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NEW APPROACHES TO
BYZANTINE HISTORY AND CULTURE
Environment and
Society in Byzantium,
650–1150
Between the Oak and the Olive
Alexander Olson
New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture
Series Editors
Florin Curta
University of Florida
FL, USA
Leonora Neville
University of Wisconsin Madison
WI, USA
Shaun Tougher
Cardiff University
Cardiff, UK
New Approaches to Byzantine History and Culture publishes high-quality
scholarship on all aspects of Byzantine culture and society from the fourth
to the fifteenth centuries, presenting fresh approaches to key aspects of
Byzantine civilization and new studies of unexplored topics to a broad
academic audience. The series is a venue for both methodologically
innovative work and ground-breaking studies on new topics, seeking to
engage medievalists beyond the narrow confines of Byzantine studies.
The core of the series is original scholarly monographs on various
aspects of Byzantine culture or society, with a particular focus on books
that foster the interdisciplinarity and methodological sophistication of
Byzantine studies. The series editors are interested in works that combine
textual and material sources, that make exemplary use of advanced meth-
ods for the analysis of those sources, and that bring theoretical practices of
other fields, such as gender theory, subaltern studies, religious studies
theory, anthropology, etc. to the study of Byzantine culture and society.
Environment and
Society in Byzantium,
650-1150
Between the Oak and the Olive
Alexander Olson
Independent scholar
Burnaby, BC, Canada
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer
Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Acknowledgments
The process of writing this text, from early research questions to the final
manuscript, was essentially completed on the same laptop between 2013
and 2020. However, the finished book is the culmination of work across
various contexts and involved the help of many individuals. Time in librar-
ies, conversations with professors, suggestions from various academics,
multiple readings and edits, discussions and presentations at several con-
ferences, and email correspondence with editors and publishers have all
allowed me to produce something that would have been beyond my abil-
ity by myself. Because of these experiences, I am indebted to numer-
ous people.
Starting the project in Madison, Wisconsin, I was, as a starving gradu-
ate student living in an apartment with a wonderful lakeview, fortunate
enough to meet and learn from several people. Among them are Jeffrey
Beneker, William Aylward, Marc Kleijwegt, Laird Boswell, Bill Cronon,
Karl Shoemaker, Elizabeth Hennessy, and the late David Morgan, all of
whom provided wonderful opportunities for edification and contributed
ideas or suggestions that became part of this book. Rick Keyser kindly read
several clunky chapter drafts and generously guided me through the grow-
ing field of medieval environmental history. Elizabeth Lapina graciously
gave her time and yielded much valuable advice on the manuscript along
the way. Tony Pietsch, Neal Davidson, and Derek Taira provided helpful
questions and suggestions. Leslie Abadie worked miracles on a regular
basis and allowed me to keep the little sanity I have.
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
1 Introduction 1
8 Conclusion233
Bibliography239
Index255
ix
Abbreviations
xi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Abstract This chapter demonstrates that olive and oak are useful objects
for studying environmental, economic, social, and cultural changes. It
emphasizes that due to its environmental requirements, frequent men-
tion in textual sources, use in construction and agrarian economies, and
long lifespan, the oak is an excellent means for studying relationships
between premodern people and their environments. The chapter also
demonstrates that the olive, due to its strong remains in fossil studies,
archaeologically noticeable oileries, and focus in written works, is also a
useful source for analyzing how human choices have interacted with the
Mediterranean environment. This chapter also presents the available
sources for studying how Middle Byzantium’s environmental history
unfolded in the Aegean Basin. It sets the chronological limits of the study
between 650 and 1150.
Greece’s Chalkidike peninsula.1 With an axe he cut down the trees’ trunks,
and then, painfully stooped for long periods of time, dug up roots with a
pick, possibly setting fire to the deadwood in order to expedite the pro-
cess. Perhaps the only aspect of the situation that was positive for this
medieval fellow was the cool weather, as it is most likely that he carried out
this exhausting work that did not yield a meal (at least in the short term)
during the winter when harvests and the vintage were not pressing con-
cerns. Pantoléôn’s relationship with trees was not entirely adversarial
though, despite the fact that he was removing them. In the midst of his
clearing, he noticed a tall evergreen oak and a deciduous oak with excep-
tionally tasty acorns, and he decided to leave these two trees untouched.2
In fact, when all this back-breaking work was complete, these two trees
stood right in the middle of Pantoléôn’s newly cleared field. His choice
was a sensible one. These oaks could provide leaf fodder for goats, acorns
for pigs, possibly even for himself and his family given that these acorns
were mentioned as especially edible. Finally, these two oaks could provide
shade for Pantoléôn and his wife (whose name is not given in the text) if
they took a break from reaping and gathering their field’s cereal.
