Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
COMPUTER NETWORKS
NETWORK HARDWARE
 A computer network can be as small as two
computers connected by a single cable (or
wirelessly) to the largest network in the world—
the Internet.
 To connect a large number of PCs, specialized
equipment and protocols have been designed to
carry out tasks such as segmenting domains,
preventing broadcast storms, and moving packets
from one part of the network to the other as
efficiently as possible.
HUB
• A Hub simply allows several networking devices
to communicate.
• Each device plugs into a port on the hub using a
network cable (more on these cables later).
 The simplest network you can build is a few pcs
connected to a hub.
 Hubs have no memory or hard drive, so they can
never remember which device is plugged into
which port.
• When a hub receives data on one port, it just
forwards it to all the other ports. This causes a lot
of unnecessary traffic to pass through the
network.
 One drawback of using hubs is that, because they
have no memory, they can never keep a record of
which PC is plugged into which port.
 For this reason, every time one PC wants to
speak to another, every single PC plugged into
the hub gets a copy of the information (contained
within a frame) sent out on the wire.
 Every time a PC receives this information, it has
to use processing power to determine whether it
is the intended recipient.
• As you can imagine, this is very inefficient and
can become a major problem as more and more
devices are connected to the hub.
SWITCH
• A data frame sent to every device on a network
segment at the same time is referred to as a
Broadcast.
• Too many broadcasts in a network can cause
delays and dramatically reduce performance.
• A high number of broadcasts causes an enormous
amount of traffic to traverse the network at any
one time.
• A broadcast is usually sent when a data frame is
trying to find a host in the network and doesn’t
know its current location.
• Switches operate by building a list of which PCs
are connected to which ports, allowing the
available bandwidth to be used a lot more
efficiently.
• If a PC wants to send data to another PC via a
switch, the switch will forward the traffic only to
the port to which the intended recipient is
connected.
• If it doesn’t know the port, it will send out a
broadcast to find out where in the network the
PC is.
• Switches and hubs are designed to forward
broadcast traffic as data frames addressed to
every device in the network.
• Switches and hubs are designed to forward
broadcast traffic as data frames addressed to
every device in the network.
• Because switches only forward broadcast
information when the destination is unknown,
they are used to create smaller collision domains.
COLLISION DOMAIN
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

• A collision domain consists of an area in the

network that a data frame will reach if there is a
collision.
• A collision occurs when a data frame, traveling BROADCAST DOMAIN
along a network cable, collides with another
frame.
• The collision causes the data inside the frame to
become corrupted.
• This corrupted frame is received by every device
within the collision domain.
• Smaller collision domains mean that traffic will
move faster throughout the network.
• If you ever see a hub in a network diagram
referring to collision and broadcast domains,
remember that the hub does not increase the COLLISION AND BROADCAST DOMAIN
number of collision domains or reduce the
number of broadcast domains.
• If you swapped the hub for a switch, you would
have four collision domains (one per port used).
All devices would still be in the same broadcast
domain though.
• We will cover this in more detail later, but it’s
worth noting that if you created two VLANs on
the switch, you would have two
broadcast,domains.
• More VLANs equal more broadcast domains.

COLLISION DOMAIN
SWITCH
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

• Using layer 2 switches to create fewer users per

segment is known as Microsegmentation.
• Microsegmentation creates dedicated network
segments (i.e., one user per segment).
• Each user receives instant access to the full
bandwidth and therefore does not have to
contend for available bandwidth with other users.
• The outcome is that collisions (commonplace
when using hubs) nolonger occur (provided you • Hub and Switches are used to create
are using full-duplex). Networks
• Switches offer another advantage over hubs. • Routers are used to connect Networks
• Most can store frames in the buffer memory,
allowing them to be stored and then forwarded USING THE COMMAND-LINE
sequentially when the wire is clear. INTERFACE
ROUTER
Cisco 2960-XR Catalyst Switch Series

• A router is designed to store a directory of

networks.
• Rather than concerning itself with which PC
is where, a router ’s job is to find out where
different networks are.
• It then sends the traffic via the best path.
• This path could be the fastest, most reliable,
or shortest, or a combination of these
features, depending on how you want traffic
to be sent as the network administrator.
• If the router does not know how to get traffic
to its intended destination, it will either drop
the packet or forward it to another router
that should know how to get it there.
NETWORK HARDWARE
Internetwork Operating System (IOS)
 Operating system software that Cisco
switches need
 for Catalyst switches, implements and
controls logic and functions performed
by a Cisco switch
 Cisco IOS also defines an interface for
humans called the CLI
Cisco IOS CLI
 allows the user to use a terminal
emulation program, which accepts text
entered by the user
 When the user presses Enter, the
terminal emulator sends that text to the
switch. The switch processes the text as
if it is a command, does what the
command says, and sends text back to
the terminal emulator.

