Environmental Biotechnology Vol 3 K.

M. Gothandam
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-biotechnology-vol-3-k-m-gothandam/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology: Volume 2:

Bioenergy and Environmental Health Anoop Singh

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-microbiology-and-
biotechnology-volume-2-bioenergy-and-environmental-health-anoop-
singh/

Environmental Biotechnology For Sustainable Future

Ranbir Chander Sobti

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-biotechnology-for-
sustainable-future-ranbir-chander-sobti/

Embedded Systems VOL. 3: Real-Time Operating Systems

for ARM Cortex-M Microcontrollers Jonathan Valvano

https://textbookfull.com/product/embedded-systems-vol-3-real-
time-operating-systems-for-arm-cortex-m-microcontrollers-
jonathan-valvano/

Assassination Classroom Vol 3 Yusei Matsui

https://textbookfull.com/product/assassination-classroom-
vol-3-yusei-matsui/
A Practical Guide to Environmental Biotechnology
Jayanta Kumar Patra

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-practical-guide-to-
environmental-biotechnology-jayanta-kumar-patra/

Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 45 Legume Agriculture

and Biotechnology Vol 1 Praveen Guleria

https://textbookfull.com/product/sustainable-agriculture-
reviews-45-legume-agriculture-and-biotechnology-vol-1-praveen-
guleria/

The Promised Neverland Vol 3 Kaiu Shirai

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-promised-neverland-
vol-3-kaiu-shirai/

Environmental biotechnology : principles and

applications 2nd Edition Perry L. Mccarty

https://textbookfull.com/product/environmental-biotechnology-
principles-and-applications-2nd-edition-perry-l-mccarty/

Shaman King comiXology Edition Vol 3 Hiroyuki Takei

https://textbookfull.com/product/shaman-king-comixology-edition-
vol-3-hiroyuki-takei/
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World 50

K. M. Gothandam
Shivendu Ranjan
Nandita Dasgupta
Eric Lichtfouse Editors

Environmental
Biotechnology
Vol. 3
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable
World

Volume 50

Series Editors
Eric Lichtfouse, Aix-Marseille University, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Coll France,
CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France
Jan Schwarzbauer, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
Didier Robert, CNRS, European Laboratory for Catalysis and Surface Sciences,
Saint-Avold, France
 Other Publications by the Editors

Books
Environmental Chemistry
http://www.springer.com/978-3-540-22860-8

Organic Contaminants in Riverine and Groundwater Systems

http://www.springer.com/978-3-540-31169-0

Sustainable Agriculture
Volume 1: http://www.springer.com/978-90-481-2665-1
Volume 2: http://www.springer.com/978-94-007-0393-3

Book series
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World
http://www.springer.com/series/11480

Sustainable Agriculture Reviews

http://www.springer.com/series/8380

Journals
Environmental Chemistry Letters
http://www.springer.com/10311

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11480

K. M. Gothandam • Shivendu Ranjan
Nandita Dasgupta • Eric Lichtfouse
Editors

Environmental
Biotechnology Vol. 3
Editors
K. M. Gothandam Shivendu Ranjan
School of Bio Sciences and Technology Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Vellore Institute of Technology Environment
Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India University of Johannesburg
Johannesburg, South Africa
Nandita Dasgupta
Department of Biotechnology Eric Lichtfouse
Institute of Engineering and Technology CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Coll
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India France, CEREGE
Aix-Marseille University
Aix-en-Provence, France

ISSN 2213-7114     ISSN 2213-7122 (electronic)

Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World
ISBN 978-3-030-48972-4    ISBN 978-3-030-48973-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48973-1

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

Think Circular

This book is the third volume on Environmental Biotechnology, published in the

series Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World. Environmental quality is
crucial for the health and survival of humans and other living organisms. In particu-
lar, in the context of increasing globalization, urbanization and industrialization, it
will soon be mandatory to waste nothing and, as a consequence, to develop a circu-
lar economy in which all elements are recycled. For that, biotechnological tech-
niques such as biodegradation, bioremediation, biomonitoring, biotreatment,
biofiltration, phytoremediation and immobilization can be used to convert waste
into ‘golden’ products and chemicals. Environmental biotechnologists thus identify,
develop, improve and engineer a suitable technology for remediation and other
applications. Chapters review the biodegradation of plastic waste, bioremediation of
S-triazine herbicide, the effect of pesticide on birds, microbial biosensor for the
detection of pollutants, production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from industrial waste-
water treatment, concerns in membrane distillation process, applications of immo-
bilized microalgae, applications of marine microbial biosurfactants and biochar for
plant production (Fig. 1).

v
vi Preface

Fig. 1 Microbial action on plastic and degradation pathway prediction by using various tools
(Alka Kumari et al., Chapter 1)

Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India K. M. Gothandam

Johannesburg, South Africa Shivendu Ranjan
Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India Nandita Dasgupta
Aix-en-Provence, France Eric Lichtfouse
Contents

1 Microbial Degradation of Plastics

and Its Biotechnological Advancement��������������������������������������������������    1
Alka Kumari, Doongar R. Chaudhary,
and Bhavanath Jha
2 Biodegradation and Bioremediation
of S-Triazine Herbicides��������������������������������������������������������������������������   31
Kumar Rajendran, Latha Pujari,
and Kannapiran Ethiraj
3 Toxic Effects of Pesticides on Avian Fauna��������������������������������������������   55
Anindita Mitra, Soumya Chatterjee, Mainak Sarkar,
and Dharmendra Kumar Gupta
4 Genetically Modified Microbial Biosensor
for Detection of Pollutants in Water Samples����������������������������������������   85
Sunantha Ganesan and Namasivayam Vasudevan
5 Integration of Polyhydroxyalkanoates Production
with Industrial Wastewater Treatment�������������������������������������������������� 105
Safae Sali and Hamish Robert Mackey
6 Fouling and Wetting: A Major Challenge
for Membrane Distillation���������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Saikat Sinha Ray, Chinmoy Kanti Deb, Hau-Ming Chang,
Shiao-Shing Chen, and Mahesh Ganesapillai
7 Biotechnological Applications of Immobilized Microalgae������������������ 193
Svetlana Vasilieva, Elena Lobakova,
and Alexei Solovchenko

vii
viii Contents

8 Marine Microbial Biosurfactants:

Ecological and Environmental Applications������������������������������������������ 221
K. V. Deepika, G. Mohana Sheela,
and Pallaval Veera Bramhachari
9 Effect of Biochar Addition to Soil on Plant Quality����������������������������� 233
Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed, Mohaddeseh Adel, Ali Talati,
Vijay Lobo, and V. D. Seshadri

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 243
About the Editors

Dr. K. M. Gothandam is Professor in the

Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio Sciences
and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology,
Vellore. He earned his PhD from Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore, and postdoctoral Fellowship
from School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology,
Korea University, Seoul (2002–2007). He also served
as HOD, Department of Biotechnology, and Dean,
School of Bio Sciences and Technology (2016–2018).
His research interest includes Functional Genomics,
Plant and Microbial Metabolites, Cancer Biology,
Environmental Biotechnology, etc. He has published
over 75 scientific research and review articles in
international peer-reviewed journals and also refer-
eed many journals of high impact. He also authored 5
book chapters and edited 4 books. He has guided 10
PhD theses and guiding 6 scholars. At present he is
handling two funded projects funded by DBT and
completed 5 projects funded by DBT, DST
and CSIR.

