Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

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Journal of Energy Storage

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/est

Review article

Review of MXenes and their composites for energy storage applications

Sonia Bansal a, Pankaj Chaudhary a, Bharat Bhushan Sharma b, Sunaina Saini c, Aman Joshi a, *
a
Department of Physics, J.C. Bose University of Science and Technology, YMCA, Faridabad 121006, Haryana, India
b
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noida, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Uttar Pradesh 201301, India
c
Department of Physics, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra 136119, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: MXenes have captured the interest of scientists and technologists in several domains, especially devices for
MXenes storing energy like supercapacitors (SC) as well as flexible batteries. Because of their distinctive optical, me­
Top down chanical, electrochemical, electrical, and physicochemical capabilities, pure MXene and their hybrids are
Bottom-up
increasingly being used in several kinds of energy storage devices. Some recently used MXene and MXene hybrid
Mechanism
materials have shown attractive energy parameter values like energy density, specific capacity, gravimetric
Composite materials
Storage applications capacity, volumetric capacity, and power density as well. Regarding high electrochemical performances
(MWCNT)/V2CTx, hybrid material plays a vital role, giving the highest capacitance value of 1872 Fg− 1 compared
to other composite materials. The electrodes fabricated using (MWCNT)/V2CTx demonstrated a retention ca­
pacity of 94 % during a 10,000-cycle lifespan and gave satisfactory rate performance. The addition of MWCNTs
improved the reaction kinetics and conductivity of the MXenes while facilitating the ability to store charges,
which is advantageous for future smart devices for storing energy. In addition to providing a thorough discussion
of the electrochemical energy storage applications, such as batteries (like; Lithium, sulphur, potassium and metal
sulphur batteries) and supercapacitor. This review concentrates on the MXene and MXene hybrid materials
synthesis techniques, properties and summarises recent advancements in Storage applications. The intricate
design of MXenes' Nano-microstructures is given special consideration in light of their many functions as elec­
trodes, multifunctional parts, or protective layers for metal anodes. The article concludes with the possible av­
enues for future MXene material synthesis, structure, characteristics, analysis, and production research. Various
problems that occur during the synthesis of MXene and its composite materials are discussed in detail.

1. Introduction other polymeric substances, metal oxides, and dichalcogenides [2].

Industrial operations make use of a variety of basic resources. As a
result, following processing, these components reach the environment in
a variety of ways (leakages, clean streams, waste effluent streams, etc.).
These materials have an adverse impact on both the environment as well
as human health because of their poisonous properties. Environmental
policies and strategies are developed and implemented to handle these
waste streams, utilizing a variety of scientific methodologies to remove
or reduce their dangerous impacts on the ecosystem. For their successful
use, numerous treatment strategies have been developed during the past
ten years, including physical, chemical, and biological processes [1].
Conventional methods have been altered, particularly in using effective
and cutting-edge materials. MXenes have been created to address the
limitations of traditional materials.
Additionally, MXene composites were created by mixing them with
However, by using different spacers among the MXene layers, the
problem of restacking in MXene sheets may be readily avoided. The
MXene appears to be the most feasible option as an electrode material in
light of the aforementioned fact since the separation may be carefully
regulated between MXene layers [3]. This MXene feature is actively
being researched; thus, it was necessary to provide a thorough list of the
pertinent work. Therefore, to explore the MXene materials' potential as
an emerging electrode material for energy storage applications, a much-
focused examination is required.
MXenes (pronounced “maxenes”) are a type of two-dimensional (2D)
materials that have been researched for usage as electrode material in
storage devices, including supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries.
There are a number of potential advantages when comparing MXenes to
conventional electrode materials. One of the main advantages is their
high conductivity, which permits rapid charge and discharge rates. They

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: amanjoshi@jcboseust.ac.in (A. Joshi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.111420
Received 6 January 2024; Received in revised form 24 February 2024; Accepted 20 March 2024
Available online 29 March 2024
2352-152X/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Bansal et al.
can store more charge in the allotted interlayer gap because of their huge
surface area [4]. Because of their lightweight nature and relative flexi­
bility, MXenes are especially well-suited for wearable and portable de­
vices. They are also easy to refine and create, making them a potential
choice for use in large-scale energy storage systems. MXenes may be
coupled with conductive polymers like PPy and have been shown to
have remarkable stability, allowing them to be used for prolonged pe­
riods of time without losing performance by Adekoya et al. [5] large
companies such as Ballydel Technologies, Sigma Aldrich, Murata, ACS
Material, Nippon Steel, Japan Material Technologies, InnoMXene, Intel,
Carbon-Ukraine, Mitsubishi Materials, and Intel. Murata Manufacturing
is in the lead with over thirty issued and pending patents. This Japanese
business firm was the first to license MXene synthesis and numerous
significant uses. With more than 20 patent requests each, two Chinese
business firms are also in race: Foshan Shunde Sanbei Electronic and
Suzhou Beike Nano Tech [6].
1.1. What are MXenes?
MXenes, or “max-eens,” are ceramics that makeup one of the most
prominent families of two-dimensional (2D) materials. They were
initially found in 2011. MAX is a bulk crystal that is utilized in the
manufacturing of MXenes. The existence of MAX or non-MAX phase-
derived 2D layered materials was not previously anticipated. This dis­
covery was made later on. MXenes are molecular sheets created by
converting the carbides and nitrides of transition metals, including ti­
tanium, which exhibit outstanding volumetric capacitance and excellent
conductivity by nature, in contrast to most 2D ceramics [7].
1.2. How to make MXene?
By carefully eliminating aluminum from stacked MAX phases,
MXenes are produced. The carbide films are exfoliated into two thin
MXene sheets, each only a certain atom thick. Intercalation is a tech­
nique that MXenes sometimes use to accommodate other ions and
molecules among their layers, making them capable of exploiting the
material's unique properties. For instance, it has been demonstrated that
sandwiching lithium ions between MXene sheets makes them suitable
materials for use in electrochemical capacitors and lithium-ion batteries.
Fig. 1 shows how the MXenes are made from the MAX phase [7].
The standard formula for MXenes
Mn+1 Xn Tx (n = 1–3),
Here, M indicates a transition element (for example, Scandium, Ti­
tanium, Zirconium, and Niobium, etc.), Tx is the point of completion
Fig. 1. Shows a schematic of how MXenes are made from MAX phases [7].
2
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
formed by the hydroxyl, fluorine, and oxygen in the reactions through
the synthesis procedure, and X denotes either nitrogen or carbon [8].
A periodic stack of atomic layers along the c plane is depicted in
Fig. 2 to illustrate the general crystal arrangement of layered MAX/
Mn+1AXn phases [9]. The Mn+1XnTx phase, which is a general formula
for MXenes, results from the etching of the A layers because M-A bonds
and interatomic A-A bonds with metallic characteristics are weaker
compared to M-X bonds with ionic/metallic/covalent/characteristics.
Tx absorbed on M atoms' surfaces corresponds to surface terminations
like fluorine (–F), hydroxyl (-OH), and oxygen (–O) [10]. Polysulfides
can connect with polar functional groups on the atomic surface, such as
metal sites and terminal functional groups, and can be effectively
inhibited.
1.3. Why is MXene better than other materials?
Due to their distinctive characteristics, MXenes may be separated
from other 2D materials like graphene. Their composition, morphology,
surface functionalization, and crystal structure may be modified to
enhance their inherent structural properties and superior performance
in a variety of applications. Because its characteristics are similar to
metals, MXene exhibits high electrical conductivity. The number of
metal atomic layers impacts the mechanical, chemical, electrical, and
physical properties of MXenes, as shown by theoretical and computa­
tional studies. The different fundamental traits that MXenes possess are
discussed in this paper. Fig. 3 displays a graphic outlining the charac­
teristics of MXenes covered in this work [11].
Due to their exceptional physical and chemical characteristics as
compared to their bulk counterparts, two-dimensional (2D) materials
have garnered more interest. Graphene, a much-discussed 2D substance,
has been considered a possible contender for many different uses
[12,13]. It is feasible that other 2D materials, which may serve as gra­
phene counterparts, will have several opportunities in next-generation
energy devices. In general, layered materials are thought to have an
ultrathin thickness and planar architecture, much like graphene. Phos­
phorenes, Transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), metal sulfides,
MXenes, silicences, transition metal oxides (TMOs)/hydroxides (TMHs),
and other materials are examples of graphene-like materials that can be
used for energy storage [14–16]. Except for some MXenes, like
(V0.5Cr0.5)3C2, etc., the MXene family of materials represents a kind of
Fig. 2. MAX phases' structures and their related MXenes are shown [9].
S. Bansal et al.
Fig. 3. Displays a graphic outlining the characteristics of MXenes [11].
energy storage material that piques our interest due to its unique fea­
tures, which include ultra-large interlayer spacing, prominent security
capability, environmental friendliness, and superior biocompatibility
[17]. Moreover, these electrodes can discharge at high-speed rates and
store comparatively significant quantities of charge per unit volume or
mass [18]. Regarding MXene, several brilliant and astute research­
ers—including Prof. Gogosti and associates, Prof. Ghidiu and associates,
and others—have produced many novel works. In actuality, the review
drew heavily from their productive studies, which included experiments
and simulations.
2. Mechanisms of charge storage in MXenes
2.1. In the Li-ion batteries
Surface structure analysis has been the focus of the majority of
research efforts up to this point on the charging mechanism of MXene
materials in Li-ion batteries. In order to thoroughly understand the Li
adsorption process in batteries made with MXene, compositional prop­
erties and the effect of Li-adsorption energy on the charging mechanism
as a function of Li concentration must be thoroughly examined. In this
context, Sun et al.'s use density functional computations to examine the
impact of MXene composition, surface structure, and variations in Li
concentration on the MXene compounds' reaction mechanism in Li-ion
battery electrodes is quite significant [19]. Based on the structural
alteration that took place during the Li adsorption, researchers working
with MXenes compounds classified MXenes compounds into two main
groups: V-type (Ta2CO2, V2CO2, Cr2CO2, etc.) and Sc-type (Sc2CO2,
Hf2CO2, Nb2CO2, Zr2CO2, and Ti2CO2). The preliminary molecular dy­
namic simulations show that the structural change that occurs during
lithiation/delithiation in V-type MXenes is reversible. It has been
demonstrated that in V-type compounds, the lithiation process forms
Li− O (M = Ta, V, and Cr) bonds more easily than M− O (M = Ta, V, and
Cr) bonds.
M2 CO2 + 4Li = M2 CO2 Li4
Ma Ob + 2bLi = aM + bLi2 O
Furthermore, the scientists observed that Li movement on V2CO2 is
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
larger than that of V2C(OH)2 and V2CF2 when examining how surface
terminations influenced Li intercalation (Fig. 4) [19].
2.2. In supercapacitors
Supercapacitors are generally associated with two kinds of charge
storage mechanisms, like electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) and
pseudo-capacitors. In the case of EDLCs, charges accumulate at the
electrode/electrolyte and create an electrostatic double layer. Because
EDLC doesn't go through a redox reaction or electron transfer, energy is
kept in the materials using a non-Faradic process. In contrast, the
Faradic redox reaction or electron transfer that takes place in pseudo-
capacitors is mostly independent of the electrode surface area [20,21].
Moreover, electrolyte ions in pseudo-capacitors migrate across the
electrode to a conducting bulk phase, even if electrons or ions depart the
electrode after the redox process. Conversely, in the case of non-Faradic
processes, charges that enter the electrode stay there [22]. The elec­
trodes' constituent atoms, which are distinguished by the form of the
cycle voltammogram (CV) curve, are integral to the EDLCs' charge
storage process. The several GCD and CV curve configurations shown in
Fig. 5 illustrate the range of charge storage techniques employed in
supercapacitors [23]. The type of cycle voltammogram (CV) curve form
identifies electrodes, which are part of the charge storage mechanism of
EDLCs [23].
3. MXene synthesis processes
Nowadays, top-down and bottom-up techniques have been identified
as the two primary categories of 2D MXene synthesis [24]. The former
entails the process of exfoliation of large quantities of material using
mono or multilayer films as a result of selective MAX/Mn+1AXn etching.
A common example is the carefully removed Aluminum (Al) atoms from
Ti3AlC2 using aqueous hydrofluoric acid (HF) at ambient temperature to
create Ti3C2. Bottom-up approaches include processes like chemical
vapor deposition (CVD) that starts with atoms and build up to layered
structures. These two categories of tactics will be thoroughly covered in
this section.
3.1. Top-down methods
A top-down approach is frequently used in the preparation of various
nanomaterials. Here, some etching agent role in the preparation of
MXenes through a top-down approach is discussed. Various synthesis
methods for MXene preparation are shown in Table 1.
3.1.1. Use of HF in etching
Initially, researchers have used HF in the etching process to create
(1)
(2)
Fig. 4. Li intercalation mechanism [19].
3
S. Bansal et al. Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

Fig. 5. The differences among potential dependent and potential independent

charge storage are demonstrated using illustrative current-voltage(I-V) char­
acteristics of EDLC, pseudocapacitive, and battery-type behaviors [23].