CLI ACCESS OPTIONS

 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
The switch CLI can be accessed through three
popular methods:
 Telnet and SSH
- use the IP network in which the
switch resides to reach the
switch.
- require software on the user’s
device, but they rely on the
existing TCP/IP network to
transmit data.
 Console
- a physical port built
specifically to allow access to
the CLI.
- requires both a physical
connection between a PC (or
other user device) and
- the switch’s console port, as
well as some software on the
PC.
Rollover cable
 a type of null-modem cable that is used
to connect a computer terminal to a
router's console port
 also known as a Yost cable, Cisco cable,
or a Console cable)
Serial to USB Converter
 If you're in need of a console cable but
don't have a serial port on your
computer, this is the perfect solution to
your problem.
 Simply attach the USB-to-Serial cable
to the Serial-to-RJ45 rollover cable.
ACCESSING THE CLI WITH TELNET
AND SSH
Telnet
 uses the concept of a Telnet client (the
terminal application) and a Telnet server
(the switch in this case).
 Telnet client - the device that sits in
front of the user, accepts keyboard input
and sends those commands to the Telnet
server.
 Telnet server - accepts the text,
interprets the text as a command, and
replies back.
 Telnet sends all data (including any
username and password for login to the
switch) as cleartext data.
SSH
 encrypts the contents of all messages,
the passwords, avoiding the possibility
of someone capturing packets in the
network and stealing the password to
network devices
User and Enable (Privileged) Modes
 All three CLI access methods covered
so far (console, Telnet, and SSH) place
the user in an area of the CLI called
user EXEC mode.
EXEC mode
 also called user mode, allows the user to
look around but not break anything.
Enable Mode
 also known as privileged mode or
privileged EXEC mode
 EXEC mode that Cisco IOS supports
 gets its name from the enable command,
which moves the user from user mode
to enable mode
Cisco IOS Software Command Help
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

 accepts configuration commands—

commands that tell the switch the
details of what to do and how to do it.

User mode
 It lets you issue nondisruptive
commands and displays some
information.

Privileged mode
Key Sequences for Command Edit and Recall  supports a superset of commands
compared to user mode, including
commands that might disrupt switch
operations.

However, not one of the commands in user or

privileged mode changes the switch’s
configuration. Only Configuration Mode.

Commands entered in configuration mode update

the active configuration file.