Dr. Shivendu Ranjan is Director at the Centre for

Technological Innovations and Industrial Research,
SAIARD (certified institute of Ministry of Micro,
Small and Medium Enterprises, Govt. of India). He
is also serving as a senior research associate (visit-
ing) at the Faculty of Engineering and Built
Environment, University of Johannesburg, South
Africa. His research interests include nanotechnol-
ogy, nanomedicine, science policy and diplomacy.
He is Associate Editor of Environmental Chemistry

ix
x About the Editors

Letters and Editorial Board Member of several jour-

nals of international repute. He has received many
awards and honours from national and international
organizations. He is Elected Fellow of several scien-
tific societies, e.g. Indian Chemical Society, Linnean
Society (London), Bose Science Society and Indian
Engineering Teachers Association.

Dr. Nandita Dasgupta is working as Assistant

Professor at the Department of Biotechnology,
Institute of Engineering and Technology, Lucknow,
India. She has worked on Mesenchymal stem cell
derived exosomes for the treatment of uveitis. She
has successfully engineered micro-vehicles for
model drug molecules. Her areas of interest include
nanomaterial fabrication and its applications in
medicine, food and biomedical. She is the Associate
Editor of Environmental Chemistry Letters. She has
received several awards and recognitions from dif-
ferent national and international organizations. She
is the elected fellow of the Linnean Society (London)
and Bose Science Society.

Dr. Eric Lichtfouse is geochemist and professor of

scientific writing at Aix-Marseille University, France,
and Visiting Professor at Xi’an Jiaotong University,
China. He has discovered temporal pools of molecu-
lar substances in soils, invented carbon-13 dating and
published the book Scientific Writing for Impact
Factor Journals. He is Chief Editor and founder of
the journal Environmental Chemistry Letters and the
book series Sustainable Agriculture Reviews and
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World.
He has awards in analytical chemistry and scientific
editing. He is World XTerra Vice-Champion.
Contributors

Mohaddeseh Adel Young researchers and Elite Club, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Karaj, Iran
Abdul Bakrudeen Ali Ahmed Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ton Duc Thang
University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Pallaval Veera Bramhachari Department of Biotechnology, Krishna University,
Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Hau-Ming Chang Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management,
National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
Soumya Chatterjee Defence Research Laboratory, DRDO, Tezpur, Assam, India
Doongar R. Chaudhary Biotechnology and Phycology Division, CSIR-Central
Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
Shiao-Shing Chen Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management,
National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
Chinmoy Kanti Deb Department of Soil Science, Swedish University of
Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
K. V. Deepika Department of Biotechnology, Krishna University, Machilipatnam,
Andhra Pradesh, India
Kannapiran Ethiraj Aquatic Microbiology Lab, Department of Animal Health
and Management, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
Sunantha Ganesan Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University, Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, India
Mahesh Ganesapillai School of Chemical Engineering, Vellore Institute of
Technology, Vellore, India
Dharmendra Kumar Gupta Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change, Indira Paryavaran Bhavan, Aliganj, New Delhi, India

xi
xii Contributors

Bhavanath Jha Biotechnology and Phycology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and

Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
Alka Kumari Biotechnology and Phycology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and
Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
Elena Lobakova Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov
Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Vijay Lobo Department of Biochemistry, Centre for Research and Development,
PRIST Deemed University, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India
Department of Zoology, St Philomena P U College, Mysore, Karnataka, India
Hamish Robert Mackey Division of Sustainable Development, Hamad bin
Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
Anindita Mitra Department of Zoology, Bankura Christian College, Bankura,
West Bengal, India
Latha Pujari Department of Pharmacology, Sree Vidyanikethan College of
Pharmacy, Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India
Kumar Rajendran Aquatic Microbiology Lab, Department of Animal Health and
Management, Alagappa University, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu, India
Center of Excellence on Hazardous Substance Management and Biocatalyst &
Environmental Biotechnology Research Unit, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand
Saikat Sinha Ray Institute of Environmental Engineering and Management,
National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
Safae Sali Division of Sustainable Development, Hamad bin Khalifa University,
Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
Mainak Sarkar Department of Zoology, Bankura Christian College, Bankura,
West Bengal, India
V. D. Seshadri Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam
Bin Abdul Aziz University, Al-Kharj, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
G. Mohana Sheela Department of Biotechnology, Krishna University,
Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Alexei Solovchenko Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Biology,
Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Ali Talati Elite Club, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran
Svetlana Vasilieva Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov
Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
Namasivayam Vasudevan Centre for Environmental Studies, Anna University,
Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
Chapter 1
Microbial Degradation of Plastics and Its
Biotechnological Advancement

Alka Kumari, Doongar R. Chaudhary, and Bhavanath Jha

Contents
1.1 Introduction    2
1.2 Plastic Properties and Its Types    3
1.3 Plastic Waste Threats to Well-being    6
1.4 Biodegradation and Natural Cycling of Plastic Waste    7
1.5 Mechanism of Plastic Biodegradation 15
1.6 Standards of Biodegradation Testing Methods 17
1.7 Biodegradable Polymers 18
1.8 Recent Drifts in Microbial Degradation Research 21
1.9 Conclusion 22
References 23

Abstract Plastic waste is building up in the environment with an alarming rate.

Conventionally, plastic waste is dumped in landfills, incinerated, or recycled; these
methods release another form of toxic chemicals and plasticizers like furans, bisphe-
nol A, phthalate, and vinyl chloride in the environment. Nature itself recuperates
and maintains sustainable conditions to some extent although it is extremely slow.
Exploring the microbes from the environment and enhancing their plastic degrada-
tion capability through advanced biotechnological tools would provide an eco-
friendly solution. This chapter focused on recent reports on plastic biodegradation
emphases on preceding dogmas of plastic hazard and the understanding of standard
evaluation methods along with their biogeochemistry in the environment by the
microorganisms.