Table 1
Different types of synthesis methods for MXene.
S. Synthesis Formed Electrolyte Capacity Reference
N. method MXene retention

1. Chemical Nb2C/ H2SO4/PVA 98 % [32] Fig. 6. (a) Shows a diagram for the disintegration of Zr3Al3C5 using HF treat­
etching Ti3C2 ment, (b) Nb2AlC XRD diffraction diagrams before to and following HF treat­
2. Layer-by-layer Ti3C2Tx ACN-PC- 90 % [33] ment. (c) V2AlC XRD diffraction patterns before to and following HF
assembly PMMA- treatment [25,26].
LiCF3SO3 gel
electrolyte
3. HF etching Mo1.33CTz LiCl 82.1 % [34] were subjected to pulsed electric current sintering (PECS) to create the
4. LiF-HCl V2NTx KOH 96 % [35] Zr3Al3C5 particles. The commercially available powders were obtained
etching and carried Zr, Al, and C in a molar ratio of 3:3.2:4.8, respectively. After
5. Etching/ Ti3C2/BCN H2SO4 100 % [36] that, the powders were dried for 24 h at 50 ◦ C. After that, it was put into
pyrolysis
6. Vacuum MXene/ MnSO4/PAM 95.8 % [37]
a graphite die and cold pressed to a load equal to 5 MPa of pressure. The
filtration BC@PPy hydrogel green body and die were subsequently heat-treated in a PECS device at
7. Multiscale Ti3C2Tx PVA/H2SO4 90 % [38] 1800 ◦ C for 20 min at 30Mpa in an Ar environment.
structuring Creation of two two-dimensional (2D) Zr3C2Tz Nanosheets: For 72 h,
8. In situ etching Ti3C2Tx H2SO4 88.5 % [39]
1 g of the 300-mesh Zr3Al3C5 powders as produced were submerged in
9. Lewis acidic Ti3C2/Cu/ H2SO4 89 % [40]
molten salt Co hybrids 10 mL of a 50 % HF solution at room temperature. Subsequently, the
etching solution obtained was repeatedly washed using deionized water and
10. Solution PANI/rGO/ PVA-NHS-PAA 84 % [41] alcohol, and the particles were separated using a microfiltration mem­
method MXene hydrogel brane made of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF, 0.45 μm). The resulting
11. Bioinspired Ti3C2Tx H2SO4/PVA 86.7 % [42]
freezing
powders were dried for 48 h at room temperature [25].

3.1.1.2. Synthesis of Nb2AlC. Nb2AlC powders were produced by

MXene. Fig. 1 depicts the entire synthesis procedure [7]. As an illus­ blending niobium (Nb), aluminum (Al), and graphite (C) powders for a
tration, the etching reactions for Ti3AlC2 represented by Eqs. (3), (4) & duration of 18 h in a ball mill—the quantity taken in 2:1.1:1 ratio. The
(5) [7]: mixture was then heated in a tube furnace with an argon (Ar) atmo­
Ti3 AlC2 + 3HF→Ti3 C2 + AlF3 + 3/2H2 (3) sphere at 1600 ◦ C, followed by a 4-h soak at that temperature before the
furnace cooled to room temperature. The resulting weakly sintered
Ti3 C2 + 2H2 O→Ti3 C2 (OH)2 + H2 (4) blocks were then ground into powder using a milling bit coated in ti­
tanium nitride. The powders were then sieved to separate out just the
Ti3 C2 + 2HF→Ti3 C2 F2 + H2 (5) powders with a mesh size of − 400 for additional testing.

In addition to the Ti3C2 that Gogotsi's group reported, although there

3.1.1.3. Synthesis of V2AlC. The V2AlC powders were produced by
have been many MXenes with different elements successfully synthe­
blending vanadium (V), aluminum (Al), and carbon (C) powders for a
sized. For instance, Zhou's team claimed a Zr3C2TxMXene made through
duration of 18 h in a ball mill—the quantity taken in 2:1.3:1 ratio. The
HF etching of Zr3Al3C5 precursor for the first time that did not contain Ti
mixture was then heated in a tube furnace with an argon (Ar) atmo­
[25]. The process of exfoliation using HF at RT from Zr3Al3C5 to Zr3C2T9
sphere at 1500 ◦ C, followed by a 4-hour soak at that temperature before
is shown in Fig. 6(a) [25]. By carefully eliminating Al from Nb2AlC and
the furnace cooled to room temperature. Following cooling, the powders
V2AlC in aqueous HF at RT, Naguib and his colleagues also created novel
were obtained and sieved as per the process outlined for Nb2AlC.
2D niobium (Nb2CTx) along with vanadium carbide (V2CTx). The XRD
Additionally, some V2AlC powders underwent attrition milling at 700
study that established the presence of Nb2C and V2C is shown in Fig. 6(b)
rpm for 4 h using stainless steel balls in an ethanol medium before being
and (c). The black squares represent Si, while the red diamonds indicate
exfoliated.
the presence of impure Nb4AlC3 in the Nb2AlC [26].
Etching of Aluminum: The − 400 mesh Nb2AlC or V2AlC powders
underwent immersion in a 50 % concentrated hydrofluoric acid (HF)
3.1.1.1. Synthesis of Zr3Al3C5. Zr/Al/graphite powder combinations

4
S. Bansal et al. Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

solution and stirring for 90 h at room temperature. Achieving complete

etching of aluminum from Nb2AlC was also possible by immersing the
powders in a 55 ◦ C HF solution for 40 h instead of 90 h. The attrition-
milled powders were submerged in the same solution for 8 h. All of
the resultant suspensions were subjected to several washes with deion­
ized water after the HF treatment, and the settling powders were sepa­
rated from the supernatants by centrifugation [26].

3.1.2. Combination of LiF and HCl in etching

Since hydrofluoric acid is unfavorable for the environment and
health, it's essential that scientists identify suitable etchants which are
mild as well as free of hazards. The same effects of HF have been seen
when LiF/HCl has been utilized as an etching agent. In this respect,
Ghibiu et al. used theTi3AlC2 precursors and were immersed in an
etching solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and lithium fluoride (LiF) at
a steady temperature of 35 ◦ C for a duration of 24 h to provide a
significantly quicker and safer production process. The final product
exhibited metallic behavior resembling that of Ti3C2Tx [27].
3.1.3. Other salts based on fluoride used in etching
In addition to the two etchants already described to remove A layers
selectively in order to produce the MXenes phase, other salts based on
fluoride may also be used in etching. First, Halim's team created trans­
parent and highly electrically conductive Ti3C2Tx film-like structures by
carefully removing Al from epitaxial Ti3AlC2 films that had been sput­
tered onto surfaces at room temperature [28]. NH4HF2 caused the
concurrent intercalation of species such as NH3 and NH+ 4 during the
chemical etching operation. As seen in reaction (6), NH4HF2 etching
produced (NH4)3AlF6 as opposed to HF etching [28]. The intercalation
of NH+ 4 and NH3 across the Ti3C2Tx layers is expressed in reaction (7).
/
Ti3 AlC2 + 3NH4 HF2 →Ti3 C2 + (NH4 )3 AlF6 + 3 2H2 (6)
Ti3 C2 + aNH4 HF2 + bH2 O→(NH3 ) + (NH4 )d + Ti3 C2 (OH)x + Fy (7)
Employing NH4F along with Ti3AlC2, Wang et al. established a sim­
ple hydrothermal process to produce Ti3C2Tx [29]. They experimented
with adjusting the temperature, time span as well as the amount of their
etchant. The thickness of the layers was reduced, and their spacing grew
when the NH4F quantity and duration were enhanced. However, 150 ◦ C
was the ideal temperature. Ti3C2Tx was readily oxidized at a relatively
high temperature of 180 ◦ C. The etching reaction with Ti3AlC2 had
difficulty happening at an inadequate or low temperature of 90 ◦ C.
Table 1 lists the MXenes materials that were produced utilizing different
etchants and precursors in order to more clearly illustrate the reported
MXenes phases and contrast the varied reaction conditions.
3.2. Bottom-up methods
The conventional bottom-up technique is typical for the production
of Mo2C through CVD. To take one example, using methane (CH4) being
a carbon source and a Mo–Cu alloy being a substrate, Ren's team
generated high-quality with enhanced surface area, 2D ultrathin Mo2C
crystals at temperatures over 1085 ◦ C [30]. The crystals had lateral di­
ameters of more than 100 μm and a thickness of a few nanometers. By
utilizing the ambient pressure CVD setup and molybdenum copper
(Mo–Cu) alloy as a catalyst material, Geng et al. reported a homoge­
neous, high-quality Mo2C layer in the centimeter range produced on
graphene substrate [31]. Mo2C was grown at various CH4 flow rates.
Low CH4 flow produced an irregular combination of triangular,
pentagonal, rectangular, and other forms, as seen in Fig. 7 [31]. Due to
the graphene material, the Mo2C crystals transformed into extremely
homogeneous in terms of thickness and shape as the CH4 flow rose.
Although CVD is an excellent way to make high-quality crystals for
directly synthesizing MXenes, a few issues prevent its use in Li–S bat­
teries. Two factors make it unsuitable for use as LSB cathodes:
Fig. 7. Diagram depicting the formation of Mo2C crystals with CH4 flow rates
of low and high [31].
(I) The size is confined within the centimeter range.
(II) The severe synthetically produced conditions seem like they need
to be more conducive to mass manufacture.
(III) The Transfer procedure requires a substrate. As a result, there is
still more work to be done before the bottom-up approach can be
applied in LSBs.
4. MXene properties
4.1. Excellent mechanical flexibility
MXene, with a two-dimensional structure, has exceptional mechan­
ical qualities, making it a great choice for flexible supercapacitor ap­
plications. The material's mechanical qualities include machinability,
strength, tractability, and elasticity. Of these, the material's flexibility
allows it to take on any shape. MXenes' flexible and two-dimensional
lamellar structure make them potential candidates for tiny and hold­
able “micro-electronic” system devices, including bendable SCs and
micro-SCs, which have seen a sharp increase in demand in recent years.
As film electrodes, two-dimensional MXenanosheets are readily formed,
and the majority of research to date has been on enhancing MXene's
structural characteristics [43].
4.2. Dispersibility and hydrophilic
Water has a significant affinity for MXene's hydrophilic surface,
therefore it is desirable for water to spread over such surfaces. But in
order to make electrode inks, which are then utilized to make electrodes
or composite electrodes, the electrode materials must be able to disperse
in a range of solvents. The selection of synthesis techniques used to make
MXene allows for control over the surface terminal (oxide, hydroxide,
floride and chloride); as a result, the oxide and hydroxide groups are
crucial for giving MXene its hydrophilicity in an aqueous solution in a
stable way [44].
4.3. Conductivity
Because supercapacitors usually have a high energy density and a
fast discharge rate, they need electrodes that have high conductivity.
The benefits of using MXene to help achieve the aforementioned char­
acteristics include choosing M and X and adjusting their surface termi­
nation groups to improve MXene's conductivity, which can be used to
create metal-like, semi- or full-like insulation. Consequently, better
conductivities are frequently linked to MXenes' broad lateral widths as
well as low defect concentrations [45,46].

