upper hand. Alfted inherited a kingdom that reson their laurels. The Vi alamity after calamity hit mind-numbing sucand autonomy and was given five precious years to rebuild and recover. Alfred could now tarn his thoughts to other matters—though he probably kept a wary eye on events outside his kingdom. The king could read and write in Anglo-Saxon, the Old English that line of the Lord's Prayer, for example, “Our Father who isin heaven,” would be rendered “Ure Faeder, pu pe earl on beofoniun.” Lov ing books, he eventually learned Latin and became a respected scholar colved into our modern tongue. The fist ‘Bu sooner or later, these peaceful pursuits had togive way tathoughts of wat. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle took nuxe of a disturbing new trend around the year 872: “Halfdan divided the Northumbrians’ lands, and from then on his men plowed and tiled ther.” After a quarter-century of pillage and rapine these Vikings were settling down, starting to consider England home, not just a convenient place to plunder. The pirates ‘were being transformed into plowmen, with a | 10 A CASUAL OBSERVER THERE WOULD BE | [ lcd o distinguish an Anglo-Saxon | rior from his Viking couneerpart | Information is scanty, and must of necessity |. Wiles tks bate pres snd rare archaeological finds. | Thebasic Anglo-Saxon weapon was the spear: es effectiveness was underscored by the | face that everyone from great lord to humble thegn used it. There were several types of spear, but the two major categories weee the light javelin and more seardy thrasting spat Javelins were launched early in a battle, “gad fly” shafts that were best thrown en masse. ‘The Regia Anglorum, a modern living hs ‘ory group based in England, did afew exper: iments that produced interesting resuls Javelns wer ight and slow, and targeted sol: ders could exsily avoid them. This was harder to do, however if «soldier were shoul profound effect on English history ‘While some Vikings were abandoning the sword for the plowshar, others sil followed the old ways. A new generation of war leaders ‘emerged, including the Danish chieftain Guthcum. The Vikings plundered the rich and fertile fields of Lincoln, then took up residence in Repton, the site where the kings of Mercia were buried arly in 874 the Vikings moved into the of Mercia, and as events unfolded it was clear they were bent fon permanent conquest, not tempo: rary gain. King Burh fighting, and when the Vikings approached, he fled and went into exile. Eventually he made it to Rome, long and hazardous journey, and died there afew years later The fall of Mercia left Wessex as the only remaining independent Anglo-Saxon kingdom Over the previous 20 years Northumbria, East ed had no stomach for was about seven fet in length, tipped by a broad leat of lozenge shaped head. By contrast, ony high-rank ing Anglo-Saxon warriors used the sword, Blades were about 30nches long and three inches wide, designed for slashing, nor stabbing, Moch more universal was the scramaseaxe, along knife that was used by pessant and king alike for everyday task. These areatl varied in size, ranging from about 6 to 10 inches in length, The average “rank and file” deg might be able to afford a basic helmet, bu high-ranking Saxon waetiors wore mail shirts. These were expensive, in large part because of the meticu VT ESE RCM eT CMA] der to shoulder in a shield wall, and if not ‘one but scores of javelins were raining down simultaneously, Few Vikings and Anglo-Sax- ‘ons who were lower down on the social sale had helmets and virtually none had armor, which made them particularly vulnerable to a javelin “barrage.” Once an enemy was“ ned up” by the javelins, it was time to close with thrusting spears, gener ing spear varied re Ily held overhand. The thrust lous craftsmanship involved in their manufac: ture. A “typical” thegn wore a woolen tunic and breeches. Hs legs were covered in kind of putte or gaite arrangement that looked much like bandages or a “cross thatch.” As previously discussed, higher warriors would wear mal shirts, rows of interlocking metal rings that inthis period fell othe hips Those who were lucky enough wore iron hel mets, conical headgear that featured a projec ion in the front called a nasal. Shields were "3 Anglia, and now Mercia had been extinguished like so many guttering candles, Only Wessex kept the light of Anglo-Saxon England still brightly aglow In 875 Alfred was engaged ina sea battle of the coast of Wessex. An Anglo-Saxon named Ethelweard wrote later that “Aled pur rosea ‘with his naval force, and the pagan {Viking fleet met him, with seven tall ships; a battle ensues, and the Danes are pu co fight, and