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ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Seventh Edition

Joseph A. DeVito
Hunter College of the City University of New York
Please contact https://support.pearson.com/getsupport/s/with any queries on this content.

About the Cover

The cover image is intended to capture the idea of the ten steps to successful public speaking and that once you climb
the steps, you’ll see things differently. Mastering the art of public speaking will change you and your world view
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Copyright © 2021, 2018, 2015 by Pearson Education, Inc. or its affiliates, 221 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: DeVito Joseph A., author.

Title: Essential elements of public speaking / Joseph A. DeVito, Hunter
College of the City University of New York.
Description: Seventh edition. | Hoboken : Pearson, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020007493 (print) | LCCN 2020007494 (ebook) | ISBN
9780135709528 (paperback) | ISBN 9780135304969
Subjects: LCSH: Public speaking.
Classification: LCC PN4129.15 .D48 2020 (print) | LCC PN4129.15 (ebook) |
DDC 808.5/1—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007493
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020007494

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 Brief Contents

Contentsv
Specialized Table of Contents ix
Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speakingxi

Part One Fundamentals of Public Speaking

1 Introducing Public Speaking  1

2 Listening and Criticism 25

Part Two Preparing and Presenting Public Speeches

3 Select Your Topic, Purposes, and Thesis (Step 1)  46

4 Analyze Your Audience (Step 2)  62

5 Research Your Speech (Step 3)  82

6 Collect Supporting Materials (Step 4)  101

7 Using Presentation Aids (Step 4)  117

8 Organize Your Speech (Steps 5, 6, and 7)  135

9 Word and Rehearse Your Speech (Steps 8 and 9)  166

10 Present Your Speech (Step 10)  180

Part Three Types of Speeches

11 Informing Your Audience  197

12 Persuading Your Audience  218

13 Speaking on Special Occasions  253

14 Speaking in Groups  270

Glossary295
References302
Index307

iii
This page is intentionally left blank
 Contents

Specialized Table of Contents ix Summary: Introducing Public Speaking  23

Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speakingxi Key Terms: Introducing Public Speaking  24
Public Speaking Exercises 24
Part One F undamentals of Public
­Speaking  1 2 Listening and Criticism  25
Listening in Public Speaking  26
1 Introducing Public Speaking  1 Receiving  27
The Benefits of Studying Public Speaking  2 Understanding  27
Public Speaking Abilities  2 Remembering  27
Personal and Social Competencies  3 Evaluating  28
Academic and Career Skills  3 Responding  28
Deriving the Most Benefits from Your Study of Guidelines for Listening  29
Public Speaking  4 Listen Actively  29
The Essential Elements of Public Speaking  5 Listen Politely  30
Speaker  5 Listen for Total Meaning  30
Audiences  5 Listen with Empathy  31
Messages and Channels  6 Listen with an Open Mind  32
Noise  7 Listen Critically  32
Contexts  7 Listen Ethically  33
Ethics  8 Critical Evaluation in Public Speaking  34
Managing Communication Apprehension  9 Giving Criticism  35
The Nature of Communication Apprehension  12 Responding to Criticism  38
Reduce the Causes of Apprehension  12 Listening, Criticism, and Culture  40
Restructure Your Thinking  14 Listening and Culture  40
Practice Performance Visualization  14 Criticism and Culture  42
Summary: Listening and Criticism  44
Desensitize Yourself  15
Key Terms: Listening and Criticism  44
Preparing and Presenting a Speech:
Public Speaking Exercises 45
The 10 Steps in Brief  16
Step 1: Select Your Topic, Purposes, and Thesis  16
Step 2: Analyze Your Audience  17
Part Two P reparing and Presenting
­Public Speeches  46
Step 3: Research Your Topic  18
Step 4: Collect Supporting Materials  18
Step 5: Develop Your Main Points  18
3  elect Your Topic, Purposes,
S
and Thesis (Step 1)  46
Step 6: Organize Your Speech Materials  19
Step 7: Construct Your Introduction, Conclusion, Your Topic  47
and Transitions  19 Finding Topics  48
Step 8: Word Your Speech  19 Limiting Topics  51
Step 9: Rehearse Your Speech  20 Your Purposes  53
Step 10: Present Your Speech  20 General Purpose  53
The Speech of Self-Introduction  20 Specific Purpose  54
Guidelines for the Speech of Self-Introduction  21 Your Thesis  56
A Sample Speech of Self-Introduction  21 The Nature of the Public Speaking Thesis  56

v
vi Contents

Differences Between Theses and Purposes  56 General Reference Works  86

Wording and Using Your Thesis  57 Scholarly and Popular Journals  87
Summary: Select Your Topic, Purposes, and Thesis (Step 1)  60 The Government  88
Key Terms: Select Your Topic, Purposes, and Thesis (Step 1)  60 Evaluating Information  90
Public Speaking Exercises 60 Fairness  90