Keywords Biodegradation · Biogeochemical process · Enzymes · Genomics ·

Microbial degradation · Metabolomics · Plastic

A. Kumari · D. R. Chaudhary (*) · B. Jha

Biotechnology and Phycology Division, CSIR-Central Salt and Marine Chemicals
Research Institute, Bhavnagar, India
e-mail: drchaudhary@csmcri.res.in

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to 1
Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
K. M. Gothandam et al. (eds.), Environmental Biotechnology Vol. 3,
Environmental Chemistry for a Sustainable World 50,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-48973-1_1
2 A. Kumari et al.

1.1 Introduction

Plastic discovered as a material element has revolutionized many sectors due to their
application versatility (Singh et al. 2011). These synthetic polymers from the petro-
leum fraction have replaced many natural materials used before their discovery; how-
ever, their recalcitrant nature resulted in long persistence in the environment that
ended up in landfilling and burning; as well seepage in different ecosystems has now
become a global concern (Thompson et al. 2009a; Goudie 2018). These wastes act as
key indicators of human activity (Rochman 2015; Zalasiewicz et al. 2016). Industrial
development and increased population are the foremost contributors to plastic waste
generation (Singh et al. 2011). The traditional plastic waste management system
includes landfilling, burning, and recycling, resulting in infertile land and toxic
chemical evolution in the environment. Only around 15–25% of the plastic waste is
recycled in Europe and recycling below 5% in the USA, although the remaining per-
sist as such in the environment (Barnes et al. 2009). Globally, 8% of the petroleum
fraction is used to produce plastic, where 4% used as raw material and 4% in the
energy required for production (Hopewell et al. 2009; Thompson et al. 2009a). The
major proportion of plastics is used in packaging, which is often discarded rapidly,
which creates an unsustainable situation and demands control measures.
To decrease the plastic discards in the environment, the alternative approaches
are to produce biodegradable plastics and to isolate microbes from the environment
that are capable to degrade plastics (Wierckx et al. 2015; Kumari et al. 2019; Kawai
et al. 2019). Many biodegradable and bio-based polymers have been developed, but
complete replacement of plastic is impossible due to their high production cost and
application limitations. Besides this, microbial degradation of the synthetic polymer
will be innovative to the world; however, the efficiency of this eco-friendly measure
for reducing plastic waste is questionable (Tolinski 2011). In nature, the process of
biodegradation is continuously occurring to maintain planet sustainability. However,
the rate of waste production is much higher than that of natural degradation
processes.
Bioremediation technology will provide a sustainable solution for rising plastic
waste in the environment. The research on bioremediation studies is developing,
and many enzymes from microbes are capable of destabilizing and degrading recal-
citrant synthetic plastics (Bhardwaj et al. 2013; Wei and Zimmermann 2017; Kumari
et al. 2017). Microbial enzymes are developing as biocatalytic agents for the reme-
diation and recycling processes of plastics, by which valued raw materials can be
recovered and produced (Araújo et al. 2007). Microbial plastic degradation will be
an eco-friendly approach for reducing plastic waste as well as a solution to the dis-
tressing situation due to plastic waste generation (Devi et al. 2016).
To date, no feasible biodegradation processes have been developed that can be
used on a large scale. Research advancement in the genomics and metabolomics
area concords to cognize the microbial ability to degrade polymeric wastes and
predict degradation pathways (Dvořák et al. 2017). Here, recent findings and pos-
sible plastic waste remediation strategies have been summarized, and future
1 Microbial Degradation of Plastics and Its Biotechnological Advancement 3

integrative research directions have been highlighted. In addition, for developing

plastic waste remediation technology, improved waste collection and segregation
methods are central.

1.2 Plastic Properties and Its Types

The term plastic is coined from the French word plastique which itself means the
ability to mold (Albus et al. 2006). A polymeric plastic is made from phenol and
formaldehyde, Bakelite discovered by Leo Baekeland in the year 1909, which was
the first completely synthetic material with numerous applications. Polyethylene
was accidentally discovered in the year 1898, not taken in much notice was redis-
covered in 1933 by another accidental mixing of ethylene and benzaldehyde at high
temperature and pressure (Baker 2018). Now, plastics entered in the daily human
life, from the very initial use of cellulite material in place of today’s plastic. The
discovery and rediscovery of plastic has been continued with varying raw material
and conditions to produce more and more versatile material. This development of
material elements has been used for many applications from packing, construction,
and medical advancement (Andrady and Neal 2009; Saeedi et al. 2011). Basically,
plastics are polymer of high molecular weight, and stable carbon backbones make
them hydrophobic and nondegradable in nature. However, after polyethylene dis-
covery, many polyolefins were developed and introduced in the market by varying
the arrangement of atoms and modifying or changing monomeric units in the chain
and various forms of plastic discovered.
Plastics have been classified on the basis of origin, molding ability, recyclability,
and monomers (Van Krevelen and Te Nijenhuis 2009; Nicholson 2017) (Fig. 1.1).
Plastics are classified as natural and synthetic on the basis of their origin, where it is
understandable that natural plastics are made up of natural raw materials (i.e., cel-
lulose, lignin, silk, and protein) and synthetic ones are man-made besides from an
unnatural source (i.e., polyethylene, polyester, polystyrene, and polyvinyl chloride)
(Jabbar 2017). Another classification system is thermal or molding properties where
one is thermosetting (cannot be molded by heating) (i.e., melamine, phenol formal-
dehyde and polyurethane) and another is thermoplastic (molded after heating) (i.e.,
polyolefins, vinyl polymers and polycarbonates) that also defines molding ability
and recyclability. They are also classified based on the monomers: homopolymer
(chain of same monomers) (i.e., polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and
polyvinyl chloride) and copolymer (chains of two or more types of monomers) (i.e.,
polyethylene terephthalate, nylon, and polyurethane). The synthetic thermoplastics
were further classified based on their recyclability by coding them with numerical
values inside a closed triangular arrow symbolizing their recyclability (Society of
the Plastics Industry coding) [poly ethylene terephthalate (1), polyvinyl chloride
(3), high-density polyethylene (2), low density polyethylene (4), polypropylene (5),
polystyrene (6), polycarbonate/polyurethane (7)] (Halden 2010; Garcia and
Robertson 2017; Rahimi and García 2017) (Fig. 1.2).
4 A. Kumari et al.