5
S. Bansal et al.
4.4. Mechanism for storing charge
MXenes' large capacity and extended lifespan are partly attributable
to their pseudocapacitive ion-interstitial charge storing mechanism. A
SC's capacity and longevity are essential elements. MXene's two-
dimensional layered structure facilitates the swift intercalation of ions
such as H+, Li+, or Na+. This feature enables for efficient functioning in
acidic aqueous electrolytes and, as proved lately, in electrolyte-free
media. Additionally, it provides for quick pseudocapacitive charge
storage. Consequently, MXenes exhibit high capacitance (300–500
Fg− 1) or capacitance that is about equivalent to EDLC carbon materials
in aqueous electrolytes; moreover, MXenes outperform pseudocapaci­
tive materials with little to no capacitance loss during thousands of cy­
clic operations. Furthermore, adjusting the composition of NCs
containing MXene can improve the capacitance of MXene-based elec­
trodes in SCs. For instance, the Ti3C2Tx-AuNPs film has a capacitance of
696.67 Fg− 1 at 5 mVs− 1 in 3 M H2SO4 electrolytes, while the Ni-MOF/
Ti3C2Tx nano composite has an excellent specific capacitance value of
497.6 Fg− 1 at 0.5 Ag− 1 in KOH/PVA electrolytes [47,48].
4.5. Gravimetric capacitance and large density
High density, high gravity MXenes are produced by large volume
MXenes. In real-world scenarios, the material's volume capacitance
plays a major role in increasing device power and energy density [46].
Materials that are currently available include vacuum-filtered Ti3C2Tx
(MXene) membrane, that has a volume capacitance of 900 F cm− 3, and
MXene hydrogel membrane, which has a volume capacitance of 1500 F
cm− 3 [49].
5. MXene-based composites for storage applications
Various MXene composite materials have been synthesized by re­
searchers like; (MWCNT)/V2CTx [50], Ti3C2Tx/WO3 [51], NiCo-MOF/
Ti3C2Tx [52], Ti3C2(Ni–S/d-Ti3C2) [53], W18O49/Ti3C2Tx [54], MX-
rHGO [55], NiCoAl-LDH/V4C3Tx [56], MXene/Pani [57] etc. Some of
them are discussed below, having high specific capacitance and energy
density values.
5.1. MXene and carbon compounds
5.1.1. MXene/CNT
Porous Ti3C2 MXene/CNT composite paper electrodes were created
by Xie et al. for sodium-based energy storage devices. Through elec­
trostatic interaction, they created a heterostructure between the posi­
tively charged 1D CNTs and the negatively charged 2D MXene
nanosheets. By preventing the MXene nanosheets from restacking, this
technique produced a distinct porous structure that aided in ion access
to the electrode and electrolyte transport. When used as freestanding
electrodes for sodium-ion storage, the MXene-based electrodes showed
exceptional rate performance, large volumetric capacity, and excellent
cycle stability. At 20 mAg− 1, the porous films specifically showed a
volumetric capacity of 421 mAhcm− 3 [58].
5.1.2. MXene/GO
Chen et al.'s research focused on developing a sandwich-like struc­
ture composed of MXene, graphene oxide (GO), and intercalated layered
double hydroxide (LDH) called MGL. This unique arrangement aims to
expose more active sites and prevent MXene stacking issues through the
conductive interface of the components. The MGL structure effectively
mitigates the morphological collapse of LDH, enhancing its specific ca­
pacity. Using a thin layer of GO improves charge transfer and increases
the electron density of the materials. The combination of these factors
leads to an exceptional specific capacity of 241.9 mAhg− 1 and remark­
ably high cycle stability of about 90.9 % at a current density of 1 Ag− 1.
The asymmetrical supercapacitor also demonstrated an astounding
6
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
≈94.7 % retention of its original capacity at 800 W kg− 1 specific power
and 55.3 Wh kg− 1 specific energy after 4000 cycles [59].
5.1.3. MXene/PANI
In their study, Li et al. conducted experiments involving the
attachment of chain-like polyaniline (PANI) onto MXene layers, fol­
lowed by wrapping with PANI nanofibers through a hydrothermal re­
action. The resultant MXene/PANI 1:3 electrode demonstrated an
impressive 563 Fg− 1 specific capacity at 0.5 Ag− 1 and retained 84.72 %
of its capacitance when current density increased from 0.5 to 20 Ag− 1.
Furthermore, the electrode MXene/PANI 1:3 demonstrated an extended
cycle life, maintaining 95.15 % capacitance even after 10,000 cycles.
Moreover, it was possible to effectively synthesize an asymmetric super
capacitance using MXene/PANI hybrids as the positive electrode and
activated carbon as the negative electrode.
Fully packaged devices utilizing asymmetrical capacitors achieve
energy and power densities of 22.67 Whkg− 1 and 0.217 kWkg− 1,
underscoring the potential of MXene/PANI as electrode materials for
cutting-edge electrochemical applications. Composites based on MXene
and PANI have shown promise as cathode materials. PANI nanofibers
enclose MXene layers, which are fixed to surfaces of polyaniline that
resemble chains via a hydrothermal process. The resultant thin MXene/
PANI hybrid electrodes reach remarkable values of up to 1682 F cm− 3
for volumetric capacitance and 503 Fg− 1 for gravimetric capacitance.
Furthermore, MXene/PANI pseudocapacitive electrodes with ultrahigh
specific capacitance that are thick and freestanding have been success­
fully constructed. The MXene/CNF/PANI electrode demonstrated
remarkable cycle stability and an impressive areal specific capacitance
of 2935 mFcm− 2 at a current density of 1 mAcm− 2. As a positive elec­
trode, a fast polyaniline@MXene cathode was utilized, which produced
a suitable performance. It was created by evenly coating a polyaniline
layer over a 3D porous Ti3C2Tx MXene. The resultant flexible poly­
aniline@MXene positive electrode showcased a remarkable volumetric
capacitance of 1632 F cm− 3, surpassing all previously reported positive
electrodes. Moreover, an asymmetric device was built with poly­
aniline@MXene serving as the cathode and MXene acting as the anode.
This device produced an exceptionally high power density of 127 kW
L− 1 and an impressive energy density of 50.6 Wh/L [57].
5.1.4. Nb2CTx-CNT
Byeon and colleagues carried out an experiment using Nb2CTx–car­
bon nanotube (CNT) films to showcase three types of hybrid cells. The
study showed that the capacities of lithiated graphite/Nb2CTx-CNT,
Nb2CTx-CNT/LiFePO4, and lithiated Nb2CTx-CNT/Nb2CTx-CNT cells are
43, 24, and 36 mAhg− 1 (per total weight of two electrodes), respectively,
and that these cells can operate between 0-3 V voltage ranges. The
experiment also showed that the symmetric Nb2CTx-CNT cells' electrode
polarity can be switched, going from producing a positive potential
between 0 and 3 V to a negative potential between − 3 and 0 V.
Furthermore, the initial-generation devices featuring MXene electrodes
demonstrated a volumetric energy density (50–70 Wh/L) that exceeded
that of a lithium titanate/AC capacitor [60].
The scholarly paper titled “Evaluation of Nb2CTx-CNT as an Elec­
trode Material for Lithium-Ion Capacitors” by Byeon et al. delves into the
exploration of Nb2CTx-CNT, a variant of MXene, as an electrode material
for lithium-ion capacitors (LICs). The research revealed a volumetric
energy density ranging from 50 to 70 Wh/L, surpassing that of lithium
titanate/activated carbon systems. Furthermore, the combination of
lithiated graphite and Nb2CTx-CNT exhibited exceptional gravimetric
performance. The study centers on the electrochemical performance of
lithium-ion capacitors utilizing Nb2CTx-CNT as an electrode material,
demonstrating promising results in terms of energy density and gravi­
metric performance in comparison to conventional systems.
5.1.5. (MWCNT)/V2CTx
High electrochemical performance of two-dimensional (2D) surface-
S. Bansal et al. Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

terminated constructed transitional metal carbide MXenes cleared the

path for sustainable energy storage supercapacitor devices. However,
the main problem associated with 2-dimensional MXene flakes is their
self-restacking property, which restricts the usage of functionalized flake
surfaces in MXene conducting electrodes. The cause of self-restacking is
the 2D structure of the MXene flakes. Zahra et al. described the forma­
tion of V2CTxMXene and multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT)/V2CTx
composites as a viable material for electrodes in devices for storing
energy. Their hybrid electrodes demonstrated improved electrochemical
activity, with an enhanced gravimetric capacitance value of 1842 Fg− 1
at a 2 mV s− 1 scan rate and a 62.5 Ah/g specific charge capacity.
Furthermore, the electrodes demonstrated a retention capacity of 94 %
during a 10,000-cycle lifespan, durability, and satisfactory rate perfor­
mance. Calculations using the density functional method revealed the
electrical and structural characteristics of the MWCNT/V2CTx. As a
result, the addition of MWCNTs improved the reaction kinetics as well as
conductivity of the MXenes while also facilitating the ability to store
charges, which is advantageous for next-generation smart devices for
storing energy [50].
MXene was synthesized via wet chemical etching by adding 2 mg of
cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) with 20 mL Deionized water
and swirling magnetically to produce a homogeneous aqueous solution
of CTAB grafted MWCNT. MWCNTs were then diluted into CTAB solu­
tion to a 0.5 mg/mL density using probe sonication. In the meantime,
dropwise addition of CTAB grafted MWCNT in the 50 mL of V2CTx so­
lution. The resulting slurry was probe sonicated for up to 10 min before
being vacuum filtered and vacuum dried at 50 ◦ C overnight to produce
composite material. Similarly, multiple weight ratios of MWCNT:
MXene composites (0.5:2, 1:1, 0.25:2, and 1:2), denoted as M3, M1, M4,
and M2, have been developed for a full investigation of the effect of
MWCNTs.
XRD of (MWCNT)/V2CTx confirms the presence of two distinct
phases in the mixture. [Fig. 8] V2CTx's (002) peak keeps on at a similar
2theta, indicating a little movement towards the lower angle, i.e., 2Ɵ =
8.24◦ . In addition, non-out-of-plane MXene reflections are seen. The
existence of MWCNT in the hybrid framework is represented by the
formation of a broad peak at 2Ɵ = 22.14◦ [50].
Fig. 8. Illustrates the XRD images of the V2AlC MAX phase, HF-treated
Fig. 9(a) displays the CV data collection of MWCNTs, (MWCNT)/ V2CTxMXene, Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs), and
V2CTx, and V2CTx performed throughout a potential window of 0.2–0.5 MWCNT@V2CTx [50].
V at a scan rate of 200mVs− 1.(MWCNT)/V2CTx demonstrated superior
electrochemical performance and redox process compared to pure at low-frequency ranges is lower for (MWCNT)/V2CTx. The explanation
MXene, owing to higher conductivity caused by adding MWCNTs [50]. for this is the high hydrophilicity of MXene films and the increased
Fig. 9(b) shows the Cyclic voltammetry curves for several CNTs: MXenes conductivity caused by the addition of MWCNTs [62]. The increased
composites with mass ratios of 2:2, 0.25:2, 0.5:2, and 1:2, denoted as electrical conductivity promotes fast ion diffusion while going through
M1, M4, M3, and M2, respectively [50]. Because of the double layer the charge-discharge process by efficiently minimizing internal resis­
phenomena, the form of these CV curves differs dramatically from that tance as well as electrolyte ion transit, resulting in improved electro­
of porous, rectangular-shaped carbon [61]. The redox peaks indicate the chemical activity of the composite material.
major redox mechanism that comes due to the capacitive nature of the Fig. 9(e) shows the GCD curve at various current densities. At 1Ag− 1
material. A rise in carbon nanotube concentration increases the area, but current density value, an optimal specific charge capacity of 62.5Ahg− 1
at a certain point, it begins to drop. As a result of analyzing the CV was attained. The composite has an impressive power density of
curves, they have chosen the M2 sample for additional electrochemical 451Wkg− 1 and an outstanding energy density of 100.85 Whkg− 1. Uti­
testing. Fig. 9(c) depicts the M2 hybrid structure's cyclic voltammetry lized porous MWCNTs create a homogenous uniform architecture that
curves measured at various scan speeds ranging from 10 to 200 mVs− 1. improves the ease of access to active areas for rapid ion diffusion. The
This curve symmetry is preserved even at high scan speeds, demon­ cycling behavior was examined using galvanostatic charge-discharge.
strating the electrode's quick response kinetics and endurance. The The electrodes' stability up to 10,000 cycles and 94 % capacitance
gravimetric capacitance (Fig. 9(d)) drops progressively as the scan rate retention capabilities demonstrate the composite material's greater rate
increases; nevertheless, at similar scan speeds, the gravimetric capaci­ capability. At 1Ag− 1 current density value, the columbic efficiency came
tance of this hybrid configuration is significantly larger than compared out to be 100 % [Fig. 9(f)]. The composite material was evaluated with
to the pure MXene and MWCNT. At 200 mVs− 1, for example, the improved performance across a larger potential range of 0.4–0.7 V. The
gravimetric capacitance of the MWCNT is 98.14 Fg− 1, and that of hybrid highest possible capacitance of 2386Fg− 1 was attained at a scan speed of
configuration is 576 Fg− 1, and for pure MXene, it is 230.5 Fg− 1. To 2mVs− 1, and the composite material had an increased area and a
examine the internal resistance of pristine and hybrid MXene, electro­ gravimetric capacitance of 696Fg− 1 at 200mVs− 1. Within this voltage
static impedance spectroscopy was performed [Fig. 9(d)]. The electrode range, the oxidation phenomena become more prevalent at lower scan
impedance at high frequencies, which consists of charge transfer resis­ speed, which may result from the base material's or the electrolyte's
tance as well as internal series resistance, is represented by the fitted deterioration. However, at higher scan speeds, the electrode exhibits
Nyquist plots. When compared to pure MXene, the Warburg impedance