4 Analyze Your Audience (Step 2)  62 Accuracy  91

Currency  91
Some Universals of Audiences  63 Qualifications  91
All Audiences Are Unique  64 Sufficiency  92
All Audiences Are Diverse  64 Integrating and Citing Research  92
All Audiences Seek Profit of Some Kind  64 Cite the Sources in Your Speech  92
All Audiences Have Time Limitations  65 Integrate the Citation Smoothly  93
All Audiences Want Engagement/Involvement/­ Include Written Citations in Your Outline  93
Participation  65
Plagiarism  94
All Audiences Are Receptive (To Some Extent)  65
Types of Plagiarism—And When It’s Not
Learning About Your Audience  65 Plagiarism  95
Observe  65 Why Plagiarism Is Unacceptable  97
Collect Data Systematically  66 Avoiding Plagiarism: Four Guides  98
Interview Members of Your Audience  68 Summary: Research Your Speech (Step 3)  99
Use Inference and Empathy  68 Key Terms: Research Your Speech (Step 3)  99
Audience Sociology and Adaptation  68 Public Speaking Exercises 99
Age  69
Gender  69 6  ollect Supporting Materials
C
Affectional Orientation  70 (Step 4)  101
Educational Levels  71 Examples, Illustrations, and Narratives  102
Religion and Religiousness  71 Types of Examples, Illustrations, and Narratives  102
Cultural Factors  72 Guidelines for Using Examples, Illustrations, and
Other Audience Factors  73 ­Narratives  103
Context Characteristics  73 Analogies  104
Audience Psychology and Adaptation  74 Types of Analogies  104
How Willing Is Your Audience  74 Guidelines in Using Analogies  105
How Favorable Is Your Audience  74 Definitions  105
How Knowledgeable Is Your Audience  76 Types of Definitions  105
Analyzing and Adapting During the Speech  78 Guidelines in Using Definitions  106
Focus on Listeners as Message Senders  78 Testimony  107
Use Answers to Your “What If” Questions  79 Types of Testimony  107
Address Audience Responses Directly  79 Interviews  109
Summary: Analyze Your Audience (Step 2)  80 Guidelines in Using Testimony  110
Key Terms: Analyze Your Audience (Step 2)  80 Numerical Data  110
Public Speaking Exercises 81 Types of Numerical Data  110
Guidelines for Using Numerical Data  112
5 Research Your Speech
Additional Forms of Support  113
(Step 3)  82
Quotations  113
Reasons for Research and Types of Research  83 Comparison and Contrast  113
Reasons for Research  83 Simple Statement of Facts or Series of Facts  114
Types of Research Material  83 Repetition and Restatement  114
Sources of Information  85 Summary: Collect Supporting Materials (Step 4)  115
Libraries  85 Key Terms: Collect Supporting Materials (Step 4)  116
The Web  86 Public Speaking Exercises 116
 Contents vii

7 Using Presentation Aids (Step 4)  117 Outline Your Speech  155

Constructing the Outline  155
The Importance of Presentation Aids  118 Sample Outlines  157
Presentation Aids Help You Gain Attention Summary: Organize Your Speech (Steps 5, 6, and 7)  163
and Maintain Interest  118 Key terms: Organize Your Speech (Steps 5, 6, and 7)  164
Presentation Aids Add Clarity  118 Public Speaking Exercises 164
Presentation Aids Reinforce Your Message  119
Presentation Aids Contribute to Credibility 9  ord and Rehearse Your Speech
W
and Confidence  119 (Steps 8 and 9)  166
Presentation Aids Help Reduce Apprehension  119 Word Your Speech (Step 8)  167
Presentation Aids Can Offer Evidence  120 Clarity  167
Types of Presentation Aids  120 Vividness  168
Static Presentation Aids  120 Appropriateness  169
Dynamic Presentation Aids  126 Personal Style  170
Computer-Assisted Presentation Aids  127 Power  171
Guidelines for Effective Presentation Aids  129 Construct Your Sentences (Step 8)  171
Guidelines for Researching and Planning Use Culturally Sensitive Language (Step 8)  172
­Presentation Aids  129
Cultural Sensitivity  173
Guidelines for Delivering Your Speech with
Cultural Identifiers  173
­Presentation Aids  131
Summary: Using Presentation Aids (Step 4)  133 Rehearse Your Speech (Step 9)  176
Key Terms: Using Presentation Aids (Step 4)  133 Rehearsal Guidelines  176
Public Speaking Exercises 134 A Long-Term Delivery Improvement Program  177
Summary: Word And Rehearse Your Speech (Steps 8 and 9)  178
8 Organize Your Speech Key Terms: Word and Rehearse Your Speech (Steps 8 and 9)  178
(Steps 5, 6, and 7)  135 Public Speaking Exercises 179