Fig. 1.1 Classification of plastics (PHA polyhydroxyalkanoate, PLA polyhydroxy lactonoate, PE

polyethylene, PP polypropylene, PVC polyvinylchloride, PS polystyrene, PU polyurethane, PET
polyethylene terephthalate, HDPE high-density polyethylene, LDPE Low-density polyethylene)

The residual fragmentation and chemical groups of plastics vary considerably

when exposed to a natural environment depending on environmental factors, form
of polymer, polymerization technique, and additives used. These low molecular
weight components of polymers may leach easily from plastic products in the envi-
ronment and cause unconfined risks (Hahladakis et al. 2018). Assessment of expo-
sure risk is required in the context of plastic waste pollution, degraded products,
additives, and their toxicity. From the CLP (classification, labeling, and packaging)
regulation by the European Union Council (2008), polymers have been classified
based on their hazardous effects. They classified hazard level of polymers based on
the risk from their monomers such as either carcinogenic, mutagenic, or both (cat-
egory 1A or 1B) (i.e., polyurethanes, polyacrylonitriles, polyvinyl chloride, epoxy
resin, and styrene copolymers) (Aulmann and Pechacek 2014). Since, the residual
monomer amounts vary among different products and polymers and are accordingly
hazardous (Halden 2010; Lithner et al. 2011).
Polyolefin is manufactured through polymerization reaction of monomers (i.e.,
polyethylene and polypropylene) or condensation reaction of carboxylic acid and an
alcohol or amine group between their monomer (i.e., polyester or polyamide). The
polymerization reaction is a highly exothermic process, where the monomers or
16 A. Kumari et al.

Fig. 1.3 Abiotic and microbial plastic degradation mechanism.

Amorphous regions of plastics are more exposed to microbial attack and attachment
than internal structure and crystalline structures due to their structural and morpho-
logical complexity (Restrepo-Flórez et al. 2014). Microbial affinity and coloniza-
tion over the polymer surface are the primary step in the degradation process
followed by the beginning of the biochemical pathway for chain fragmentation and
low molecular weight compound production for cell utilization (Fig. 1.3). The sur-
face hydrophobicity of both plastic and microbe plays an important role in the colo-
nization process (Pathak and Navneet 2017). The more hydrophobic microbes will
attach more to the plastic surface and will reduce the hydrophobicity of the plastic
(Orr et al. 2004). Surfactant production is also an important metabolic adaptation in
the colonization process over hydrophobic surfaces.
The overall plastic biodegradation involved two key processes: first, reduction in
molecular weight and, second, their oxidation (Restrepo-Flórez et al. 2014). The
extracellular enzyme and physiological factors mediate the initial chain oxidation,
although once the size of plastic molecules decreases to 10–20 carbon, olefins can
enter the microbial cells and catabolize them through their metabolic pathway
(Gautam et al. 2007). The formation and breakdown of bonds change the carbonyl
bond index of the polymer, which may be due to the oxidoreductase enzyme activity
of microorganisms (Wilkes and Aristilde 2017). However, there are very few
researchers dedicated to the study of actual enzymes involved in these processes.
Santo et al. (2013) proved the involvement of laccase enzymes in breaking down of
large molecules and increased keto-carbonyl index during the incubation of poly-
ethylene degradation.
Biotechnological tools can study the intermediate imprints of microbial-based
degradations besides changes in the polymeric structures through analytical tools
involving the appearance and disappearance of functional groups resulting from
oxidation-reduction events during the degradation processes. Plastic is a
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
British property should be paid, and threatening, if further piracies
were committed, to send a force into the Rif to chastise his rebellious
subjects.
No attention was paid to this edict, for though the Rifians
acknowledge the Sultan of Morocco as ‘Kaliph[24] Allah,’ H.M. being
a direct descendant from the Prophet, and though they allow a
governor of Rif extraction to be appointed by him to reside amongst
them, they do not admit of his interference in the administration of
government or in any kind of legislation, unless it happens he is
voluntarily appealed to in cases of dispute.
The Rifians, however, pay annually a small tribute, which is
generally composed of mules and honey, the latter article being
much cultivated on the extensive tracts of heather in the Rif
mountains. This tribute is collected by the Governor and transmitted
to the Sultan.
After a lengthened correspondence with the Moorish Court,
negotiations were closed by the Sultan declaring he had no power of
control over the mountainous districts in the Rif, and therefore
declining to be held responsible for the depredations committed on
vessels approaching that coast. The British Government then
dispatched a squadron to Gibraltar under Admiral Sir Charles Napier,
with orders to embark a regiment at that garrison, and to proceed to
the Rif coast to chastise the lawless inhabitants.
On his arrival at the Spanish fort of Melilla, which is about fifty
miles to the westward of the Algerian frontier, Sir Charles called on
the Spanish Governor and requested him to invite the chiefs of the
neighbouring villages to come to Melilla to meet him.
 On their arrival, the Admiral demanded compensation for the
losses sustained by the owner of the British vessels which had been
captured. The Rifians cunningly evaded discussion by replying that
they could not accede to demands which did not emanate from the
Sultan, whose orders they declared they would be prepared to obey.