7
S. Bansal et al.
Fig. 9. (a) Illustrate the C–V, at a scan speed of 200mVs− 1 of virgin MWCNT,
MWCNT@V2CTxMXene, and both. (b) C–V graphs of different
MWCNT@V2CTx proportions at scan speeds of 200mVs− 1. (c) M2 C–V graphs
at various scan speeds. (d) A comparison of the specific capacitance vs. scan
rate graph of MWCNT@V2CTx MXene in 1 M KOH electrolyte with the EIS plot
of pristine and M2 in the same electrolyte. (e) GCD graphs at various current
densities. (f) Plots of Coulombic efficiency (red) as well as capacitance retention
(green) [50]. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
superior performance due to the improved conductive channels offered
by the homogenous linking of MWCNTs [50].
5.2. MXene and oxides material composites
5.2.1. MXene/MnO2
Zhao et al. conducted another experiment involving synthesizing the
MXene/MnO2 composite for supercapacitor application. They employed
two-dimensional sheets of pseudocapacitive MnO2 and Ti3C2 as the
positive and negative electrodes, respectively. Consequently, an asym­
metric, flexible, interdigitated micro supercapacitor was created. The
device had good rate behavior and retained 83 % of its high specific
capacitance of 106 Fg− 1 (295 mF cm− 2) even after a 20-fold rise in
current density up to 20 Ag− 1. The performance was ascribed to the in-
plane device shape, highly exposed electrochemically active spots,
complementary working voltage window, and excellent material utili­
zation. Consequently, a power density of 985 kW kg− 1 (2.7 mWcm− 2)
was maintained while achieving a very compatible high energy density
of 58 W h kg− 1 (162 μW h cm− 2) [63].
5.2.2. MXene/RuO2
MXene/RuO2 composite used by the Li et al. for supercapacitor
application and their electrochemical study shows the capacitance of
864.2 Fcm− 1 [64]. The development of fully printable, flexible micro-
supercapacitors (MSCs) with high energy and power density is a sig­
nificant technological challenge. To address this obstacle, the 2D ma­
terial MXene has gained attention for its potential as a printable
electrode material for high-performance electrochemical energy storage
devices. This study proposes a simple and in-situ process to uniformly
attach hydrous ruthenium oxide (RuO2) nanoparticles to Ti3C2Tx MXene
nano sheets. RuO2@MXene nanosheets produced as a result of the
8
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
process may be mixed with AgNWs to provide a printable electrode with
micrometer-scale resolution for completely printed, high-performance
MSCs. RuO2 nanoparticles provide a high pseudocapacitance to this
nanocomposite electrode, preventing restacking of the MXenanosheets
and providing an efficient channel for the electrolyte ions. AgNWs
function in tandem with RuO2@MXene to preserve the electrode ink's
rheological characteristic and offer a highly conductive network archi­
tecture for quick charge transfer. Consequently, MSCs produced using
the nanocomposite inks display astounding energy (13.5 mWh cm− 3),
power density (48.5 W cm− 3), excellent rate capability (304.0 F cm− 3 at
2000 mVs− 1), long-term cycling performance (90 % retention after
10,000 cycles), and flexibility. [64].
5.2.3. Polymer/MXene/MnO2
An experiment by Qin et al. in which polymer/MXene/MnO2 com­
posite synthesize by electrochemical polymerization method their
electrochemical study shows the capacitance of 69.5 mfcm− 2 at
0.5mAcm− 2 [65]. A novel method of electrochemical polymerization
(EP) employing MXene, a 2D transition metal carbide, has been effec­
tively shown by researchers. This approach permits the formation of
conjugated polymer-MXene composite films on conducting surfaces
without the need for standard electrolytes. This versatile method pro­
vides a quick and easy way to make different polymer/MXene com­
posites with precise thickness and micro-patterns. Furthermore, in
comparison to traditionally electropolymerized polymers, the resultant
composites have been used to create excellent-performance micro-
supercapacitors and asymmetric micro-supercapacitors, which show
better areal capacitance, enhanced rate capabilities, and decreased
contact resistance. The composite polymerized with MXene has an
amazing volumetric energy density (250.1 mWh cm− 3) at 1.6 V, a
maximum areal capacitance of 69.5 mF cm− 2, and excellent cycling
stability for up to 10,000 cycles [65].
5.2.4. MXene/EG
Another experiment by Li et al. in which they utilize the MXene/EG
composite as a supercapacitor electrode material their electrochemical
study shows the capacitance of 25.5 mfcm− 2 at 5 mVS− 1 [66]. Demon­
stration of the patterning of few-layered Ti3C2Tx nanosheets on various
substrates for MSCs is achieved through a simple, rapid, and cost-
effective ‘scratch’ strategy. The resulting Ti3C2Tx-based all-solid-state
MSC exhibits a high areal capacitance of 25.5 mF cm− 2, owing to the
unique layered structure and high electrical conductivity of the elec­
trode. This planar MSC also demonstrates favorable cycling stability and
flexibility. Furthermore, the fabrication strategy can be easily applied to
other composite films for MSCs, making them potential micropower
sources for miniaturized electronic devices [66].
5.2.5. MoO3-x/Ti3C2
The impressive theoretical capacitance of molybdenum trioxide
(MoO3) makes it a compelling choice for supercapacitor electrodes.
However, its limited electronic conductivity hinders charge transfer and
slows down its reaction speed. In a recent experiment by Zheng et al.,
porous, flexible, and highly conductive films were created by vacuum-
filtering oxygen vacancy-rich MoO3-x nano belts along with delami­
nated Ti3C2 MXene in an 80:20 mass ratio. Under 5 M LiCl electrolyte
assessment, these films demonstrated volumetric capacitances of 631
Fcm− 3 at 1 Ag− 1 and 474 Fcm− 3 at 10 Ag− 1. Asymmetric supercapacitors
were built with nitrogen-doped activated carbon cathodes and MoO3-
based anodes to increase the energy density. The achieved volumetric
energy density reached 48.6 watt-hours per liter (WhL− 1). Following
20,000 uninterrupted charge/discharge cycles at 20 amperes per gram
(Ag− 1), 96.3 % of the initial charge was retained. These metrics
demonstrate exceptional performance for stand-alone supercapacitor
electrodes, particularly when used in aqueous electrolytes [67].
MoO3-x/Ti3C2 MXene free-standing films have good cyclability and
large volumetric capacitances. At an exceptional output voltage of 2.1 V,
S. Bansal et al.
the asymmetric supercapacitors reached an energy density value of 48.6
WhL− 1. The remarkable electrochemical performance, cost-
effectiveness, and environmentally friendly properties make them
promising for practical applications [67].
5.2.6. Ti3C2Tx/WO3
Naguib et al. used 30 mL of anhydrous ethanol to create a homoge­
nous mixture of Ti3C2Tx and WCl6 (with various concentrations range
10–90 mg). The combined solution was then placed into a stainless steel
autoclave and heated for up to 24 h at 180 ◦ C. The products were
recovered by centrifugation and repeatedly cleaned with deionized
water after they had obtained normal room temperature. The resulting
composites have been labeled as TC/W-1, TC/W-3, TC/W-5, TC/W-7,
and TC/W-9, respectively, based on the WCl6 reaction amounts. The
WO3x powder was also prepared using a similar method without
Ti3C2Tx. Finally, a vacuum filtering method was used to produce the self-
standing and extensible Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx/WO3hybrid films [9].
Fig. 10(a) depicts the fabrication of the stretchy self-standing
Ti3C2Tx/WO3thin films [51]. Fig. 10(b) shows the X-ray diffraction
(XRD) spectra of Ti3C2Tx, Ti3C2Tx/WO3and WO3x mixture [51].
Notably, the resultant composite maintains the normal Ti3C2Tx
diffraction peaks and an additional peak that occurs at roughly 23.20
indexing as (01 0) plane of W18O49. Additionally, the peak of diffraction
at the (0 02) plane declined from 7.32 to 6.46 (Fig. 10(c)), which cor­
responds to an increase in the value of d from 12.067 to 13.671 A0 and
shows that the Ti3C2Tx layers have already been decorated with WO3x
nanostructures. This helps the electrolyte to penetrate the layers and
fully provide the MXene pseudo capacitance. XPS, which stands for X-
ray photoelectron, was also utilized to monitor the overall arrangement
of the TC/W-5 hybrids, demonstrating the presence of W, F, Ti, O, and C
Fig. 10. Shows a schematic of how the Ti3C2Tx/WO3x films were made, as well
as XRD patterns of the films Ti3C2Tx, TC/W-5, and WO3x, as well as magnified
XRD images of the (0 0 2) peaks of the films Ti3C2Tx and TC/W-5, an XPS survey
spectrum, and high-resolution W 4fspectra of the TC/W-5 film [51].
9
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
materials (Fig. 10(d)). The W4f spectrum measurements of the TC/W-5
hybrid may be fitted as two coupling bimodals, as seen in Fig. 8(e).
Peaks at 34.8 eV and 36.5 eV are ascribed to the presence of W-5, while
those at 36.3 eV and 38.4 eV are associated with W 4f7/2 and W 4f5/2 of
W-6, respectively. This confirms the existence of WO3x in the hybrid in
the form of coexisting W-6 and W-5. In response to the XPS data, the W-
6/W-5 ratio is around 50.5 %, showing the abundance of oxygen defects
inside the WO3x mixture, which would result in a robust redox process
[51].
Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx/WO3hybrid electrodes Cyclic Voltammetry
curves at 20mVs− 1 are shown in Fig. 11(a). The Cyclic voltammetry
graphs of the Ti3C2Tx/WO3hybrid electrodes show not only more sig­
nificant redox peak currents than the Ti3C2Tx thin electrode but also
bigger integral areas, suggesting superior charge storage capabilities.
The TC/W-5 electrode is the most significant of these electrodes. Eqs. (8)
and (9) express the intercalation/de-intercalation activities of the pro­
tons [68,69]. All CV curves exhibit a pair of large redox peaks, showing
the pseudo-capacitive character of the system.
WO3− x + yH+ + ye− →Hy WO3− (8)
x
Ti3 C2 Ox (OH)y F2− + ⸹e− →Ti3 C2 Ox− ⸹ (OH)y+⸹ F2− (9)
x− y x–y
The TC/W-5 electrode's cyclic voltammetry profiles are shown in
Fig. 11(b) at various scan speeds [51]; they exhibit a consistent form at
higher scan speeds, representing the electrode's excellent rate capacity.
The GCD profiles for the TC/W-5 electrode at various current densities
are represented in Fig. 11(c) [51]. It is evident from Fig. 11(d), which
depicts the gravimetric capacitance calculated from the CV profile, that
the TC/W-5 electrode has the maximum capacitance [51]. Compared to
the typical Ti3C2Tx electrode, which has a specific capacitance of 335.4
Fg− 1 at 2mVs− 1, the TC/W-5 electrode exhibits a specific capacitance of
Fig. 11. (a) CV profiles of the Ti3C2Tx and Ti3C2Tx/WO3x electrodes at 20
mVs− 1, (b) CV graphs as well (c) GCD graphs of the TC/W-5 electrodes, (d)
Gravimetric capacitances of the Ti3C2Tx and TC/W-5 electrodes at various scan
speeds, the inset demonstrates the diagrams of capacitance versus WCl6 quan­
tity, (e) Nyquist plots of the Ti3C2Tx as well as TC/W-5 electrode, the inset
magnifies the high-frequency region, (f) Cycling stability of the TC/W-5 elec­
trode [51].
S. Bansal et al.
442.0 Fg− 1. Even when the scan rate is raised to 200mVs− 1, the TC/W-5
electrode maintains a specific capacitance of 335.1Fg− 1, demonstrating
its exceptional rate capabilities. The increased interlayer separation
caused by the insertion of WO3x nanomaterials into Ti3C2Tx layers,
which raises electrolyte ion diffusion and transportation, is responsible
for the better rate performance. However, when the WO3x concentration
increases, the rate capability decreases, most likely due to its trans­
formation of shape from nanocrystals to nanowires, which results in
reducing interlayer spacing. Genuinely the observed gravimetric
capacitance in this study is excellent when we compare it to the previous
studies, which include GO/WO3 thin sheets (268.5 Fg− 1 at a scan speed
of 25 mVs− 1) [70], TiC cylindrical fibers (185 Fg− 1 at a scan speed of
2Ag− 1), TiC-CDC nano-felts (135 Fg− 1 at a scan speed of 10 mVs− 1) [59],
Ti3C2-Tx/rGO (335.4 Fg− 1 at a scan speed of 2mVs− 1) [71]. Yet there
still has space for additional improvements to work when compared
with various transition metal oxides that had high pseudo capacitance
and excellent conductivity, such as GO/V2O5 (949.6 Fg− 1 at a scan speed
of 25 mVs− 1) [72], MoO3 (560 Fg− 1) [73], and GO/IrO2 (837.7 Fg− 1 at
a scan speed of 25 mV s− 1) [74]. The Ti3C2Tx, as well as TC/W-5 elec­
trodes' Nyquist impedance graphs, are represented by Fig. 11(e), along
with the correspondingly larger high-frequency region [51]. It is clear
that the TC/W-5 electrode has lower series resistance as well as resis­
tance to transfer charges than the Ti3C2Tx electrode, which is consistent
with the outstanding rate capability of the TC/W-5 electrode and also
reveals good ionic responsiveness.
5.3. MOF/MXene composites
5.3.1. MXene/FeCu-MOF
In this work, Adil et al. present a novel approach for developing a
composite material comprising MXene and FeCu bimetallic MOF. This
strategy aims to shorten ion/electron diffusion pathways and enhance
electroactive sites. Consequently, the composite material of bimetallic
MOFs with MXene exhibits outstanding specific and rate capacity, and
the restacking of MXene sheets is inhibited. In three-electrode configu­
rations, the produced FeCu MOF/MXene electrode shows a high specific
capacity of around 440 mAhg− 1. Moreover, following 10,000 alternate
GCD cycles, the produced MXene-FeCuMOF//AC ASC exhibits a
remarkable cyclic stability of 89 %. This work presents a novel meth­
odology that uses a binder-free synthesis technique to efficiently syn­
ergize MOFs with MXene and grow them on nickel foam (NF) [75].
5.3.2. MXene-Ni-Co/NiCo-MOF/NF
In a fascinating experiment, Wang et al. utilized the hydrothermal
method to cultivate NiCo-MOF (NCM) on nickel foam, with NCM serving
as the precursor. They then used an electrolyte solution that included
MXene, Ni2+, and Co2+ to electrodeposited MXene-Ni-Co@NiCo-MOF/
NF (M-NC@NCM/NF) nanosheets. Owing to the displacement of metal
cations amidst the MXene layers, the nanosheets produced in the
MXene-infused electrolyte had a unique hexagonal appearance. This
unique structure led to enhanced electrochemical performance, with a
remarkable 75.3 % capacity retention rate after 5000 cycles and a spe­
cific capacity of 855.0C g− 1 (2137.5 F g− 1) at 1 A g− 1 [76].
5.3.3. MXene/Ni-MOF
Zheng et al.'s study investigates the use of Ti3C2 MXene@pilla red-
layer [Ni(thiophene-2,5-dicarboxylate)(4,4′-bipyridine)]n MOF com­
posites (MXene@Ni-MOF), which are highly conductive and cyclically
stable. Superior structural stability is provided by the pillared-layer Ni-
MOF porous structure with Ni–N coordination bonds, which makes use
of the hard-soft-acid-base concept. Fast charge transfer between the two
is made possible by MXene's immobilization of Ni-MOF nanosheets,
which addresses the problem of low Ni-MOF conductivity while avoid­
ing nanosheet aggregation. A crucial role is played by the interaction
between the surface functional groups of MXene and the organic ligands
of Ni-MOF. In the end, it promotes fast ion transport by decreasing the
10
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
exposure of MXene's surface groups, reducing its oxidation, and
increasing its layer spacing. Consequently, MXene@Ni-MOF displays an
amazing 979 Fg− 1 specific capacitance at 0.5 Ag− 1, and the newly
developed aqueous asymmetric supercapacitor device shows excep­
tional cycling stability with just a 2 % deterioration after 5000 cycles
[77].
5.3.4. Co-MOF/Ti3C2Tx
In a study by Ramachandran et al., Ni foam was used to directly
synthesize cobalt metal-organic framework spheres (Co-MOF) and Co-
MOF/titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx). These materials may now be used as
a unique binder-free electrode material for supercapacitors thanks to
this creative method. Using various electrochemical methods, the re­
searchers assessed the impact of intercalation pseudocapacitance be­
tween Ti3C2Tx and Co-MOF on Ni foam. The mesoporous electrodes, in
their produced state, exhibited remarkable electrochemical perfor­
mance in a 3 M KOH electrolyte. For Co-MOF@Ni and Co-MOF/
Ti3C2Tx@Ni, the maximum gravimetric capacitance was 2872.5 Fg− 1
and 3741 Fg− 1, respectively. Fast ion transport was made possible by the
Co-MOF's voids and the layered Ti3C2Tx's high conductivity, which
improved the active sites [78].
5.3.5. Ni-MOFs/V2CTx-MXene
A temperature-controlled annealing process was applied in a study
by Yang et al. to create Ni-MOFs/V2CTx-MXene (Tx denotes the surface
groups, –O, -OH, and –F) composites on Ni foam (NF) (also called
MOF/MXene/NF). This process produced a heterogeneous structure of
hierarchically porous nanorod composite while preserving the crystal­
line structure. Theoretical computations and experimental character­
izations revealed the creation of Ni-O-V bridging bridges at the
interfaces between Ni-MOF and V2CTx, which improves the electronic
structure and increases conductivity and reactivity [79]. At 300 ◦ C, the
optimized MOF/MXene/NF electrode (MOF/MXene/NF-300) demon­
strated a remarkable specific value of 1103.9 Cg− 1 at 1 Ag− 1. This
accomplishment is attributed to the robust chemical bonds at the
interface and distinctive porous structure. These findings propose a
novel approach to developing durable, high-performance electrode
materials for hybrid supercapacitors [80].
5.3.6. Nico-MOF/Ti3C2Tx
5 mg Ti3C2Tx has taken in an DMF solution that included Co2+, TEA,
PTA, and Ni2+ in the synthesis of NiCoMOF/Ti3C2Tx composites. The
mixture was then ultrasonicated for 8 h while Ar was flowing. The
resulting powers were cleaned three times with ethanol and baked at
60 ◦ C for 12 h. The NiCoMOF/Ti3C2Tx composite nanosheets, as syn­
thesized, were referred to as NiCo-MOF/Ti-5. Under identical test con­
ditions, NiCo-MOF/Ti-x (x = 2.5 and 10 mg) and NiCo-MOF were
synthesized [15,81].
Fig. 12 depicts the fabrication technique for NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx
hybrid Nanosheets [81]. Typically, Ti3C2Tx was created by etching Al
layers from titanium aluminum chloride powders using a solution of HCl
and LiF. Because of the electrostatic force which coordinates the inter­
action of the PTA legend, the negatively charged groups (such as –O,-F,
-OH) on the outermost layer of Ti3C2Tx may absorb Ni2+ along with Co2+
ions and produce NiCo-MOF Nanosheets in situ during ultra-sonication.
Fig. 12. Shows the synthesis process of NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx [81].
 S. Bansal et al.
Ultra sonication can not only remove Ti3C2Tx into isolated Nano sheets
but also in situ synthesize NiCo-MOF Nanosheets, resulting in close
contact between the two. The electrical conductivity of NiCoMOF/
Ti3C2Tx composite Nano sheets is enhanced by their close contact
structure, which allows for the transfer of electrons from NiCO-MOF to
Ti3C2Tx.
XRD images of as-synthesized NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx composite Nano­
sheets are shown in Fig. 13(a) [81]. NiCo-MOF has an XRD pattern that
is comparable to Co-MOF [82]. Co and Ni ions are octahedrally coupled
to hydroxyls in this case, and such pseudo octahedral are linked to create
a multilayer structure. The terephthalate molecules connect the layers to
generate a 3D multilayer structure [83]. These peaks could also be seen
in NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx composite Nanosheets XRD diagrams. However,
the concentration of Ti3C2Tx in the composite nanosheets of NiCo-MOF
decreases steadily with increasing Ti, indicating that this reduces the
rate at which NiCO-MoFcrystallitures can be reduced. Ultrasonication
was used to demolish the Ti3C2TX, similar to an accordion, but none of
the peaks in the NiCo-MOF/Ti3S2TS were identical [84]. In Fig. 13(b),
FT-IR was used to evaluate the functional groups on the surface of
already prepared samples. The peaks of Ti3C2Tx at 617, 3441, 1448,
1037, and 1634 cm− 1 are attributable to the vibratory stretching of
Ti–O, -OH, O–H, C–F, and C– –O bonds [85]. NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx
composite nanosheets displayed similar stretching vibrations to NiCo-
MOF, with extremely faint peaks at 1634 and 617 cm− 1 corresponding
to the C––O and Ti–O in the Ti3C2Tx, respectively [83]. N2 absorption
isotherms were utilized to determine the pore structure as well as the
surface area of specimens. The isotherm curves of every sample showed
a hysteresis loop, indicating the presence of mesopores, as shown in
Fig. 13(c) [86]. The pore diameters of NiCo-MOF and NiCo-MOF/
Ti3C2Tx are typically between 2 and 6 nm in Fig. 13(d), confirming their
mesoporous architectures [81].
Displaying a larger specific capacitance that coincides with outcomes
of the cyclic voltammetry profiles in Fig. 14(a). As a result, the elec­
trochemical characteristics of NiCo-MOF/Ti5 and various additional
samples were investigated further using CV and GCD studies [81].
Fig. 14(b) GCD curves of NiCo-MOF and NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx electrodes
at a current density of 1 Ag− 1. The CV profile in Fig. 14(c) was examined
at scan speeds ranging from 5 to 100mVs− 1. Even at a scan speed of
100mVs− 1, the redox peaks continue to be visible, showing outstanding
rate performance. Furthermore, when scan rates increase, the anodic
peak shifts towards larger positive potentials, whereas the cathodic peak
shifts towards larger negative potentials. This change in redox peaks is
Fig. 13. (a) Shows XRD graphs for NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx, (b) FT-IR spectra, (c) N2
adsorption-desorption isotherms, and (d) distribution of pore size of Ti3C2Tx,
NiCo-MOF, and NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 [81].
11
­
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
often attributed to improved charge transfer polarisation in the elec­
trode material [87]. All of the GCD graphs have comparable forms with
identifiable potential plateau zones, as seen in Fig. 14(d). Showing
similar pseudo-capacitive behavior [81]. Furthermore, the nearly sym­
metric GCD graphs show significant reversible change of the faradaic
redox responses and excellent columbic efficiency. Fig. 14(e) depicts the
computed specific capacitances of every sample according to GCD
graphs [81]. The NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 electrode had the highest specific
capacitance, with values as high as 835.8, 815.2, 761.4, 726.3, 684.5,
643.7, and 571.2 at 0.5, 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, and 20 Ag− 1, respectively.
Furthermore, NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 shows good rate performance (the
capacitance retains 64.6 % at 0.5–20 Ag− 1). In comparison to previously
proposed Ti3C2Tx -based electrode materials like GO-Ti3C2Tx s@Poly­
aniline [88], as well as MnO2 at Ti3C2Tx [89], the NiCo-MOF/Ti-5
electrode exhibits improved particular capacitance due to its 2D meso­
porous architecture and good electronic conductivity. The cycling reli­
ability of NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 was evaluated at 5Ag− 1 through 5000
charging and discharge cycles. After 5000 cycles, the capacitance
retention was 93.4 % compared to the original capacitance. EIS was used
to explore electron transport and ion diffusion at the interface of an
electrode and an electrolyte further, and the Nyquist plots are presented
in Fig. 14(f) [81].
5.4. Ti3C2 (Ni–S/d-Ti3C2)
To produce d-Ti3C2nanosheets, a specified amount of 100 % ethyl
alcohol was introduced to 1 mL of d-Ti3C2 suspension solution (5 mg/
mL) with jerking and then centrifuged at 9000 rpm for 5 min [90]. The
aforementioned sediment was mixed with 10 mL of 100 % ethyl alcohol
using magnetic stirring followed by ultrasonic vibration for 6 h to
generate a dispersive solution. Following that, 2 mL of 0.75 M
NiCl26H2O alcoholic combination was drop by drop introduced to the
aforesaid d-Ti3C2 alcoholic solution for 2 h while stirring. Following
that, 3 mL of diethanolamine (DEA) was mixed thoroughly with 2 mL of
ethyl alcohol and 0.5 mmol of trithiocyanuric acid trisodium salt hy­
drate (Na3C3N3S3xH2O) as a sulphur source was incorporated into the
DEA as well as ethyl alcohol combination. Following that, the
Na3C3N3S3-contained DEA alcoholic solution was drop by drop intro­
duced to the aforesaid Ni2+-contained d-Ti3C2 alcoholic combination for
1 h while stirring. The preparatory mixture was then placed into a 50 mL
Teflon container, and the autoclave was tightly closed and kept at
2000 ◦ C for 6 h. After allowing the solution to cool naturally to a normal
temperature, it was removed and washed thrice with 100 % ethyl
alcohol and pure water, respectively. At last, the residue was vacuum-
dried overnight at 600 ◦ C. The sample was identified as Ni-S/1d-Ti3C2
nanohybrid. The synthesis process is shown in Fig. 15 [53]. Meanwhile,
the acquired samples were labeled as Ni-S/0.5d-Ti3C2 and Ni-S/2d-
Ti3C2nanohybrids after increasing the starting volume of the d-Ti3C2
suspension solution to 0.5 and 2 mL using a similar process [53].
The most notable diffraction peaks of the Ni-S/1d-Ti3C2nanohybrid
are visible in comparison to the XRD pattern of the Ni–S specimen
(Fig. 16) [53], and they are well associated with the NiS and Ni3S2at
each stage. Additionally, the characteristic peak of the (002) plane of the
d-Ti3C2nanosheets can be seen as well. While performing charge-
discharge cycles, a larger d-spacing may enable electrolyte ions to
diffuse more easily. Furthermore, studies show that the incorporation of
d-Ti3C2 nanosheets within the nanohybrid encompasses no effect on the
crystalline phase of nickel sulfides, implying that the Ni3S2 and NiS
molecules are the thermally stable ones produced in the process of py­
rolysis [53].
All the electrochemical functions of all Ni-S/d-Ti3C2 Nano hybrids
were studied in a three-electrode setup. The concentration of KOH in a
solution is zero. At a scan rate of 20mVs− 1, the Ni–S and Ni–S/d-Ti3C2
Nano hybrid electrodes are compared on the basis of the cyclic vol­
tammetry profile shown by Fig. 17(a) [53]. Take note that the CV ge­
ometries of the Ni–S electrode are also present in all Ni–S/d-Ti3C2 Nano
S. Bansal et al. Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