While the document that provides us with the only known evidence of
Pantoléôn’s existence was focused on determining what lands were owned
by a large monastery, called Iviron (and for that reason the document only
treated this peasant tangentially) the text reminds one that medieval
Romans (hereafter often called “Byzantines”), like most people in the
pre-industrial Mediterranean, had to pursue their existence next to, and
1
Actes d’Iviron, eds., Jacques LeFort, Nicolas Oikonomides, and Denise Papachryssanthou,
Vassiliki Kravari, and Hélène Métrévéli, vol. II Archives de l’Athos 16 (Paris: P. Lethielleux,
1985), pp. 187, no. 48, lines 4–5. The relevant passage and the translation are as follows.
“…And it comes down to the two trees that have been inscribed, that is the prickly oak and
the edible acorn-bearing oak, and cuts in half the small farm cleared by Pantoléôn, the son-
in-law of Dobrobétés…” διἔρχ(ε)τ(αι) τὰ δυο δένδρ(α) τὰ ἐσφραγισμ(έ)ν(α), ηγουν τὸν
πρινον (καὶ) τὸ ἡμεράδ(ιον), καὶ κόπτ(ει) μέσον τὸ χωρ(άφιον) τὸ ὑλοκωπηθ(ὲν) π(αρὰ)
Παντ(ο)λ(έοντος) γα(μβροῦ) Δοβροβήτ(ου). On page 187 the editors render the word
ἡμεράδιον as an edible acorn-bearing oak. Pantoléôn receives a brief reference in Jacques
LeFort, “The Rural Economy, Seventh-Twelfth Centuries,” in The Economic History of
Byzantium from the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, ed. Angeliki Laiou (Washington,
DC: Dumbarton Oaks, 2002), 271, n. 281.
2
Actes de Iviron II, pp. 187, no. 48, lines 4–5 (line 7 in the edition contained in the
Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, hereafter referred to as the TLG).
1 INTRODUCTION 3
3
Recent scholarship has done much to correct the erroneous conception that Byzantine
people were somehow not Roman. For the purposes of this book, when I use the term
“Byzantine” I am describing the inhabitants and culture of the Roman Empire as it existed,
without a gap, from the ancient era into the medieval one. These people called themselves
“Romans,” they called their polity “the Empire of the Romans,” and they represented them-
selves as Romans by means of their fashion, laws, and histories. They were not mistaken in
their self-conception. For the dismantling of claims to the contrary, see Anthony Kaldellis,
Hellenism in Byzantium: The Transformation of Greek Identity and the Reception of the
Classical Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007); Dimitris Krallis,
Serving Byzantium’s Emperors: the Courtly Life and Career of Michael Attaleiates (Cham,
Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, 2019).
4
Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II,
trans. Siân Reynolds, 2 vols. (London: Collins, 1973), 43.
4 A. OLSON
5
John McNeil, “The State of the Field of Environmental History,” Annual Review of
Environment and Resources 35 (2010): 346.
6
William Cronon, “Modes of Prophecy and Production: Placing Nature in History,” The
Journal of American History 76, no. 4 (1990): 1130.
7
Cronon, 1126.
8
For example, Donald, Worster, one of the heavyweights of environmental history, sug-
gested in a canonical work that environmental histories have three layers in their focus: his-
torical changes in the environment; humans’ material and economic interaction with the
environment; and humans’ cultural interaction with nature. See Donald Worster, “Doing
Environmental History,” in The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental
History, ed. Donald Worster (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 293–294.
9
For a great discussion of the dialectic and feedback between people and their environ-
ment in the medieval context, see Richard C. Hoffmann, An Environmental History of
Medieval Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), especially pages 7–15.
For some notable examples of how medievalists have produced environmental histories,
touching on different aspects of the relationships between people and their environments,
see Paolo Squatriti, Water and Society in early medieval Italy, AD 400–1000 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2002); Ellen F. Arnold, Negotiating the Landscape: Environment
and Monastic Identity in the Medieval Ardennes (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press, 2012).
1 INTRODUCTION 5
relatively few for the medieval European context, and especially rare for
the study of the medieval Roman Empire (hereafter called “Byzantium”).