Sir Charles accepted these vague assurances[25]; and with this

unsatisfactory result returned with the squadron to Gibraltar, and
addressed to me a communication, making known the language held
to him by the Rifians, and requesting that I would dispatch an
express courier to the Moorish Court to call upon the Sultan to give
the requisite orders to the Rifians who, he declared, were prepared
to obey, though he admitted he was ignorant of the names of the
chieftains with whom he had the parley.
In my reply to the Admiral I expressed my belief that the Rifians
had cunningly given these vague assurances to induce him to depart
with his ships from their coast, and that I apprehended the Sultan
would express his surprise that we should have been led to suppose
that the piratical and rebellious inhabitants of the Rif coast would pay
compensation or give other satisfaction, in pursuance of any orders
which H.S.M. might issue.
In this sense, as I had expected, the Sultan replied to my note;
holding out, however, a hope, which had been expressed in past
years, that he would seek at a more favourable moment to make the
Rif population, who had been from time immemorial in a semi-
independent state, more subservient to his control.
Some months after the squadron had returned to England, a
British vessel, becalmed off the village of Benibugaffer, was taken by
a Rifian piratical craft, and the English crew were made captives.
 Tidings having reached Gibraltar of the capture of the British ship,
a gunboat was sent to Melilla to endeavour to obtain, through the
intervention of the Spanish authorities and an offer of a ransom, the
release of the British sailors, but this step was not attended with
success. Having heard that the Englishmen who had been captured
had been presented by the pirates to a Rif Marábet (or holy man)
named Alhádari, who resided on the coast, and as I had in past
years been in friendly communication with this person regarding
some Rifians who had proceeded in a British vessel to the East on a
pilgrimage to Mecca, and had been provided by me with letters of
recommendation to British Consular officers, I wrote him a friendly
letter, expressing the indignation I felt at the outrages which had
been committed by his piratical brethren on British vessels; that I had
been informed the authorities at Gibraltar had endeavoured, when
they heard British sailors were in the hands of the pirates, to pay a
ransom for their freedom, but had failed, as exorbitant demands had
been put forward; and that since I had learnt my countrymen were in
his hands, I felt satisfied they would be well treated, and that he
would facilitate at once their release and return to Gibraltar; that I
entertained too high an opinion of him to suppose he would not
consent to their release except on the payment of a ransom, and
therefore I would make no offer to purchase the liberty of my
countrymen, but renewed those assurances of friendship and
goodwill, of which I said I had already given proof in the past
treatment of his brethren.
Alhádari replied that the sailors were under his care, had been
well treated, and would be embarked in the first vessel which might
be sent to receive them.
This engagement was faithfully executed, and at my suggestion
the authorities at Gibraltar sent a suitable present to the worthy
Marábet. I wrote also to thank Alhádari, and to beg that he would use
his influence to put a stop to the disgraceful outrages committed in
past years by his brethren on the lives and property of British
subjects, and to say that I should probably take an opportunity of
seeking to have a parley with the chiefs, in the hope of coming to an
understanding with them to bring about a cessation of these
outrages; adding, that if my friendly intervention did not put a stop to
the piracy of his brethren, the British Government would be
compelled, in concert with the Sultan, to resort to hostile measures
on a large scale, and send forces by sea and land to chastise these
rebellious subjects of His Sherifian Majesty.
In the spring of 1856 H.M. frigate Miranda, Captain Hall, arrived at
Tangier with directions to convey me to the coast of Rif, and I
embarked on April 21, taking with me a Rifian friend, Hadj Abdallah
Lamarti, who was Sheikh of a village near Tangier called Suanni,
whose inhabitants are Rifians, or of Rif extraction.
Hadj Abdallah had left the Rif in consequence of a blood feud. He
was the chief of the boar-hunters at Tangier, and was looked up to
with respect, not only by the rural population in the neighbourhood of
that town, who are chiefly of Rif extraction, but also by the local
authorities, who frequently employed him in the settlement of
disputes with the refractory tribes in the mountainous districts of the
Tangier province.
We steamed along the rocky coast of Rif and touched at the
Spanish garrisons of Peñon and Alhucema. The former is a curious
little rock, separated from the mainland by a very narrow channel. A
colonel and a few soldiers garrisoned the fortress, which is
apparently of no possible use, though the authorities at that time
might have aided in checking piracy by stopping the passage of the
Rif galleys. The rock is so small that there was not a walk fifty yards
long on any part of it.
On the island of Alhucema, so called from the wild lavender that
grows there, we also landed. The Spanish authorities were civil, but
held out no hopes of being able to take steps to put a stop to piracy.
This island is also an insignificant possession, about half a mile
distant from the mainland. The inhabitants had occasional
communication with the Rifians, hoisting a flag of truce whenever a
boat was dispatched to the shore; but Spaniards were not at that
time allowed to make excursions on the mainland, nor were they
permitted to obtain provisions except a few fowls, eggs, and honey.