one Of thet ships is captured by the king." These laconic comments mask a cons achievement: The Vikings had been bested on their awn natural element, the sea. But there ‘was scant time co savor the victory, because Danes landed on the coast and seized Ware ham. Wareham was protected by stout walls, and surrounded on three sides by water. Alfred raised the fd ish contagion before it spread farther The Wareham Danes agreed to leave Wes sex, sealing the pact with oaths sworn on pold 1nd managed to isolate the Dan Recreated ninth-century warriors of the Regia An history group form a shield wal generally round and made of linden wood Linden was ideal because it was relatively light, yet resisted splitng. They were painte in various colorful designs, nd in he cenet was a metal bos. Anglo-Saxon helmets are eae finds, but ‘one discovered at York suggests they could | both functional and works of are. The York artifact, called the *Coppergate helmet” aft the archacological site where it was found, + cedged in brass. The brass nose guard festurt an interlocking animal design of a style that suggests the period of about 750 AD. The hd met shows signs that it was already old wha clscarded, leading some to speculate it was lost when the Vikings took York in 866 AD. The principal Viking weapon was the sword, Sword hilts were often decorated wit elaborately designed copper, silver, or goldamulets that had been sprinkled with blood and laid on an altar. twas said the Norse god They promptly broke their word and swiftly moved 70 miles away. Alfred had his ull, because he had to meet a grea Danish fl sailing to meet its duplicitous comrades at Exeter. Odin himself had made such an oath to Execer, som in Swanage B Aided by a storm, Alfred scattered or sank this remy fleet Perhaps unnerved by Alfred's victory, the Danes made peace, and this time they it. Th withdrew from Wessex in 8 when sd ¢ tired but triumphant Alfred could well believe he had seen the lato he Vikings for a long time to come, He was wrong, because Guthrum was preparing an nvasion that would put the very survival of have seen, Alfred taken aba n January 878, The king refused to surrender, inlay, The broadaxe was used so fre quently ic almost was a symbol of Viking terror, When wielded in the hands of an exper reputation; it was able to cut off a horses headin one stroke, In general, the Vikings dressed much like their Anglo-Saxon opponents. A woolen tunic, breeches, and perhaps a cloak for colder weather were all standard costume, Vikings were hardy seafarers as well as warriors, who didn't need much in the way of personal baggage. Helmets do not scem to have been as universally worn as was previously sup posed, Popular culture associates Vikings with homed helmets but these seem to be the broadaxe deserved its fearsome largely fights of Victorian fantasy. A horned helmet would not be the best ching to wear within the closely packed confines ofa shield wall, and would probably make you more dangerous to your rades than to the enemy! Similarl winged helmets of Wagnerian opera have no basis in fact, The Anglo-Saxons seemed to have scorned the use of the bow in battle, though they used ic extensively in hunting, By contrast the Vikings seemed to have loved the bow, though it’s not clear to what extent it was used in battle, The invading Vikings certainly had plenty of town ing Edu ' unfortunate “martyrdom,” Eric Niderost PA nor would he flee to Europe like his faint hearted brother‘in law King Burhred of Mercia Instead, Alfeed built a fore at Athelney, where he would await developments for a few months, ‘Why the delay? Alfred knew thatthe season for spring sowing—roughly from Cand upon them. Ifhe gathered the fyrd now, theens and ceorls would have to abandon their homes and the planting cycle would be discupted. Massive starvation and disease brought on by malnutrition might result. No, delay was the Many ofthe legends that embroider Alred's life center on this period. It is said that the king went into a Viking camp one day dis Alfred's men clash in hand-to-hand combat with Vikings, who controlled a good piece of Britain, guised as a minstrel. He was apparently a fair musician and had a good singing because he got away impersonation After gleaning some important information, the king slipped away, wiser. But the most famous legend concerns Alfred and the cakes, and the nt versions of this tale are several dif Te seems that Alfred st pped at a cowhers hut in the forest, where he was given tempo: aty shelter, The cowherl’s wife set sme cakes . cook near the fire, then went out fr a whl The disguised king was deep in thought, and dida’s notice when th When the Continued on pa