An all-encompassing environmental history of Byzantium would repre-
sent a considerable undertaking and would probably run several volumes.
As most environmental histories concentrate on a specific topic, this book
focuses specifically on trees and woodland. Indeed, a particular attention
to trees can be beneficial in the realm of environmental history. Some his-
torians have already used trees as a focus of their work, broadening fellow
scholars’ perspectives on specific historical environments, cultures, and
economies in the process.10
Scholars of Byzantium, with one notable exception,11 have not made
the Byzantine interaction with trees a primary subject of their works.
However, several historians have touched on various other themes or
aspects of the Byzantine interaction with woodland or the changing land-
scape history of Byzantium. In several articles, John Haldon has made use
of fossilized pollen samples and historical texts to argue that the Caliphate’s
seventh-century warfare directed against Byzantium led to land abandon-
ment in central Anatolia and a consequent increase in tree cover.12 Another
Byzantinist, Adam Izdebski, has synthesized Byzantine history with
environmental data from the Anatolian portion of the Empire, arguing
that Asia Minor’s landscape became differentiated in the early middle ages,
with changes in the environment arising from land abandonment and
10
For early medieval Italy, see Paolo Squatriti, Landscape and Change in Early Medieval
Italy: Chestnuts, Economy, and Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013); for
modern (and not so modern) Indonesia, see Nancy Lee Peluso, “Fruit Trees and Family
Trees in an Anthropogenic Forest,” in Natures Past: The Environment and Human History,
ed. Paolo Squatriti, 54–102 (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 2007); for mod-
ern California, see Jared Farmer, Trees in Paradise: a California History (New York: W. W. Norton
and Company, 2013).
11
Archibald Dunn’s work, discussed below.
12
For examples of Haldon’s work on this topic, see John Haldon, “‘Cappadocia will be
given over to Ruin and Become a Desert’: Environmental Evidence for Historically-Attested
Events in the 7th–10th Centuries,” in Byzantina Mediterranea, Festschrift Johannes Koder,
ed. K. Belke et al. (Vienna, 2007), 215–230; Warren J. Eastwood, Osman Gumuscu, Hakan
Yigitbasioglu, John F. Haldon, and Ann England, “Integrating Palaeoecological and
Archaeo-Historical Records: Land Use and Landscape Change in Cappadocia (central
Turkey) Since Late Antiquity,” in Archaeology of the Countryside in Medieval Anatolia, eds.,
Tasha Vorderstrasse and Jacob Roodenberg (Leiden: Nederlands Institut voor het nabije
oosten, 2009); John Haldon et al., “The Climate and Environment of Byzantine Anatolia:
Integrating Science, History, and Archaeology,” Journal of Interdisciplinary History 45, no.
2 (2014): 113–161.
6 A. OLSON
13
Adam Izdebski, A Rural Economy in Transition: Asia Minor from Late Antiquity into the
Early Middle Ages, The Journal of Juristic Papyrology, Supplement 18 (Warsaw: University
of Warsaw, Faculty of Law and Administration; University of Warsaw, Institute of Archaeology;
Fundacja im. Rafała Taubenschlaga, 2013).
14
Leonora Neville, Authority in Byzantine Provincial Society, 950–1100 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2004), 2–3.
15
For example, see Warren J. Eastwood, Osman Gumuscu, Hakan Yigitbasioglu, John
F. Haldon, and Ann England “Integrating Palaeoecological and Archaeo-Historical Records:
Land Use and Landscape Change in Cappadocia (Central Turkey) Since Late Antiquity,” in
18 A. OLSON
36
For example, in hagiographical works it was imperative that the saintly protagonist pur-
sue an ascetic life for a period (which was analogous to Christ’s forty days in the desert) in
order for the saint to return to the world with no more weakness of the flesh. In this form,
the saint could be an agent of God. Other key elements had to be included, such as a miracle
at birth, a precocious desire to pursue the ascetic life, a sweet smell upon the saint’s death,
and posthumous miracles. See Mark Whittow, The Making of Byzantium, 600–1025 (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1996), 12.
37
Rosemary Morris, Monks and Laymen in Byzantium, 843–1118 (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995), 60, 69–70.
38
Whittow, 13–14.
39
For the text’s probable commissioning at the behest of the Emperor Konstantinos VII
(r. 913–959), see Alan Harvey, “The middle Byzantine economy: growth or stagnation?”
Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies 19 (1995): 243. For further discussion of the various
Byzantine elite figures who made use of the text for their purposes (such as beautifying a
garden), see John L. Teall, “The Byzantine Agricultural Tradition,” Dumbarton Oaks Papers
25 (1971): 42–44.
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accurate. A glaring instance of inaccuracy is abundantly apparent in
his account of this very journey over the ice, from the demolished
blockhouse to York, the capital of Upper Canada. He asserts that
this journey was performed from the coast of Lake Huron, across
Lake Michigan, to the town of York—an exploit which any one, by
slightly inspecting a map of North America, will instantly see is
impossible to be accomplished.
After Sir Edward Owen was appointed to the command of the
British naval force upon the Canadian lakes, he gave Clapperton an
acting order as a lieutenant, and appointed him to the command of
the Confiance schooner. This was a situation, which, as it implied
more responsibility than any he had hitherto held, likewise allowed
him a greater degree of liberty than he could have enjoyed, had he
been assigned a birth on board of a vessel commanded by a
superior officer. When, therefore, he had the command of the
Confiance, he was in the habit of making excursions into the forests
on the coast, both of lake Huron and lake Erie, for the purpose of
shooting game. While engaged in these excursions, he cultivated an
acquaintance with several of the Indian tribes. The romantic turn of
his mind led him not only to delight to associate with those aboriginal
inhabitants of America, but also to adopt their manners and customs,
and even to acquire their language. He became a great favourite
among them; for he sometimes treated them with feasts, and on
these occasions they used to fire a feu de joie in honour of him as
their benefactor. At one time, indeed, he entertained serious
intentions of uniting himself to the Indians, marrying a princess, and
thereby becoming a chief among them; and actually assumed the
distinctive badge of the Huron nation. This romantic and foolish
design was, however, soon relinquished; but the feasts which he had
given to the chiefs led to deficiency in his accounts to the victualling
department; and this deficiency was afterwards deducted from his
half pay, and was the means of involving him in pecuniary difficulties,
from which he was not altogether relieved till after his return from his
first expedition from Africa.
But notwithstanding this fact, he was a most active, diligent, and
efficient officer, while he served upon the lakes; so that it was the
wish of Sir Edward Owen that the acting order which he had given
him should be confirmed by the Board of Admiralty; and for this end
Clapperton sent it to his uncle in London; but as the Board of
Admiralty had just promoted a great number of naval officers, they
refused to confirm his commission at that time. It was the feeling of
disappointment arising from this refusal which made him form the
design of permanently connecting himself with the Indians. When he
went on shore to visit his friends among these tribes, he did not
always order a boat to be in attendance upon him to bring him on
board; but when he regarded it as time to return, he used to plunge
into the water with his clothes on, swim along side of the schooner,
and hail the people on board to take him up. This rash mode of
proceeding, however, nearly cost him his life; for on one occasion he
encountered a strong current which bore him away from his own
schooner, the Confiance; and it was with difficulty he could make
himself be heard, as in distress, and unable to bear up against the
stream, by the men on board the schooner commanded by
Lieutenant Adam Gordon, who sent a boat to fetch him on board.
This adventure put an end to the exploits of swimming to and from
the vessel, when he had occasion to be on shore. While he served
on the lakes, he was distinguished by another singular practice. In
the midst of winter he was in the habit of causing the ice to be
broken daily for the purpose of making an opening in which he might
bathe. He used to say, he felt a shock when he first plunged into the
cold water, but that this was followed by a pleasant glow. The place
which was broken in the ice, for the indulgence of this luxury, was
with great propriety designated “Clapperton’s bath,” as no one else
chose to participate with him in this species of pleasure. Yet amidst
all these singularities he never neglected his duty as an officer; he
loved to keep the sailors upon the alert; and when he rowed guard,
he delighted to surprise the sentinels.
Like most other Scotsmen, when at a distance from their native
land, he displayed a strong feeling of amor patriæ, and was
particularly attentive to any of his countrymen he happened to meet
with abroad, a fact which perhaps laid the foundation of his
attachment to Mackenzie. At any rate, when he was on the lakes,
there happened to be some species of merry-making among the
officers, when he met, for the first time, a gentleman from Edinburgh,
belonging to the medical department. As he had a very youthful
appearance, Clapperton supposed that he must be inexperienced,
and from a sincere desire to be serviceable to him, he took him aside
and advised him always to maintain his rights, gave him some sage
advice about his dress, and decorated his right thigh with a brilliant,
scarlet-coloured watch ribbon. This gentleman took all in good part,
assumed the aspect of the greenhorn which Clapperton supposed
him to be, and allowed him both to direct and decorate him as he
pleased. But when he understood that he was of considerable
standing in the service, he came to him and apologized for his
mistake—a thing which was of course accepted, and the curious
incident proved the commencement of a sincere and firm friendship
on both sides.