On our arrival at Melilla, the Governor, Colonel Buceta[26],

received us courteously. I made known to him that the British
Government had directed me to proceed to the coast of Rif, to
endeavour to come to an understanding with the chiefs with the view
of putting a stop to piracy on that coast, the Sultan of Morocco
having declared he had no power of control over his lawless
subjects, who had shown an utter disregard of the peremptory orders
which had been issued to restore British property captured by their
piratical galleys; that in order to carry out this object I was anxious to
have an interview with some of the chiefs, not only of the villages on
the coast where the owners of the piratical galleys dwelt, but more
especially with the chiefs of the neighbouring inland villages, as the
latter derived no immediate benefit from the plunder of shipping.
Colonel Buceta endeavoured to dissuade me from this purpose,
reminding me that Sir Charles Napier had failed in obtaining any
beneficial result from his parley with the Rifians who had an interview
with him in Melilla.
 Perceiving from the Governor’s language that he entertained
those feelings of jealousy which prevail with Spaniards regarding the
intervention of any foreign Government in the affairs of Morocco, I let
him understand that, should no beneficial result be obtained by my
visit in putting a stop to the outrages committed on merchant vessels
approaching the Rif coast, it would become a serious matter for the
consideration of our Government whether steps should not be taken
to inflict a chastisement on the Rifians by landing a force, and in
conjunction with the Sultan’s troops which might be dispatched, at
our instigation, for that purpose, to destroy the hamlets and boats on
the coast. The question might also arise, perhaps, of erecting a
fortress in some sheltered spot where a gunboat could be placed to
guard the coast against pirates, which I observed the authorities at
Spanish fortresses had hitherto been unable to effect.
This language sufficed to decide Colonel Buceta to accede to my
wishes; but he informed me that, in consequence of late acts of
aggression on the part of the natives, all communication with the
garrison had been cut off, and that no Rifians were allowed to enter;
it was therefore out of the question that he could admit any chieftains
into Spanish territory. Neither did he think the latter would be
disposed to venture into the gates of the fortress.
I then proposed to be allowed to dispatch my Rifian friend Hadj
Abdallah Lamarti with an invitation to some of the neighbouring
chiefs, both on the seaboard and inland, to meet me on the neutral
ground.
Colonel Buceta assented, but he repeated that he could not admit
any Rifians into the garrison, nor send an escort to accompany me,
should I pass the gates to go into the Rif country, adding that he
thought I should be incurring a serious risk of being carried off a
prisoner by the Rifians, if in the parley I should happen to express
myself in language such as I had used to him regarding the outrages
committed by these lawless people.
His predecessor, he informed me, in consequence of the frequent
hostilities which had taken place between the natives and the
garrison, had proposed to have a meeting with some chieftains
within the garrison. This they declined, fearing, as they alleged,
some act of treachery; but it was finally agreed that they should meet
the Governor on the neutral ground; that he could bring an escort of
twenty-five armed men, and that the chiefs would also be
accompanied by an equal number of followers; that the Governor
and one chief, both unarmed, were to advance to a central spot that
was selected about 150 yards distant from where their followers
assembled, and that the Spanish Governor could also bring with him
an interpreter.
This arrangement was carried out, and a Rifian chief, a man of
gigantic stature and herculean frame, advanced to meet the Spanish
Governor.
The parley commenced in a friendly manner; propositions were
made by each party regarding the conditions upon which peaceful
relations were to be re-established; but without bringing about any
result.
The Spanish Governor, finding the demands put forward by the
chieftain to be of an unacceptable character, expressed himself
strongly on the subject. A warm dispute ensued, and on the
Governor using some offensive expression, the Rifian seized in his
brawny arms the Governor, who was a little man, and chucking him
over his shoulders like a sack of grain, called out to the Spanish
detachment of soldiers to blaze away, and at the same time to his
own men to fire if the Spanish soldiers fired or attempted to advance,
whilst the chieftain ran off with the Governor, who was like a shield
on his back, to his followers.
The officer in command of the Spanish detachment, fearing that
the Governor might be killed, did not venture to let his men fire or
advance, and the Governor was carried off prisoner to a village
about three miles off on the hills, and notice was then sent to the
fortress that he would not be released until a ransom of 3000 dollars
was sent.
The Rifians kept the Governor prisoner until a reference was
made to Madrid, and orders were sent for the ransom to be paid.
‘Now,’ said Colonel Buceta, ‘your fate if you trust yourself to these
treacherous people will probably be the same, and I shall be quite
unable to obtain your release.’
I thanked the Governor for the advice, but declared that I must
fulfil my mission and was prepared to run all risks, having been
accustomed for many years to deal with Rifians at Tangier.
Buceta then consented that I should be allowed to pass the gates
of the garrison and invite the chiefs of the neighbouring Rif villages
to a parley on the neutral ground.
Colonel Buceta, a distinguished officer well known for his great
courage and decision, was I believe, on the whole, pleased that I
held to my purpose, though he warned me again and again that I
was incurring a great risk, and that in no manner could he intervene,
if I and the English officer who might accompany me were taken
prisoners.
My messenger returned and informed me that the neighbouring
chiefs, both of the inland and of the piratical villages of Benibugaffer,
would meet me on the neutral ground as had been proposed to
them.
Accompanied by Capt. Hall, who commanded H.M.’s frigate
Miranda, my friend Hadj Abdallah, and a ‘kavass,’ we proceeded to
the rendezvous.
Five or six chiefs awaited our advent, attended by some hundred
followers, stalwart fellows, many of them more than six feet high.
The chiefs wore brown hooded dresses, not unlike the costume of
a Franciscan friar; but part of the shirt-sleeves and front were
embroidered with coloured silks. Handsome leather-belts girded their
loins. A few of the elders wore white woollen ‘haiks,’ like unto the
Roman toga or mantle without seam, such as our Saviour is said to
have worn.
Some of the wild fellows had doffed their outer garments, carrying
them on their shoulders as they are wont to do when going to battle.
Their inner costume was a white cotton tunic, coming down to the
knees, with long wide sleeves fastened behind the back by a cord.
Around their loins each wore a leathern girdle embroidered in
coloured silk, from which on the one side hung a dagger and a small
pouch for bullets; while on the other was suspended a larger
leathern pouch or bag prettily embroidered and having a deep fringe
of leather, in which powder is carried; containing also a pocket to
carry the palmetto fibre, curiously enough called ‘lif,’ used instead of
wads over powder and ball. Their heads were closely shaved, except
that on the right side hung a long lock of braided hair, carefully
combed and oiled. Several of them were fair men with brown or red
beards, descendants perhaps of those Goths who crossed over into
Africa.
 The wild fellows reclined in groups on a bank, immediately behind
where the chiefs were standing to receive us. After mutual greetings
I addressed them in Arabic, which though not the common language,
for Berber is spoken in the Rif, yet is understood by the better
classes, who learn to read the Koran and to write in the ‘jama’ or
mosque school. The Berber is not a written language.
‘Oh, men! I come amongst you as a friend; an old friend of the
Mussulmans. I have been warned that Rifians are not to be trusted,
and that I and those who accompany me are in danger of treachery;
but I take no heed of such warnings, for Rifians are renowned for
bravery, and brave men never act in a dastardly manner. My best
friends at Tangier are Rifians, or those whose sires came from the
Rif, such as my friend here, Hadj Abdallah Lamarti. They are my
hunters, and I pass days and nights with them out hunting, and am
treated by them and look upon them as my brethren; so here I have