Fig. 14. (a) CV curves of NiCo-MOF and NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx electrodes at a scan rate of 5 mVs− 1, (b) GCD curves of NiCo-MOF and NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx electrodes at a
current density of 1 Ag− 1, (c) CV curves of NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 electrode at different scan rates, (d) GCD curves for NiCo-MOF/Ti-5 electrode at different current
densities, (e) the specific capacitance at different current densities, and (f) Nyquist plots of NiCo-MOF and NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx electrodes [81].

Fig. 15. (a) Synthesis process to produce d-Ti3C2 sheets (b) as well as the
hybrid sheets of Ni-S/d-Ti3C2 [53].

hybrid electrodes, and their enlarged CV curve regions and redox peak
intensities indicate increased specificity and improved kinetics. The
increase in d-Ti3C2 Nano sheets leads to a significant decrease in the
voltage spacing between their oxidation and reduction peaks, suggesting
that the electrical conductivity of the Ni-S/d–Ti3C2 hybrids is likely
enhanced by these Nanosheets. The electrical conductivities of each
sample were measured using a four-point probe at room temperature. As
can be observed, the Ni-S/d-Ti3C2Nano hybrids all have electrical con­
ductivity values that are greater than those of pure Ni–S, and these
electrical conductivities steadily rise as the amount of d-Ti3C2 Nano
sheets increases. GCD patterns for every electrode were compared at a
current density of 1 Ag− 1 (Fig. 17(b)) [53]. It is also observed that the
Ni-S/1d-Ti3C2nanohybrid electrode has a lengthy discharge duration
and also shows the electrode's reversible nature property. The Ni-S/1d-
Ti3C2nano hybrid electrode's CV graphs are shown in Fig. 17(c) at
various scan speeds, and it is clear to see the redox peaks at each rate,
indicating that the capacity is mostly due to the electrochemical redox
reactions of Ni2/Ni3 redox pairs. The virtually symmetric potential-time
graphs of the Ni-S/1d-Ti3C2nanohybrid electrode's GCD graphs at
various current densities (Fig. 17(d)) demonstrate the well-reversible
redox responses involved in charging and discharging operations [53].
Fig. 16. XRD image of prepared material [53].
The rate capability is a crucial consideration when assessing whether
supercapacitors might be employed in practical applications. As shown
in Fig. 17(e), the Ni-S/d-Ti3C2nanohybrid electrodes possess a higher
specific capacity and heightened rate capability than the standard Ni–S
electrode [53]. The specific capacity of the Ni-S/d-Ti3C2 nanohybrid
electrode increases rapidly with the addition of d–Ti3C2nano sheets. The
Ni-S/1d-Ti3C2nanohybrid electrode has the highest specific capacity. Ni-
S/d-Ti3C2nanohybrid electrode exhibits a greater specific capacity and a
superior rate capability than the Ni–S electrode. Fig. 17(f), which also
displays the cycling stabilities for each electrode, following 5000 cycles
of GCD testing at a current density of 10 Ag− 1, shows that the Ni-S/1d-
Ti3C2nanohybrid electrode demonstrates the best capacity retention of
66.5 % [53].