By this time our hero had become acquainted with Dr. Oudney, at
whose house we have had the pleasure of occasionally meeting him;
and when the Doctor was appointed to his exploratory expedition to
Africa, he expressed, through the medium of the common friend of
both, and to whose information we have been much indebted in
drawing up our memoir of their lives, his desire to be attached to the
mission. Clapperton could not boast the possession of much either
of the literary or the scientific knowledge requisite to constitute the
intelligent traveller; but he was distinguished for other qualities fitted
to render him a valuable acquisition to any mission similar to that to
the accomplishment of which Dr. Oudney had been appointed. The
portrait prefixed to the “Journal of his second Expedition,” shows that
his figure was tall, strong, and manly. He had a fine bust, and his
whole frame combined length of arm, great strength, weight, and
agility—circumstances which the portrait does not sufficiently
represent, and is also deficient in expressing his fine lion-like
forehead and eye. We have seen that he was endowed with a
constitution of almost invincible strength, that he possessed a most
enterprising disposition of mind, great conscientiousness in the
discharge of duty, and a heart alive to the kindly impressions of
compassion, and capable of strong and steady friendship. Such a
travelling companion was likely to be a treasure to a man like Dr.
Oudney; and he had the pleasure to be informed that his application
to have Clapperton attached to the mission was granted.
Accordingly, in the autumn of 1821, the travellers left Scotland for
London, with the view of then commencing their expedition to the
interior of Africa. In a letter to a friend dated London, September 1,
1821, Clapperton says, he had been supplied with arms, and had got
instruments of his own choosing, and mentions the sextant as the
most complete he had ever seen; he states to his friend that he had
had several agreeable interviews with his uncle; and adds, that he
was just on the eve of setting off for Falmouth. His next letter to the
same gentleman was written at Mourzuk, May 20, 1822, in which he
tells his friend that his health had continued vigorous, although the
heat was 106 degrees of Fahrenheit, in the shade; and says, that
Oudney was much admired by the ladies for the blackness of his
beard, and himself for the strength of his mustachoes. Oudney in a
postscript on the same sheet, says, “Clapperton is just the old man.
He is a strange-looking figure with his long sandy coloured beard
and mustachoes. You would smile were you to see him smoking his
pipe, and calling to his servant, Waddy ama simpri, or fill my pipe.” In
a subsequent letter from the same place, to the same
correspondent, Clapperton speaks in praise of the Tuaricks, whom
by this time, (Sept. 1822) he had visited. He says they are a fine
warlike race, who fear nothing but the devil and his agents, that they
offered to convey both him and Oudney to Timbuctoo; and adds,
“They wished me much to take a wife amongst them, but I said she
would have to go to Bournou and England with me, which got me out
of the scrape with a good grace, as their women never leave their
country, and those who marry them must stay with them.” And the
fact is that our hero very soon found himself as much at home
among the wild Tauricks, who traverse the sandy deserts of
Sahaara, as he had formerly done among the Indians who dwell in
the midst of the forests of Canada.
It would seem that Clapperton did not regard it as any part of his
duty to keep a separate journal while Oudney lived; nor was it
necessary, as they were generally together in all the excursions
which they made in Fezzan, and their joint observations were
combined by the Doctor into the same narrative, to which he put his
own name. But the case was greatly altered after the arrival of the
travellers in Bournou, where Oudney was seized with the illness
which terminated in death, upon the 12th of January, 1824. After this
mournful event, Clapperton, sick and sorrowful as he was,
proceeded onward to Kano, with the view of visiting Sackatoo, as
was originally intended. He reached this city, (as may be seen in his
printed journal) upon the 16th of March, and had many interviews
and long conversations with the sultan, Bello. He remained at
Sackatoo till the 4th of May, when he began to retrace his steps,—
again reached Kuka upon the 8th of July, and arrived in London in
the summer of 1825. Clapperton and Denham came from Tripoli to
Leghorn, sent the animals and baggage home by sea, under the
charge of Hillman, their only surviving companion, while they
themselves crossed the Alps, and on the 1st of June, 1825, they
reported their arrival in England to Earl Bathurst, under whose
auspices the mission had been sent to Africa.