come to meet you, with the Captain of the frigate, unarmed, as you
see, and without even an escort of my countrymen from the ship-of-
war lying there, or from the Spanish garrison, for I felt sure I should
never require protection in the Rif against any man.’
‘You are welcome,’ exclaimed the chiefs. ‘The English have
always been our friends,’ and a murmur of approval ran through the
groups of armed men seated on the bank.
‘Yes!’ I continued, ‘the English have always been the friends of the
Sultan, the ‘Kaliph Allah,’ and of his people.
‘You are all Mussulmans, and as followers of the Prophet every
year a number of your brethren, who have the means, go to the
shrine of the Prophet at Mecca, as required by your religion. How do
they go? In English vessels from Tangier, as you know, and they are
therefore, when on board, under the English flag and protection.
They are well treated and their lives and property are safe. They
return to Tangier in the same manner, and many of them have come
to me to express their gratitude for the recommendations I have
given them to English officers in the East, and the kindness they
have received at their hands.
‘These facts, I think, are known to you; but let us now consider
what is the conduct of certain Rifians,—not all, I am happy to add,
but those who dwell on the coast and possess ‘karebs,’ for the
alleged purpose of trade with Tangier and Tetuan, and for fishing.
‘The inhabitants of these coast villages, especially of the
neighbouring village of Benibugaffer, when they espy a peaceful
merchant vessel becalmed off their coast, launch a ‘kareb’ with forty
or fifty armed men, and set out in pursuit. The crews of these
merchant vessels are unarmed, and generally consist of not more
than eight or nine men. When they observe a ‘kareb’ approaching
with a hostile appearance, they escape in their little boats to the
open sea, trusting to Providence to be picked up by some passing
vessel before bad weather sets in, which might cause their small
craft to founder. The merchant vessel is then towed to the beach,
where she is stranded, pillaged of cargo and rigging, and burnt.
‘I now appeal to all true Mussulmans whether such iniquitous acts
are not against the laws of God and of the Prophet. These pirates
are not waging war against enemies or infidels, they are mere sea
robbers, who set aside the laws of the Prophet to pillage the
peaceful ships of their friends the English, to whom they are
indebted for conveying their brethren in safety to worship at the Holy
‘Kaaba’ of their Prophet.
‘To these English whom they rob, and also murder if they attempt
to resist, they are indebted for much of the clothing they wear, for the
iron and steel of which their arms are made, and for other
commodities. I now appeal to those Rifians who dwell in inland
villages, and who take no part in and have no profit from these
lawless acts, and I ask whether they will continue to tolerate such
infractions of Allah’s laws? Can these men of Benibugaffer who have
been guilty of frequent acts of piracy, can they be Mussulmans? No,
they must be “kaffers” (rebels against God).’ As I said this, I heard
from the mound behind me, where the Benibugaffer people were
seated, the sound of the cocking of guns, and a murmur, ‘He calls us
kaffers.’ Looking round, I perceived guns levelled at my back.
One of the elder Chiefs rose and cried out, ‘Let the English Chief
speak! What he says is true! Those who rob and murder on the seas
innocent people are not Mussulmans, for they do not obey the law of
God.’
I continued: ‘Hear what your wise Chief says. I fancied I heard a
sound like the click of a gun being cocked. Some foolish boys must
be sitting amongst the assembly, for no brave Rifians, Benibugaffers
included, would ever commit a cowardly murder on an unarmed man
who has come amongst you trusting to the honour and friendship
between the Rifians and English from ancient times.
‘You have, I think, heard that the English Government has
frequently complained to the Sultan Mulai Abderahman, the Kaliph
Allah and Emir El Mumenin (Prince of Believers), of the commission
of these outrages, and has put forward a demand for reparation and
compensation for damages.
‘The Sultan, who is the friend of the powerful Queen of England,
my Sovereign, under whose sway there are fifty million of
Mussulmans whom she governs with justice and kindness, issued
his Sherifian commands to you Rifians to cease from these outrages;
but you paid no attention to the orders of the Kaliph of the Prophet.
‘The Queen then sent a squadron to chastise the pirates and
obtain redress; but the Admiral took pity on the villages, where
innocent women and children dwelt, and did not fire a gun or burn a
‘kareb,’ as he might have done. He had a parley with the
Benibugaffer people and other inhabitants of villages where boats
are kept.
‘They made false promises and pretended they would cease to
commit outrages, but, as was to be expected, they have broken faith,
and since that parley have been guilty of further acts of piracy. So
now I have come to see you and hear whether the Rifians in the
inland villages will continue to suffer these outrages to be committed
by those who dwell on the coast, which may expose all the honest
and innocent inhabitants of the Rif to the horrors of war.
‘I have begged that no steps should be taken by my countrymen,
lest the innocent should suffer, until I make this final attempt to come
to an understanding with you; but I have to warn you, as a true
friend, if another outrage be committed, my great and powerful
Sovereign, in conjunction with the Sultan, will send large forces by
sea and by land to carry fire and sword into your villages, and bring
the whole population under subjection. H.S.M. may then think fit to
compel the Rif tribes dwelling on the coast to migrate to the interior
of his realms, or, at any rate, they will no longer be allowed to
possess a single boat for trade, or even for fishing.
‘I now ask—Will you inland inhabitants tolerate the continuance of
piracy on the part of your brethren on the coast?—Will you brave
inhabitants of the coast continue to set Allah’s laws at defiance, and
thus expose your lives and property, and those of your inland
brethren, to destruction?’
The old Chief again spoke, and others stood up and joined him,
saying: ‘He is right. We shall not allow these robberies to be
committed on our friends the English; such outrages must cease,
and if continued, we shall be prepared to chastise the guilty.’
The Benibugaffer Chiefs said, ‘We approve.’
‘I know,’ I continued, ‘you Rifians do not sign treaties or like
documents; but the words of brave men are more worthy of trust
than treaties, which are too often broken. Give me your hands.’ I
held out mine. As the pledge of good faith I shook the hands of the
chiefs, including the Benibugaffer.
‘Remember,’ I said, ‘it is not English vessels, but all vessels
without exception must be respected on approaching your shores.’
‘We agree,’ they cried.
Upon which I exclaimed, ‘I have faith in your words. May God’s
mercy and blessing be on you all and grant you prosperity and
happiness! The Rifians and English shall remain true friends for ever.
I bid you farewell.’
‘Stay,’ said the chief of a neighbouring village, ‘come with us and
be our guest. We shall kill an ox to feast you and our brethren here,
and bid you welcome. You are a hunter; we shall show you sport,
and become better acquainted with each other. Upon our heads shall
be your life and those of your friends.’
Pointing to the frigate, I said: ‘That vessel has to return
immediately, and I have to report what has been done, in order to
stop all preparations for seeking through other means to obtain the
satisfaction you have so readily offered. I should have been
delighted to have gone with you and should have felt as safe as if
amongst my own countrymen. You are a brave race, incapable of
doing a wrong to a true friend. I shall never forget the manner in
which you have received me.
‘I bid you all farewell. I believe in your promises, even those made
by the Benibugaffer. Send messengers at once to the villages on the
coast and let them know the promises you have made, which they
also must be required to carry out strictly.’
The Chiefs and their followers tried all they could to persuade me
to accompany them but finally consented that I should depart, on
promising that I would some day revisit them.
Colonel Buceta was surprised to learn the result of my visit, but
said the Rifians would never keep faith, and that we should soon
hear of fresh acts of piracy. ‘In such case,’ I replied, ‘we shall have to
land a force and burn every hamlet and boat on the coast; but I have
every hope the Rifians will keep faith.’
They have kept faith, and since that parley near Melilla no
vessels, either British or of other nationality, have been captured or
molested by the Rifians[27]