12
S. Bansal et al.
Fig. 17. (a) CV graphs at scan speed of 20mVs− 1also (b) indicate the GCD
graphs at a current density of 1Ag− 1 for each electrode; (c) CV graphs at various
scan speeds and (d) indicate the GCD graphs at various current densities of the
composite electrode Ni–S/1d-Ti3C2; (e) Information about the capacity at
various current densities (f) Coulombic efficiency and cycle stability at 10Ag− 1
current density [53].
5.5. MXene and graphene oxide composite
5.5.1. MXene/rGO
Shyan Seyedin and colleagues conducted an experiment utilizing the
wet spinning method to create MXene/rGO. Using a three-electrode
setup and a 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte, the electrochemical properties of
the MXene/rGO fiber were evaluated. The results showed a capacitance
of around 341 Fcm− 1 at a current density of 0.5Acm− 1 and a gravimetric
capacitance of roughly 257 Fg− 1. Showed that new fibers with a ma­
jority MXene (~88 wt%) composition can be created using a graphene
oxide liquid crystal-assisted fiber spinning technique. With their
remarkable strength and flexibility, high electrical conductivity (~72.3
S/cm), high volumetric capacitance (~341 Fcm− 3), and remarkable
strength, these MXenefibers make it possible to create textile prototypes
based on MXene. After 20,000 cycles, the MXenefiber-based super­
capacitor device demonstrates outstanding stability and reaches
maximum energy and power densities of around 5.1 mW h cm− 3 and
~1700 mW cm− 3, respectively. This study presents a novel class of fiber
supercapacitors that show great promise as flexible power sources for
Fig. 18. Illustration of the tailored MXene/holey graphene film's production [55].
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Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
wearables and other small-sized electronic devices [91].
5.5.2. MX-rHGO
Fig. 18 depicts the fabrication procedure for the refined MX-rHGO
film. Employing HCl/LiF to delaminate the Ti3AlC2 MAX phase and
selectively etching the Al layers while extending the interlayer gap
resulted in multi-layered Ti3C2Tx [55]. Only manual jerking may easily
delaminate the obtained multi-layered Ti3C2Tx into monolayered flakes.
No extra ultrasonic treatment is required. This results in sufficiently a
strong force isolating the Ti3C2Tx layer, and thus smaller flacciency
(defectivity) but larger flakes with reduced defect, which would make
significant use of this property in electrochemical energy storage-based
devices. This happens because more surplus Li-ions become much better
for etching as well as for intercalation. Additionally, the abundance of
terminal functional groups (-OH, –O, or –F) in the MXene flakes makes
them negatively charged hydrophilic properties. As a result, MXene
colloidal solutions may be suspended in water owing to the electrostatic
repulsion among nearby flakes. Keep in mind that the HGO contains a
large number of functional groups, which include oxygen and may be
highly stable in water. Due to the nearby Nanosheets' electrostatic
attraction and hydrophilic behavior, electrostatic stabilization can
naturally occur during mixing MXene and HGO aqueous dispersion. The
neutralization of the charge caused by the addition of NaOH to the
combination of MXene and HGO dispersion solutions disrupts the
balanced charges of the colloids. Consequently, after several minutes,
sizable agglomerates may be visible at the bottom of the container. Since
Ti–F bonds become incredibly fragile in an alkaline solution, the ter­
minal F on the surface of MXene might also simply be displaced with OH
at that particular moment [92]. After that, the acquired agglomerates
were filtered with sufficient water using vacuum-assisted filtration,
making it simple to produce the MX-HGO film. The necessity to remove
much water from colloidal solutions makes it challenging to build a film
utilizing the MXene as well as HGO aqueous solutions. Following this,
the MX-HGO film was annealed for 1 h in an Ar environment at an
appropriate 200 ◦ C temperature to remove a significant percentage of
functional groups containing oxygen, leading to a flexible and self-
standing MX-rHGO film, which might substantially boost the quantity
of Ti atoms to further gain more pseudo capacitive response [24]. It
S. Bansal et al.
should be noted that extreme heat might cause the surface of MXene to
convert to electrically inert TiO2 [55].
To determine how the interlayer spacing of the MX-rHGO films
differed from that of pure MXene films, X-ray diffraction (XRD) studies
have been carried out (Fig. 19) [55]. The interlayer spacing of the pure
MXene film is estimated to be 1.28 nm by its strong peak at about 7.2◦ .
When holey graphene is injected into MXene layers, the (002) XRD peak
of the MX-rHGO3 films seems to shift to 6.3◦ , suggesting that doing so
efficiently increases the interlayer spacing of MXene flakes and has the
potential to enhance ion transport channels greatly [55]. The incorpo­
ration of holey graphene reduces the stacking order of MXene layers,
which ultimately results in a drop in electrical conductivity as well as
material density, as shown by the fact that the intensities of (002) peaks
fall as the holey graphene concentration increases. At a scanning speed
of 20mVs− 1, Fig. 20(a) displays the cyclic (CV) patterns of the pure
MXene film along with MX-rHGO [55]. The fact that all CV curves
exhibit a pair of wide redox peaks throughout the whole voltammetric
cycle shows that the capacitance, which mostly originates from a pseudo
capacitance relying on the sustained as well reversible redox response of
the Ti atoms [71,93]. Specifically, compared to pure MXene film, the
MX-rHGO0.5 film exhibits a considerably greater CV integration region.
This is because the addition of holey graphene to the MXene layer can
efficiently expand the interlayer space, thereby minimizing the need for
restacking of the MXenenanosheets, resulting in an increase in the
electrolyte ion's usable surface area. Apart from that, the holey gra­
phene's nanopores could significantly assist with ion transport
throughout its entire surface and encourage the formation of a high
nanopores connection network in both the holey graphene and MXene
flakes. By heating the surfaces of MXene to remove terminal OH groups,
further adding them may also enable more Ti at crucial times in future
redox reactions and, as a result, increase the amount of pseudocapaci­
tance produced by the electrochemical process [92,94]. The related CV
integration area achieves its maximum when up to 3 wt% of holey
graphene is added to the composite film, indicating that it produces the
largest capacitance. However, the CV surface of the MX-rHGO5 film is
smaller than that of its predecessor, MX-rHGO3, due to the reduction in
electrical conductivity and pseudo capacitive response caused by the
large quantities of holey graphene used in the production of composite
films. Furthermore, the CV integration area of MX-rHGO3 film is
significantly larger than other films, indicating better electrochemical
attributes. At this point, even when scanning at a high scan rate (500
mVs− 1), the MX-rHGO3 film is able to preserve the CV information with
an insignificant shift of the cathodic and anodic peak, indicating its
considerably capacitive behavior along with impressive ion response as
Fig. 19. Illustrate the X-ray diffraction pattern of prepared material [55].
14
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
well as outstanding rate capability (Fig. 20(b)) [55]. In contrast, as the
scan rate increases, the CV curves of both MXene film and MX-rGO3
become highly deformed. The MX-rHGO3 film electrode's charge/
discharge representations at different current densities are illustrated in
Fig. 20(c). The charge/discharge curves mentioned above, which are
triangular and consistent with CV tests, demonstrate that the capaci­
tance comprises double-layer capacitance and pseudo capacitive layers.
This is particularly evident in the angled shape of the supralateral wave
pattern. At a 2 to 500 mVs− 1 scan rate, Fig. 20(d) presents the specific
capacitances of the MXene and MX-rHGO film [55]. Which are used to
illustrate the electrochemical behavior of these electrodes? At different
scan speeds, the MXrHGO3 film possesses the highest gravimetric
capacitance. More specifically, the pure MXene film generates only 303
Fg− 1 at 2 mVs− 1, while the MX-rHGO3 film exhibits a gravimetric
capacitance of 438 Fg− 1. More significantly, the MX-rHGO3 film was
able to maintain up to 302 Fg− 1 even at 500mVs− 1 with an exceptional
rate capability (69 %), which was far superior to the performance of MX-
rHGO0.5 (45 %) and MX-rHGO1 (55 %). This shows that interconnected
pore connectivity and concise diffusion pathways tend to be advanta­
geous for rapid charge transport. Be aware that the capacitance reten­
tion of the pure MXene film electrode, which is significantly lower than
that of MX-rHGO film electrodes, is only 34 % at 500 mV− 1 [55]. This is
due to the extreme self-restacking among MXene layers, which might
result in the loss of unobstructed channels, causing an unfavorable
Faraday reaction and severely limiting the accessibility of electrolyte
ions. Despite this, MX-rHGO films' densities are only somewhat lower
than that of real MXene films; thus, the measured volumetric capaci­
tance of MX-rHGO3 film may exceed 1445 Fcm− 3 at 2mVs− 1 (Fig. 20
(e)), leading to overtakes many accepted MXene-based materials
[71,95–98] and graphene/conducting polymeric hybrid material
[99–101] and is considerably more comparable to MXene hydro gel as
well RuO2/graphene supercapacitors [102]. This is primarily because an
excessive amount of holey graphene will decrease the amount of MXene
and packing density since MXene's capacitance provides a way for
storing a pseudo-capacitive charge in a sulphuric electrolyte. Since thick
electrodes have significant ion diffusion restrictions, mass loading has
become a critical metric for evaluating the supercapacitor electrode in
practical devices. However, most mass loadings recorded to date are
only about 10 mg/cm2. It's interesting to note that the MX-rHGO3 film
exhibits an extremely high volumetric capacitance (988 Fcm− 3) even
after the mass loading has been raised to 12.6 mg/cm2 (Fig. 20(f)) [55].
This sets it apart from many other electrode materials currently in use,
such as compact graphene/PANI nano monolith (graphene-PANI) and
conductive MXene “clay” (Ti3C2Tx) [52,101]. However, because of its
slow ion transport rate, pure MXene film's volumetric capacitance
noticeably decreases with higher mass loading [55].
6. MAXene-based materials for different types of batteries
6.1. Li-ion batteries
Since the Sony Corporation started marketing lithium-ion batteries
(LIBs) in 1991, there has been much interest in these highly developed
technological components of electrochemical energy storage systems
[103]. A traditional LIB is made up of four key elements: the separator,
cathode, electrolyte, and anode [104]. Li-ions are produced when the
cathode reduces to produce free ions during the charging process. After
passing through the separator, these Li-ions intercalate into the anode
via the electrolyte. During the discharge process, Li-ions are liberated
from the anode and migrate via the separator to the cathode for the
oxidation process. It is important to remember that there are three pri­
mary categories of Li-ion storage mechanisms for anodes: layered ma­
terial insertion and storage, alloyed Li storage, and transition metal
oxide (TMO) conversional redox processes. Among these, low conduc­
tivity and volume expansion are issues with Si, Sn, TMO, and other
alloyed materials. Due to their high layer spacing, which facilitates fast
S. Bansal et al.
Fig. 20. (a) MXene film and MX-rHGO CV graphs at a scan speed of 20 Vs− 1. (b) Displays the MX-rHGO3 CV curves at various scan speeds ranging from 10 to 500
mVs− 1. (c) MX-rHGO3 charge-discharge profiles at various current densities at a steady current. (d) Gravimetric graphs (e) MXene & MX-rHGO volumetric capac­
itances at various scan speeds. (f) Analysis of the impact of areal mass loading on the volumetric capacitance of MXene sheet and MX-rHGO3 with earlier studies [55].
ion intercalation and de-intercalation, and their anisotropic 2D struc­
ture, which allows for quick ion transport, layered intercalation mate­
rials are now the subject of much research [105]. MXene and its
derivatives have exceptional features such as broad and adjustable
interlayer spacing, strong electrical conductivity, plentiful surface ter­
minations, and chemical composition, making them possible re­
placements for standard graphite [106,107]. In particular, the broad and
customizable interlayer spacing facilitates fast Li-ion intercalation and
de-intercalation; the diversified chemical composition and abundance of
surface terminations give redox active sites, and the strong conductivity
ensures fast charge transfer. Because of the aforementioned character­
istics, MXene has exceptional electrochemical performance and per­
forms exceptionally well for Li-ion storage. Furthermore, theoretical
computations offer solid backing as well. Gogotsi's research group used
the bonding charge density or the Nudged Elastic Band (NEB) method­
ologies to demonstrate that MXene is the ideal material for Li-ion storage
[108]. They did this by using DFT to compute the adsorption energy of
Ca, Li, K, and Na on the Ti3C2 (a typical MXene). Next, The surface
functionalization of –F(fluoride) and –OH(hydroxide) on Ti3C2 is
therefore thought to inhibit Li-ion transfer, diffusion as well as storage
according to Zhou et al.'s calculations [109]. It is thus recommended
that in the real synthesis experiments, the two terminations be evaded.
Li-storage performance is influenced by MXenes structure in addition to
terminations [110]. In general, the theoretical capacity of light MXene
materials (like Sc2C, Ti2C, Nb2C, and V2C) is greater than that of heavy
MXene materials (like Ti3C2, Ti4C3); that is, a unit of measurement of 1 g
of material may store a greater amount of charge. In 2012 and 2013,
Gogotsi's group [111,112] established the first practical application of
MXenes as electrodes for Li-ion storage. The Li-ion storage mechanism of
MXenes was discovered by the use of cyclic voltammetry (CV) and in-
situ XRD studies.
The intercalation-type Li-ion storage mechanism of MXene materials
was validated by the c-parameter expansion. According to electro­
chemical data, Ti2C and Ti3C2 have Li-ion insertion capacities of 160 and
110 mAhg− 1, respectively. The former's capacity is 1.5 times more than
the latter's, which is in line with the theoretical estimate [110]. Li
storage capabilities of various MXene types varying nature [26]. As an
instance, Ti2C offers a 110 mAhg− 1 capacity at a rate of 1C, but Nb2C
and V2C have 180 and 280 mAhg− 1 capacities, respectively. Even when
the rate is raised to 10C, the same patterns continue. Furthermore, by
modifying the MXenes' surface terminations and physical structure, the
storage capacity may be further enhanced. It is possible to create a three-
dimensional (3D) interconnected porous framework with a stable
structure by shaking Ti3C2 in KOH solutions, which is beneficial to
15
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
improving the Li-ion diffusion kinetics [113]. Furthermore, following
the LiOH and annealing treatment, the concentration of Nb2C's –O
terminations rose while that of –F and -OH dramatically reduced. The
manufactured Nb2C anode shows the obtained storage capacity value of
448 mAhg− 1 at an optimized current density of 0.05 Ag− 1 due to the
variations in surface terminations [114]. The most popular approach to
enhance Li-ion storage performance is to create hybrids with other
materials via structural design, chemical modification, and other tech­
niques in addition to producing pure MXene materials [115].
Nb2C flakes were prepared by Mashtalir et al. [116] using the i-PrA
intercalation technique, and then flexible MXene/CNT electrodes were
created by vacuum filtering. In comparison to MXene without CNTs, the
developed MXene/CNT hybrids show superior mechanical and electro­
chemical characteristics and offer a Li-ion storage capacity of more than
400 mAh/g at 0.5C. A unique method to enhance the stacked Ti3C2Tx
MXene's Li-ion storage performance was disclosed by Lin et al. [117].
The plan was implemented using the CVD growth process to create
conductive “CNF bridges” between two Ti3C2Tx gaps. The abundant
vine-like CNFs that envelop the MXenes facilitate Li-ion entry into the
MXene interlayers. In the end, electrochemical data demonstrate that
the hybrid anode of Ti3C2Tx and CNFs has outstanding long-term sta­
bility, even at a high rate of 100 ◦ C. It also has a high reversible capacity
of 320 mAhg− 1 at 1 ◦ C, which is nearly double that of pure Ti3C2Tx.
2D heterostructures have generated a lot of attention in material
design because they combine the synergistic qualities and collective
advantages of a single building block. Graphene, MoS2, stacked TMOs,
and other high-capacity 2D materials can be hybridized with MXenes, a
common 2D material, to improve Li-ion storage performance. Notably,
MXenes can serve as a model for in-situ hybrid synthesis, hence
enhancing the interoperability of the various constituents. In order to
maximize the potential of conductive MXene as a substrate to support
MoS2, Chen et al. [118] created a type of MoS2-on-MXene hetero­
structure by in-situ sulfidation following calcination. MoS2/
Mo2TiC2–500 demonstrated strong rate performance and cycle stability
as a result of the feature-intimate interfacial interactions. The Li-ion
storage capacities of 548, 523, 484, 407, 315, and 182 mAhg− 1 are
provided by the MoS2/Mo2TiC2–500 anode as the current density in­
creases progressively from 0.05 to 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1 and 2 Ag− 1. Zhao et al.
[119] in the same research group suggested three distinct techni­
ques—spraying coating, in-situ wet chemical synthesis, and alternative
filtration—to create the self-supporting MXene/TMOs hybrid films.
With a mass loading of 4 mgcm− 2, the spray-coated Ti3C2Tx/NiCo2O4
film electrode achieves excellent Li-ion storage capacities of 1330, 650,
and 350 mAhg− 1 at 0.1, 5, and 10C, respectively. The electrode exhibits
S. Bansal et al.
an electrical conductivity value of 200 S/cm approximately. Every
produced film exhibits remarkable cycle stabilities and strong rate per­
formance. This work demonstrates the enormous potential applications
of the new hybrids made up of two 2D families, MXenes and TMOs, in
energy storage; researchers should investigate these possibilities in
further detail.
6.2. Sodium ion batteries
With the exception of Na-ions' significantly higher ionic radius, the
mechanism governing the storage of sodium (Na) ions is similar to that
of Li-ions [120]. MXene is a potential anode material for Na-ion storage
because of its diverse surface chemistry and flexible interlayer spacing.
In the early days of MXene research, Yu [121] predicted the Na storage
capacity, mobility, and volume variations of various Tx on interlayer-
expanded MXene using ab initio density functional theory. The
MXenes with larger interlayer spacing exhibit modest lattice modifica­
tions and low diffusion barriers during the sodiation process, according
to the results. Theoretically, bare and O-functionalized Ti3C2Tx MXene
are a promising material for Na-ion storage because of their large
theoretical capacity and quick charge/discharge rate. Furthermore, the
conclusions of the theoretical calculations have been confirmed by an
enormous number of experimental tests. Yamada's group [122] showed
that Na-ions are reversibly intercalating/de-intercalating into and
adsorbing/desorbing between the interlayer gap of MXene during the
cycling. More specifically, the main capacity contributions are des­
olvated Na + intercalation and de-intercalation, not adsorption and
desorption. Following the first sodiation process, the interlayer gap
increased from 0.97 to 1.2 nm and remained constant in the following
cycles. According to this process, the competitive cycle stability and the
Na-ion diffusion kinetics may be enhanced by increasing the interlayer
spacing and introducing pores [123,124]. Al3+, Na+, Mg2+, Li+ and K+
ions are among the electrolyte cations that are handled as electrically
charged balls to improve the interlayer gap of MXene during the
sodiation process [125]. It has been demonstrated that the high-valence
Al3 + − ion is more beneficial in increasing the interlayer gap from 11.6
to 11.8 Å. Quantitative study shows that the accordion-like Ti3C2Tx
with the mass loading of around 1 mg cm− 2 fared better than expected,
storing 113 mAhg− 1 of Na ions at 0.1 Ag− 1 [126]. To fully use the Na-ion
storage capacity, Zhao et al. [127] processed 2D MXene flakes into
hollow spheres and 3D microporous films using a variety of techniques.
The excellent reversible capacities of 3D Ti3C2Tx, V2CTx, and Mo2CTx
film electrodes at 0.25C are demonstrated by their mass loadings of
0.5–1 mgcm− 2. These electrodes benefit from 3D designs and high
electrical conductivity of ~200 S/cm. The significance of MXene elec­
trode design for electrochemical performance is demonstrated by this
study, which eliminates current collectors or binders. The melamine
formaldehyde (MF) sphere was used as a sacrificial template to create
nitrogen-doped porous MXene (N–Ti3C2Tx) [128]. Due to the electro­
lyte's progressive accessibility to active sites during cycling, the
improved anode, gives an ever-increasing capacity to 284.2 mAhg− 1
after 1000 cycles [129].
Three different types of electrochemical inactive materi­
als—conductive agents, polymer binders, and metallic collectors—can
all be totally substituted by a single Ti3C2Tx MXene. HC-MX films have
exceptional flexibility and good mechanical properties, and they are
readily molded into the letters “MXene.” MXene and HC built a 3D
conductive network that increased the cycle performance and Na-ion
storage capacity while ensuring structural stability. Through structural
design and interlayer spacing expansion, MXenes have enhanced cycle
stability and Na-storage capacity, although they are still anticipated to
exhibit more exceptional performance. In order to create hybrids that
are useful for obtaining high energy and power, researchers hybridize
MXenes with high-capacity materials because of their distinct surface
chemistry. Given these facts, certain hybrids are meticulously con­
structed for Na-ion storage, e.g., Sb2O3/Ti3C2Tx [130], Ti3C2Tx/FePS3
16
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
[131], SnS/Ti3C2Tx [132], and Ti3C2Tx/CoSe2 [133]. Firstly, MXene has
the capacity to stop these nanoparticles from clumping together and
reduce their volumetric growth, which essentially keeps the active sites
intact and maintains cycle stability. Furthermore, the intimate interac­
tion between MXene and nanoparticles may inhibit MXene from
restacking, which might promote the diffusion of ions and electrolytes.
Among the several possibilities, Black Phosphorous (BP) has a high
theoretical capacity of about 2600 mAhg− 1 when alloyed with Na [134].
Similar results are obtained by the 2D heterostructure, which at 0.1 Ag− 1
at the mass loading of about 1.5 mg cm− 2 reaches a high specific ca­
pacity of 535 mAhg− 1 and robust cycling performance (467 mAhg− 1
after 100 cycles), is demonstrated by experiments and theoretical cal­
culations to have increased diffusion kinetics of Na-ions. Notably, this
study advances theoretical knowledge of MXenes' surface terminations
by proposing that the –F terminations on their surface can produce F-
rich compounds to stabilize the solid electrolyte interface (SEI) 107.
BPQDs may be uniformly distributed over Ti3C2 nanosheets (TNSs) to
create a 0D/2D mixture through the self-assemble process. The battery-
capacitive dual-model Na-ion storage behaviors of BPQDs/TNSs anodes
are explained by a suitable blend of battery-type Black phosphorous (BP)
and pseudocapacitive MXenes.
Another class of materials with ultra-high potential Na-ion storage
capacity is transition metal sulfides, which are also very inexpensive.
Utilizing oleylamine and the interfacial self-assembly technique, Zou
et al. [135] created a number of sandwich-structured hybrid arrange­
ments. 1D Co-NiS nano rods and 2D Ti3C2Tx nano sheets are intimately
joined at the interface of cyclohexane and solution via hydrogen bond
interaction. The best hybrid anode, according to electrochemical
studies, has a high Na-ion storage capacity of 541 mAhg− 1 and good
cycling stability (409 mAhg− 1 after 100 cycles) at 0.1 Ag− 1. In com­
parison to materials of the conversion and alloying types, polymers and
carbons exhibit greater rate capability and cycling stability due to their
advantages in structural tunability and stability [136]. Their group has
recently reported [137] a catalyst-free in-situ trimerization of cyano
groups between the interlayers of Ti3C2Tx MXene from C2N3 - ions to
C6N9 3− ions. The produced Ti3C2Tx/Na3TCM exhibits strong Ti–N
bonding and a stable triazine ring structure, indicating a high level of N-
doping. Simultaneously, an increased interlayer spacing of 12.6 Å is
attained. Take advantage of the aforesaid architecture, Ti3C2Tx/Na3TCM
maintains a reversible capacity of 182.2 mAhg− 1 at 0.1 Ag− 1 after 1000
cycles. This is about twice as large as the capacity of the original MXene
at 1.6–1.8 mgcm− 2 mass loading. In preparation for further studies on
polymer molecules/MXene hybrid electrodes, this paper presents the
concept of polymerization into MXene materials. Currently, carbons are
thought to be the most promising anode material for Na-ion battery
industrialization [138]. Their group has recently presented a unique
method to use the terminations of Ti3C2Tx MXene to successfully delay
the high-temperature graphitization of pitch [139]. Pitch's hydrogen is
eliminated by using the surface terminations of MXenes that are liber­
ated during heat treatment, which promotes aromatic skeleton rear­
rangement and cross-linking. This is where the pitch-derived carbon
anode's insertion-dominated Na-ion storage capability is inspired,
leading to a three-fold increase in capacity. This work offers fresh per­
spectives on how to manipulate the microstructure of carbon materials
by using MXene surface terminations. The 3D carbon-coated MXene
structures were created by Zhang et al. [140] by carbonizing T3C2Tx
nanosheets after dopamine self-polymerized across their surface. Thus,
as anode materials for Li- and Na-ion storage, the hybrids show large
capacities and excellent rate capabilities.
6.3. Potassium ion batteries
Because of its affordability, potassium (K)-ion batteries (KIBs), in
addition to sodium (Na-ion) batteries, are emerging as a significant
contender for next-generation energy storage devices. K has a potential
that is more similar to Li than Na (~2.93 V vs. SHE), and the KIBs have a
S. Bansal et al.
high theoretical capacity of 687 mAhg− 1. Unfortunately, K has a higher
atomic radius than Li and Na, which causes the electrode materials to
degrade structurally and undergo a delayed kinetic process. As a result,
poor rate and cycle performance become serious issues [141,142]. With
its extensive surface chemistry, variable interlayer spacing, and excel­
lent electronic conductivity, MXenes are expected to be a suitable ma­
terial for K-ion storage electrodes. Despite their high cycle stability and
rate performance for K-ion storage, bare Ti3C2 MXene has a theoretical
capacity of just 192 mAhg− 1 [108].
Dong and colleagues synthesized alkaline MXene (a-Ti3C2) Nano
ribbons by the treatment of accordion-like Ti3C2Tx MXene in an aqueous
KOH solution. This resulted in an open porous network with an ultrathin
thickness and high interlayer spacing. The distinct 3D frameworks
enable a-Ti3C2 to completely submerge in the electrolyte, attaining an
impressive 136 mAhg− 1 reversible capacity at 20 mAg− 1. The fact that
the alkalization strategy is a generic approach that works with the other
MXenes, such Nb2CTx and Mo2CTx, is remarkable. Their group effec­
tively synthesized potassium titanate (M-KTO, K2Ti4O9) and sodium
titanate (M-NTO, NaTi1.5O8.3) treated with KOH and NaOH solutions,
respectively, after adding the H2O2 oxidant and alkalizing the Ti3C2Tx
almost simultaneously [136].
6.4. Metal Sulphur batteries
Li–S batteries drawn much interest for use in future energy storage
application due to low cost and theoretically obtained 2567 whkg− 1
high energy density value [140]. However, there are some issues yet to
be resolved that hinder their commercialization. Like; dendrite forma­
tion, shuttle effect of lithium polysulphide, increase in volume during
lithiation and low conductivity [143,144]. In such a scenario MXene
material can play a crucial role, that exhibit strong conductivity, high
affinity to polysulphide ions and an adequate number of reaction sites
that made MXene as novel and viable contender to compete with S host
materials, serving as the interlayer between the separator and cathode
[145].
In 2015, Nazar's group published the first research on using MXene
materials as a S host to increase solid S species' conductivity and reduce
LiPS migration [146]. They used the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
and ab initio DFT method to explain the interaction mechanism among
Ti3C2Tx and S species. Initially Ti3C2Tx MXene's terminal -OH groups
oxidized soluble polysulfides, forming protective coatings of thiosulfate
and polythionate. Second, the exposed Ti atoms joined with the extra
LPSs to create a Ti–S bond through Lewis acid-base interactions. Using
the CALYPSO algorithm, the adsorption strength was initially deter­
mined in order to further explore the interaction among the polysulfide
and bare Ti3C2Tx. The strong adsorption strength of 5-27 eV may effi­
ciently adsorb polysulfides, limiting their transfer to the anode [147].
Nevertheless, an overly high binding energy between polysulfides
and bare Ti3C2 would cause a lot of indissociable Ti–S bonds to form,
which will result in a poor use of active materials [148]. Surface
modification is a useful technique for lowering binding energy and
enabling Li–S battery reversible operation [149]. The following results
may be reached by combining the theoretical calculations for different
functionalized (Cl, O, S, N, and F) Ti3C2 MXenes:
(1) During lithiation, different terminations (Ti3C2Cl2 < Ti3C2F2 <
Ti3C2N2 < Ti3C2O2 < Ti3C2S2) exhibit varying adsorption
strengths;
(2) The matching adsorption strength of Ti3C2X2 for various S species
rises with the Li degree up to the complete Li state (Li2S);
(3) LiPS and 1,3-dioxolane (DOL)/dimethoxyethane (DME) mole­
cules have a lower adsorption strength than LiPS and Ti3C2X2,
suggesting that the Ti3C2X2 has an anchoring effect that may
effectively inhibit polysulfide migration [147,148,150].
In addition to the Ti-based MXenes, additional MXenes' anchoring
17
Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420
properties were thoroughly studied. Using the DFT approach, Li et al.
[149] investigated the interaction mechanism among LiPS and six
M3C2O2 (M ¼ Zr, V, Nb, Cr, Hf and Ti) MXenes substrate [151]. All
M3C2O2 MXenes exhibit greater adsorption capabilities for polysulfide's
than do DOL and DME electrolyte molecules because of the strong Li–O
interactions. Additionally, a monotonic relationship is seen between the
lattice constants and adsorption strengths of M3C2O2, indicating that the
Cr3C2O2 with the lowest lattice constant has the maximum adsorption
strength for LiPS molecules. Wang et al. 167 investigated the Li-ion
diffusion and Li2S decomposition energy barriers on vanadium carbide
MXenes with various groups like; V2CO2, V2CS2, and V2C. In addition,
the Li-ion diffusion energy barriers of the aforesaid MXenes are 0.17 eV,
0.26 eV, and 0.19 eV, respectively. The Li2S decomposition energy
barriers of V2C (0.20 eV), V2CO2 (0.43 eV), V2C (0.20 eV) and V2CS2
(0.53 eV) are all smaller compared graphene (1.81 eV). These findings
strongly indicate that the V-based MXenes stimulate the Li2S breakdown
process and encourage Li-ion diffusion [152]. Below Table 2 showing
the comparison of energy storage parameters for various MAXene
compounds.
7. The formula used to find various parameters for storage
devices
The equations (Eqs. (10)–(13)) are used to find various parameters
like specific, gravimetric, volumetric, and areal capacitance [162–164].
Also, Eqs. (14) and (15) are used to find energy and power density [165].
/ ∫
Gravimetric capacitance, Cgrav = 1 ΔVmʋ idv (10)
Volumetric capacitance, Cv = ρ × Cgrav (11)
Here V denotes the potential windows, m indicates the electrode's
weight, denotes the scan rate potential, and i indicates the current
density.
Specific capacitance, C = I × ΔT/m × ΔV (12)
− 1
Here, C indicates the specific capacitance (Fg ), and I is current (A),
Δt denotes discharge time (s), m is mass (g), ΔV is potential.
Areal capacitance, Ca = Cv /A (13)
Here, Ca is the areal capacitance, and A is the projection area of the
electrode.
( / )/
Energy density, Ed = 1 2CΔV2 4 × 3.6 (14)
Power density, Pd = ED /Δt (15)
− 1
ED is the energy density (WhKg ), and Pd is the power density (W
Kg− 1).
8. The problem associated with MXene synthesis and
corresponding alternatives
Producing scalable, safe, effective, and environmentally friendly
synthesis techniques is one of the main problems associated with MXene.
As we know, MXene shows broad applications in the fields of electronics,
biomedical, biophysics, etc. To use MXene in these areas, MXene
chemical and thermal stability quantum confinement effect, as well as
electrical, optical, magnetic, thermal, and thermoelectric characteriza­
tion, is another big challenge for scientists. To control the surface
chemistry, a 3D nano architectural tool is developed, including verti­
cally aligned, hybrid, and other structures using the 2D MXenenano
range building blocks. Increasing the surface area by making single-
crystal MXene thin films is an urgent need to compete with commer­
cially available graphene-like material. To date, mostly manufactured
MXene based on the Ti3C2Tx, so we need to explore MXene beyond this
S. Bansal et al. Journal of Energy Storage 87 (2024) 111420