These changes to the configuration occur

THE DEBUG AND SHOW COMMANDS
immediately each time you press the Enter key at
the end of a command.
By far, the single most popular Cisco IOS
command is the show command.
CONFIGURATION SUBMODES AND
CONTEXTS
The show command has a large variety of
options, and with those options, you can find the
Context-setting commands
status of almost every feature of Cisco IOS.
 move you from one configuration
subcommand mode, or context, to
 It lists the currently known facts about
another.
the switch’s operational status.
 These context-setting commands tell the
 The only work the switch does in
switch the topic about which you will
reaction to show commands is to find
enter the next few configuration
the current status and list the
commands.
information in messages sent to the
user.  More importantly, the context tells the
switch the topic you care about right
Example: show mac address-table now, so when you use the ? to get help,
dynamic command the switch gives you
 help about that topic only.
This show command, issued from user mode,
lists the table the switch uses to make forwarding Example: Interface Command
decisions.
 For example, the CLI user could enter
A switch’s MAC address table basically lists interface configuration mode by
the data a switch uses to do its primary job. entering the interface FastEthernet 0/1
CONFIGURING CISCO IOS SOFTWARE configuration command.
Configuration mode  Asking for help in interface
 another mode for the Cisco CLI, similar configuration mode displays only
to user mode and privileged mode. commands that are useful when
configuring Ethernet interfaces.
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
 Commands used in this context are
called subcommands — or, in this
specific case, interface subcommands.
EXEC Command
 Movement from enable mode to global
configuration mode
Hostname [Fred] global configuration
command
 to configure the switch’s name
line console 0 command
 Movement from global configuration
mode to console line configuration
mode
password [hope] line subcommand
 Setting the console’s simple password
interface type number command
 Movement from console configuration
mode to interface configuration mode
speed [100] interface subcommand
 Setting the speed to 100 Mbps for
interface Fa0/1
exit
 Movement from interface configuration
mode back to global configuration
mode
Navigating Between Different Configuration
Modes
 The text inside parentheses in the
command prompt identifies the
configuration mode. For example, the
first command prompt after you enter
configuration mode lists (config),
meaning global configuration mode.
 After the line console 0 command, the
text expands to (config- line), meaning
line configuration mode.
 Each time the command prompt
changes within config mode, you have
moved to another configuration mode.
Common Switch Configuration Modes
Storing Switch Configuration Files
 When you configure a switch, it needs to use
the configuration. It also needs to be able to
retain the configuration in case the switch
loses power.
 Cisco switches contain random-access
memory (RAM) to store data while Cisco
IOS is using it, but RAM loses its contents
when the switch loses power or is reloaded.
 To store information that must be retained
when the switch loses power or is reloaded,
Cisco switches use several types of more
permanent memory, none of which has any
moving parts.
 By avoiding components with moving parts
(such as traditional disk drives), switches
can maintain better uptime and availability.
CISCO SWITCH MEMORY TYPES
1. RAM
- working memory and running
configuration
- Sometimes called DRAM, for
dynamic random-access
memory
- is used by the switch just as it
is used by any other computer:
for working storage.
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
- The running (active)
configuration file is stored
here.
2. Flash Memory
- Cisco IOS Software
- Either a chip inside the switch
or a removable memory card
- stores fully functional Cisco
IOS images and is the default
location where the switch gets
its Cisco IOS at boot time
3. ROM
-bootstrap program
-Read-only memory (ROM)
stores a bootstrap (or
boothelper) program that is
loaded when the switch first
powers on.
- This bootstrap program then
finds the full Cisco IOS image
and manages the process of
loading Cisco IOS into RAM,
at which point Cisco IOS takes
over operation of the switch.
4. NVRAM
- Startup configuration
- Nonvolatile RAM (NVRAM)
stores the initial or startup
configuration file that is used
when the switch is first
powered on and when the
switch is reloaded.
Two Main Cisco IOS Configuration Files
UNDERSTANDING AND CONFIGURING A
VLAN
Virtual LAN Concepts
 Using only default settings, a switch
considers all its interfaces to be in the same
broadcast domain.
 That is, for one switch, when a broadcast
frame entered one switch port, the switch
forwards that broadcast frame out all other
ports.
 With that logic, to create two different LAN
broadcast domains, you had to buy two
different Ethernet LAN switches.
Creating Two Broadcast Domains with
Two Physical Switches and No VLANs
 By using two VLANs, a single switch can
accomplish the same goals of the design in
the previous image to create two broadcast
domains—with a single switch. With VLANs,
a switch can configure some interfaces into
one broadcast domain and some into
another, creating multiple broadcast
domains. These individual broadcast
domains created by the switch are called
virtual LANs (VLAN).
Creating Two Broadcast Domains Using One
Switch and VLANs
 the single switch creates two VLANs,
treating the ports in each VLAN as
being completely separate.
 The switch would never forward a
frame sent by Dino (in VLAN 1) over to
either Wilma or Betty (in VLAN 2).
The following list summarizes the most
common reasons for choosing to create
smaller broadcast domains (VLANs):
 To reduce CPU overhead on each
device, improving host performance,
by reducing the number of devices
that receive each broadcast frame
 To reduce security risks by reducing
the number of hosts that receive
copies of frames that the switches
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