It was amongst these wild and lawless Rifians that Mr. Hay found
the most thorough sportsmen, and also men capable of great
attachment and devotion. Always much interested in the history of
this race, in their customs and mode of life, he wrote an interesting
account of the tribes which inhabit the north of Morocco and of his
personal intercourse with them.

The Rif province extends along the Mediterranean coast to the

eastward from a site called Borj Ustrak, in the province of Tetuan, for
about a hundred and fifty miles to the stream marked in maps as
‘Fum Ajrud’ (mouth of Ajrud), the northern boundary between
Morocco and Algiers.
The Rif country to the southward, inland from the Mediterranean
coast, extends about thirty-five miles and on the westward is
bordered by the Tetuan province and the mountains of Khamás and
Ghamára.
The population of Rif amounts, as far as can be calculated, to
about 150,000 souls. The Rifians are a Berber race, and have never
been conquered by the various nations—Phœnicians, Romans,
Goths, and Arabs—who have invaded Mauritania: they have always
maintained their independence; but on the conquest of Morocco by
the Arabs, the Rifians accepted the Mohammedan faith, and
acknowledged the Sovereigns of Morocco as the Kaliphs of the
Prophet.
The country is mountainous, the soil in most parts poor, and
though the Rif is rich in iron, copper, and other minerals, there are no
roads or means of conveyance to the seaboard. There are large
forests of ‘el aris[28],’ which the Rifians convey in their ‘karebs’
(sailing boats) to Tetuan and Tangier. They have no saws, so when a
tree is felled it is cut away with a hatchet until a beam or plank is
shaped, generally about ten feet long by a foot wide. This timber has
a strong aromatic odour, and when not exposed to damp is more
durable than oak. It was used for the woodwork of the Alhambra at
Granada and other Moorish palaces in Spain, and though many of
the Arabesque ornaments in plaster or stucco have fallen into decay
and walls have crumbled, this woodwork remains sound.
The Rifians are an industrious race; but their barren hills do not
produce sufficient grain to provide food for the population. Large
numbers migrate every year to different parts of Morocco, especially
to the northern provinces, and are employed to cultivate orchards
and gardens round Tangier and Tetuan. The majority of the
inhabitants of the town and neighbouring districts of Tangier are of
Rif extraction.
In the Rif the natives do not submit to any authority except upon
religious or legal questions, such as marriage, inheritance, and title
deeds. The ‘f’ki,’ or chief priest in a village mosque, draws up, with
the aid of ‘tolba’ or public notaries, all legal documents regarding
marriage or property. In other matters the Rifian does not submit to
legislation; his gun, pistol, and dagger are his judge and jury—yet
crimes such as robbery, theft, or outrages on women are rarely
known, but murder from feud is rife throughout the country to a
frightful extent. No man’s life is secure, even though he be a distant
relative, such as the great-grandson, of some one who may have
taken a life thirty years before in a blood feud. The widow of a
murdered man will teach her son, as soon as he can carry a gun or
pistol, how to use those arms, and daily remind him that his father
must be avenged lest the son be looked upon as despicable.
The men always go armed even in their own villages. Cursing,
swearing, or abusive language, so common amongst the Moors, are
rarely heard in Rif; for the man who ventures to use an opprobrious
epithet knows that he incurs the risk of being stabbed or shot. A
Rifian never forgives or forgets an insult.
They are distinguished for their courage. During the war between
Spain and Morocco in 1859, they did not obey the appeal of the
Sultan for assistance; but the inhabitants of the district of Zarhon
near Fas, who are of Rif extraction, sent a contingent of 1,500 men
to Tetuan. They arrived a few days before the battle of ‘Agraz’—the
last which took place between the Moors and Spaniards before the
peace of 1860—and fought so determinedly that two-thirds of their
number fell during that battle.
Polygamy is extremely rare in Rif. Few men venture to take a
second wife lest offence be given thereby to the father or brother of
either of the women they have married. Even in Tangier, where there
is a population of over 9,000 Mohammedans, chiefly Rifians by
descent, I never heard of more than four or five Moors who had two
wives. When an exception occurs, it has generally been at the
request of the wife, who, having had no child, begs her husband to
marry some cousin or friend, selected perhaps by herself.
Immoral conduct on the part of married women or maidens is
unknown; for, should they be suspected of leading an irregular life by
father, husband, or other male relative, such disgrace is wiped out by
death.
Rifian women do not cover their faces. If a man sees a young
woman fetching water from a well or walking alone, he will avoid
meeting her, and even turn back rather than run the risk of being
seen by some relative of the female and be suspected of having
communicated with her by word or gesture. He will shun the woman
who may be alone, as a modest girl in Europe might try to avoid a
man whom she should happen to meet when walking in some lonely
spot.
Some years ago an old Rifian, one of my boar-hunters, who dwelt
at a village near Tangier, presented himself before me looking very
miserable and haggard. ‘I take refuge under the hem of your
garment,’ he exclaimed, ‘and deliver into your hands these title-
deeds of my hut and garden, also a document regarding a mare;
these are all my possessions. I am about to deliver myself up to the
Basha of Tangier, Kaid Abbas Emkashéd, and to ask that I be sent to
prison.’
On inquiring of the old hunter why he thought of taking such an
extraordinary step, and also what he expected me to do with his
papers and property, he replied, whilst trembling from head to foot,
with tears running down his rugged cheeks and his teeth chattering
as he spoke, ‘My youngest daughter, whom I loved so dearly’—here
he gasped for breath—‘is no more. I have buried her. She was put to
death with my consent.’ Poor Hadj Kassim then covered his face and
sobbed violently, paused to recover himself, and continued, ‘The
authorities have heard that my daughter, who was very beautiful, has
disappeared, and have given orders that some innocent persons
who are suspected should be arrested, as it is supposed she has
been carried off or murdered. I cannot remain a passive spectator
whilst innocent men suffer, feeling that the whole blame of the
disappearance of my child rests on me alone. My daughter was of a
joyous character, and, like a silly girl, thought only of amusement.
Both her mother and I had repeatedly punished her for going to
weddings or other festivities without our permission. She had been
warned that misconduct on her part, as a Rifian maiden, would never
be forgiven; but she took no heed. Some neighbours reported that
she had been seen going to Tangier to dance in the “mesriahs.” Her
shameless conduct became a source of great scandal in the village,
and as it was supposed that I countenanced her misconduct, I was
shunned by my friends. They no longer returned my salams, and
when I joined the elders, who are wont to assemble of an afternoon
on our village green, they turned their backs on me.
‘Life had become a burden, and my son, who was also taunted by
young men for having a sister of bad repute, came to me yesterday,
when he heard that she had again gone off to the town, and declared
that as Rifians we could not allow a daughter and sister who did not
obey her parents, and brought disgrace on her family, to live.
‘Though I loved dearly my foolish child,’ continued the old hunter,
‘I gave way to the passionate language of my son, and consented
that, should we discover she danced at the “mesriah,” she should
die.
‘We went to Tangier and concealed ourselves near the entrance
of a “mesriah” we were told she frequented. We saw her enter,
followed by some young Moors. A little before sunset she came out,
enveloped in her “haik,” and walked hurriedly towards our village.
She did not see us, and we followed her until we reached a path in
the brushwood not far from our village, and then we stopped her. My
son accused her of leading a disgraceful life, and then struck her
heavily with a bill-hook on the head. She fell, never to speak again.
We buried her in a secluded spot. My son killed her, but I am really
her murderer—I alone am responsible for her death; but my
wretched child could not have lived to be a curse and a disgrace.’
Then the poor Hadj trembled in his acute misery, and shook as if he
had the palsy.
‘I shall,’ he continued, ‘present myself to the Basha. I shall not say
I am the murderer, as the Basha is a Rifian, and will understand all
when I declare I wish no man to be arrested on account of the
disappearance of my child, and that I alone am responsible for
whatever may have happened to her.
‘Now,’ he added, ‘you know, according to Moorish law, no man
can be punished for murder unless he acknowledges his crime, and
that after twelve months’ imprisonment, should no witnesses appear,
the accused can claim to be liberated from prison. If I live, therefore,
I shall be released; but I care no longer for life, except it be to work