Table 2
Different MAXene materials with their energy and power density.
S.N. Material Capacitance Electrolyte Density Stability References
− 1 − 1 − 1
1 (MWCNT)/V2CTx 1842 Fg at 2 mV s KOH Ed = 100 whkg 10,000 cycles [50]
Pd = 451wkg− 1
− 1 − 1
2 Ti3C2Tx/WO3 442 Fg at 2 mV s – – – [51]
3 NiCo-MOF/Ti3C2Tx 815.2 Fg− 1 at 1Ag− 1 KOH Ed = 39.5whkg− 1 5000 cycles [81]
Pd = 562.5wkg− 1
4 Ti3C2 (Ni–S/d-Ti3C2) 840.4Cg− 1at 1Ag− 1
KOH Ed = 20whkg− 1 5000 cycles [53]
Pd = 0.5wkg− 1
1 1
5 W18O49/Ti3C2Tx 101 Fg− at 1Ag− – Ed = 45.4whkg− 1 10,000 cycles [54]
Pd = 900wkg− 1
− 3 − 1
6 MX-rHGO 1445 Fcm at 2 mV s Ed = 45.4whL− 1 – [55]
Pd = 20.6wL− 1
1 1
7 NiCoAl-LDH/V4C3Tx 627 Cg− at 1Ag− KOH Ed = 71.7whkg− 1 10,000 cycles [56]
Pd = 45wkg− 1
1 1
8 MXene/Pani 563 Fg− at 0.5 Ag− – Ed = 22.67whkg− 1 10,000 cycles [57]
Pd = 0.217Kwkg− 1
− 1
9 Nb doped MXene 442.7 Fg KOH – 2000 cycles [153]
10 i-MXene 1635 Fcm− 3 at 2 mV s− 1
– – – [154]
11 (V2C) MXene 164 Fg− 1 at 2 mV s− 1 Na2SO4 – – [155]
12 graphite/Nb2CTx-CNT – Ed = 49whkg− 1 – [60]
Pd = 546wkg− 1
1
13 N-containing Ti3C2Tx 300 Fg− (84 mAh g− 1) at 2 mV s− 1
H2SO4 – 8000 cycles [156]
1
14 Ti3C2Tx and vanadium nitride/carbon (VN/PC) 105 Fg− at 1Ag− 1 KOH Ed = 12.8wh kg− 1 10,000 cycles [157]
Pd = 985.8w kg− 1
1 1
15 V2CTxMXene/NiV layered double hydroxide 1658.19 Fg− at 1Ag− KOH Ed = 54.19whkg− 1 10,000 cycles [4]
Pd = 750 wkg− 1
16 CC/MXene-MnO2-CoNi-LDHs 45Fg− 1at 0.5Ag− 1
KOH Ed = 65whkg− 1 – [158]
Pd = 1491wkg− 1
1 1
17 MXene/GO/Ni-Mn LDH 241.9 mAh g− at 1Ag− PVA/KOH Ed = 55whkg− 1 4000 cycles [59]
Pd = 800wkg− 1
− 1 − 1
18 MXene/NiCo-LDHs 1207 Fg at 0.5Ag – Ed = 107.3whkg− 1 5000 cycles [159]
Pd = 571wkg− 1
− 1 − 1
19 NiMoO4/Ti3C2Tx nanosheets 1364 Fg at 0.5Ag KOH Ed = 33.76whkg− 1 10,000 cycles [160]
Pd = 400.08wkg− 1
3 1
20 BismuthOxy-chloride/MXene (TCBOC) 396.5 F cm− at 1 A g− KOH Ed = 15.2whkg− 1 5000 cycles [161]
Pd = 567.4wkg− 1