flood (broadcasts, multicasts, and

unknown unicasts)
 To improve security for hosts
through the application of different
security policies per VLAN
 To create more flexible designs that
group users by department, or by
groups that work together, instead
of by physical location
 To solve problems more quickly,  The design shown here works, but it simply
because the failure domain for does not scale very well. It requires one
many problems is the same set of physical link between switches to support
devices as those in the same every VLAN. If a design needed 10 or 20
broadcast domain VLANs, you would need 10 or 20 links
 To reduce the workload for the between switches, and you would use 10 or
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) by 20 switch ports (on each switch) for those
limiting a VLAN to a single access links.
switch
VLAN Tagging Concepts
 VLAN trunking creates one link between
switches that supports as many VLANs as
you need. As a VLAN trunk, the switches
treat the link as if it were a part of all the
Creating Multiswitch VLANs Using Trunking
VLANs.
 At the same time, the trunk keeps the VLAN
 When you are using VLANs in networks
traffic separate, so frames in VLAN 10
that have multiple interconnected switches,
would not go to devices in VLAN 20, and
the switches need to use VLAN trunking on
vice versa, because each frame is identified
the links between the switches.
by VLAN number as it crosses the trunk.
 VLAN trunking causes the switches to use a
process called VLAN tagging, by which the Multiswitch VLAN with Trunking
sending switch adds another header to the
frame before sending it over the trunk.
 This extra trunking header includes a VLAN
identifier (VLAN ID) field so that the
sending switch can associate the frame with
a particular VLAN ID, and the receiving
switch can then know in what VLAN each
frame belongs.

Multiswitch VLAN Without VLAN Trunking

 The use of trunking allows switches to
forward frames from multiple VLANs over
a single physical connection by adding a
small header to the Ethernet frame.

VLAN Trunking Between Two Switches

 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
The 802.1Q
 Cisco has supported two different trunking
protocols over the years: Inter-Switch Link
(ISL) and IEEE 802.1Q.
 Cisco created the ISL years before 802.1Q,
in part because the IEEE had not yet defined
a VLAN trunking standard. Today, 802.1Q
has become the more popular trunking
protocol, with Cisco not even bothering to
support ISL in many of its switch models
today.
802.1Q Trunking
 While both ISL and 802.1Q tag each frame
with the VLAN ID, the details differ. 802.1Q
inserts an extra 4-byte 802.1Q VLAN header
into the original frame’s Ethernet header, as
shown at the top
The 802.1Q
 Cisco switches break the range of VLAN
IDs (1– 4094) into two ranges: the normal
range and the extended range.
 All switches can use normal-range VLANs
with values from 1 to 1005.
 Only some switches can use extended-range
VLANs with VLAN IDs from 1006 to 4094.
Layer 2 Switch Does Not Route Between the
VLANs
 Layer 2 switches perform their logic per
VLAN. For example, the two PCs on the left
sit in VLAN 10, in subnet 10. The two PCs
on the right sit in a different VLAN (20),
with a different subnet (20).
 Note that the figure repeats earlier Figure 8-
2, but with the switch broken into halves, to
emphasize the point that Layer 2 switches
will not forward data between two VLANs.
Routing Between Two VLANs on Two
Physical Interfaces
 The figure shows the same Layer 2 switch
with the same perspective of the switch
being split into parts with two different
VLANs, and with the same
 PCs in the same VLANs and subnets. Now
Router R1 has one LAN physical
 interface connected to the switch and
assigned to VLAN 10, and a second physical
interface connected to the switch and
assigned to VLAN 20.
Routing Between Two VLANs on Two
Physical Interfaces
 With an interface connected to each subnet,
the Layer 2 switch can keep doing its job—
forwarding frames inside a VLAN, while the
router can do its job— routing IP packets
between the subnets.
Network with One Switch and Three VLANs
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

Configuring VLANs and Assigning VLANs to

Interfaces

Shorter VLAN Configuration Example

(VLAN 3)

Configuring VLANs and Assigning VLANs to

Interfaces (Continued)

IP SUBNETTING

Before subnetting:
 In any network (or subnet) one can use most
of the IP addresses for host addresses.
One loses two addresses for every network or
subnet.

1. Network Address - One address is reserved

to that of the network.
2. Broadcast Address – One address is
reserved to address all hosts in that network
or subnet.

Network Address
• The network address is used to find the
subnet in which the computer or the device
is located and the host address is used to
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

find the computer or the device in the

subnet.
• If a large computer network is divided into
smaller groups, each group is known as a
subnet. The address is the lowest numeric
value of the address format being used. An
Ethernet network address is all binary 0's.

Broadcast Address
• A broadcast address is a special Internet
Protocol (IP) address used to transmit
messages and data packets to network
systems. Network administrators verify
successful data packet transmission via
broadcast addresses.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP) and Bootstrap Protocol (BOOTP)
clients use broadcast IP addresses to locate
and transmit respective server requests.