and also create a variety of MXenes with terminations other than halo­
gens like H, S, N, Se, Te, etc. or O, and OH, and find ways to transition
between them. Comprehend the impact of confined ions and molecules
(mobility and bonding) on the characteristics and efficacy of MXenes in
various applications. Understand how MXenes store charge for electro­
chemical energy storage in non-aqueous and aqueous electrolytes.
Transfer the exceptional mechanical characteristics of MXenes to com­
posite materials made from both ceramic and metal. The control of
properties is dependent on engineer defects. Establish physical attri­
butes that are regulated by termination (such as superconductivity).
Educate yourself on the potential health and environmental safety/
toxicity associated with MXenes that have transition metals and surface
terminations. Discover the synthesis of additional compounds utilizing
MXenes as one of the precursors. Develop delamination procedures for
MXenes other than Ti3C2Tx that do not require organic intercalants in
order to increase conductivity and other characteristics. MXenes syn­
thesizing using material not containing aluminum MAX phases. Develop
MXenes in a vacuum using either physical vapor deposition or chemical
vapor deposition without any surface functional groups. Figuring out
how to properly supervise the interface charge transfer mechanism in
MXene films. Comprehend the electromagnetic wave attenuation
mechanism in MXenes. Comprehend and reach the potential limits of
MXenes' characteristics. Construct theoretical techniques for precise
estimates and comprehension of new MXene. Ti2B, TiC2, TiB2, MoN, and
other 2D transition metal borides, carbides, and nitrides should be
developed. Illustrate MXene band gaps and produce semiconducting
MXenes. Find fresh precursors (outside of MAX stages). Assess how the
structure, defects, and stoichiometry of the precursor affect the prop­
erties of MXenes. Construct high-entropy MXenes and organize the
constituent parts. Generate non‑titanium-dependent MXenes without
using HF directly. The MXene characterization process should be stan­
dardized [166].
The MXene single layer stacking restricts cation intercalation and
produces inadequate electrochemical performance. One important
problem is that stacking MXene layers results in a very high ionic
diffusion resistance in the vertical direction, which considerably lowers
the rate capability of MXene-based electrode materials at high current
densities [167,168]. Enhancing the electrical conductivity, stability, and
ion/electron transport of MXene-based hybrid materials is thought to be
possible through the structuring of MXenes and their creation [169].
Better electrochemical performance can result from the increased
interlayer distances because they can facilitate quick diffusion of ions
and electrolyte solutions [170].
9. Conclusion
In conclusion, we have discussed various materials that can help find
a better Nanocomposite hybrid material to boost electrical conductivity.
Although MXenes and their blends produced remarkable outcomes
when used in energy storage-based devices, many obstacles prevent
MXenes from being used in different types of energy devices like bat­
teries, including Supercapacitors (SC's). Furthermore, in situations
where MXenes have an increased oxidation rate, developing proper
encapsulating techniques can significantly increase the stability and
longevity of the associated devices. Also, how they influence MXene
structural properties should be further explored since various factors in
this respect, such as baseline separation and surface chemistry, have had
an enormous impact on the charge storage mechanism or electro­
chemical behavior of MXene Nanocrystals.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Sonia Bansal: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision,
Resources, Funding acquisition. Pankaj Chaudhary: Writing – original

18
S. Bansal et al.
draft, Data curation, Conceptualization. Bharat Bhushan Sharma:
Writing – original draft, Conceptualization. Sunaina Saini: Writing –
original draft, Conceptualization. Aman Joshi: Writing – review &
editing, Validation, Supervision, Resources, Funding acquisition.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgments
Authors S. Bansal and A. Joshi are thankful fo the Haryana State
Council for Science Innovation & Technology (HSCSIT) Govt. of Har­
yana for providing funding through research project No. : HSCSIT/R&D/
2022/2659. The authors are also appreciative of the Vice Chancellor of
JCBUST YMCA, Faridabad, for providing the Physics Department
facilities.
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