An address that enables transmission to every

node in a local network. The address is the
highest numeric value of the address format
being used. An Ethernet broadcast address is
all binary 1's. An IP broadcast address is the
highest number in its class; for example, the
broadcast address of a Class C 192.168.16.0
network is 192.168.16.255.
Finger Method

Subnet Example
Network address 172.19.0.0 with /16 network
mask
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

Given the following Host IP Address, Network

Mask and Subnet mask find the
following information:

• Major Network Information

• Major Network Address
• Major Network Broadcast Address
• Range of Hosts if not subnetted

• Subnet Information
• Subnet Address
• Range of Host Addresses (first host and
last host)
• Broadcast Address

• Other Subnet Information

• Total number of subnets
• Number of hosts per subnet

Major Network Information

• Host IP Address: 138.101.114.250
• Network Mask: 255.255.0.0
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192
Important things to remember about Subnetting
• You can only subnet the host portion, you do • Major Network Address: 138.101.0.0
not have control of the network portion. • Major Network Broadcast Address:
• Subnetting does not give you more hosts, it 138.101.255.255
only allows you to divide your larger • Range of Hosts if not Subnetted: 138.101.0.1
network into smaller networks. to 138.101.255.254
• When subnetting, you will actually lost host
addresses:
• For each subnet you lose the
address of that subnet
• For each subnet you lose the
broadcast address of that subnet
• You “may” lose the first and last
subnets

• Why would you want to subnet?

• Divide larger network into smaller
networks
• Limit layer 2 and layer 3 broadcasts to
their subnet.
• Better management of traffic.

Subnetting – Example
• Host IP Address: 138.101.114.250
• Network Mask: 255.255.0.0 (or /16)
• Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192 (or /26)
Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

8. It accepts the text, interprets the text as a

command, and replies back.
9. It allows the user to use a terminal
emulation program, which accepts text
entered by the user.
10. It encrypts the contents of all messages,
the passwords, avoiding the possibility
of someone capturing packets in the
network and stealing the password to
network devices.
11. It gets its name from the enable
command, which moves the user from
user mode to enable mode.
12. It is also called user mode, allows the
user to look around but not break
anything.
13. It is used by the switch just as it is used
by any other computer: for working
storage. The running (active)
configuration file is stored here.
14. It lets you issue nondisruptive
commands and displays some
information.
15. It lists the currently known facts about
the switch’s operational status.
16. It lists the table the switch uses to make
forwarding decisions.
17. It stores a bootstrap (or boothelper)
program that is loaded when the switch
first powers on.
18. It stores the currently used configuration
commands. This file changes
dynamically when someone enters
1. A physical port built specifically to
commands in config mode.
allow access to the CLI.
19. It stores the initial configuration used
2. A type of null-modem cable that is used
anytime the switch reloads Cisco IOS.
to connect a computer terminal to a
20. It supports a superset of commands
router's console port.
compared to user mode, including
3. Either a chip inside the switch or a
commands that might disrupt switch
removable memory card, stores fully
operations.
functional Cisco IOS images and is the
21. Move you from one configuration
default location where the switch gets
subcommand mode, or context, to
its Cisco IOS at boot time.
another.
4. Example of context-setting command
22. Movement from console configuration
5. Example of show command.
mode to interface configuration mode.
6. Helps displays only commands that are
23. Movement from enable mode to global
useful when configuring Ethernet
configuration mode
interfaces.
24. Movement from global configuration
7. It accepts configuration commands —
mode to console line configuration
commands that tell the switch the details
mode
of what to do and how to do it.
 Networking 2 – 2nd Semester Midterm Reviewer

25. Movement from interface configuration

mode back to global configuration
mode.
26. Operating system software that Cisco
switches need. It is for Catalyst
switches, implements and controls logic
and functions performed by a Cisco
switch.
27. Stores the initial or startup configuration
file that is used when the switch is first
powered on and when the switch is
reloaded.
28. The device that sits in front of the user,
accepts keyboard input and sends those
commands to the Telnet server.
29. Use the IP network in which the switch
resides to reach the switch.
30. Used to configure the switch’s name.
31. Used to set the console’s simple
password.
32. Used to set the speed.
33. Uses the concept of a Telnet client (the
terminal application) and a Telnet server
(the switch in this case).