Develop Your Main Points (Step 5)  136 10 Present Your Speech (Step 10)  180
Select Your Main Points  136
Limit the Number of Main Points  137 Present Your Speech (Step 10)  181

Focus on Your Audience  137 The Nature of an Effective Presentation  181

Word Your Main Points  138 Methods of Presentation  181
Organize Your Main Points (Step 6)  139 Effective Vocal Delivery (Step 10)  185
Time Pattern  139 Volume  185
Spatial Pattern  139 Rate  186
Topical Pattern  140 Pitch  187
Problem–Solution Pattern  140 Pauses  187
Cause–Effect/Effect–Cause Pattern  141 Articulation  188
Structure–Function Pattern  142 Pronunciation  188
Comparison and Contrast Pattern  142 Effective Bodily Action (Step 10)  189

Pro-and-Con Pattern  143 General Appearance  189

Claim-and-Proof Pattern  143 Eye Contact  190
Multiple-Definition Pattern  144 Facial Expression  191
Who? What? Why? Where? When? Pattern  144 Posture  191
Fiction–Fact Pattern  144 Gestures  191
Construct Your Introduction, Conclusion, Movement  191
and Transitions (Step 7)  145 Proxemics  192
Introductions  145 Using Notes  193
Conclusions  150 Handling Questions  193
Transitions  152 Summary: Present Your Speech (Step 10)  195
viii Contents

Key Terms: Present Your Speech (Step 10)  195 Persuasive Speeches of Fact  239
Public Speaking Exercises 196 Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Value  240
Persuasive Speeches on Questions of Policy  242
Part Three Types of Speeches  197
Sample Persuasive Speeches for Comparison  245

11 Informing Your Audience  197

Summary: Persuading Your Audience 
Key Terms: Persuading Your Audience 
251
252
Principles of Informative Speaking  198 Public Speaking Exercises 252
Keep Your Goal Always in Mind  198
Focus on Your Audience  199 13  peaking on Special
S
Stress Relevance and Usefulness  199 Occasions  253
Limit the Amount of Information  199 The Special Occasion Speech  254
Adjust the Level of Complexity  200 The Introduction Speech  255
Make Your Speech Easy to Remember  200 The Presentation or Acceptance Speech  258
Speeches of Description  201 The Speech to Secure Goodwill  259
Thesis  202 The Dedication Speech  261
Main Points  202 The Commencement Speech  261
Support  203 The Inspirational Speech  262
Organization  203 The Eulogy  264
Speeches of Definition  204 The Farewell Speech  265
Thesis  205 The Toast  267
Main Points  205 Summary: Speaking on Special Occasions  268
Support  205 Key Terms: Speaking on Special Occasions  269
Organization  205 Public Speaking Exercises 269
Speeches of Demonstration  206
Thesis  207 14 Speaking in Groups  270
Main Points  207
Small Groups and Teams  271
Support  208
Small Group Stages  272
Organization  208
Small Group Formats  273
Sample Informative Speeches for Comparison  209
Small Group Culture  274
Summary: Informing Your Audience  216
Key Terms: Informing Your Audience  216
Small Group Types  275
Public Speaking Exercises 216 Speaking in the Group  280
Member Roles  280
12 Persuading Your Audience  218 Membership Skills  282
Principles of Persuasive Speaking  219 Approaches to Group Leadership  285
Keep Your Goal Always in Mind  219 Leadership Skills  287
Be Culturally Sensitive  220 Speaking for the Group  289
Identify with Your Audience  223 General Speaking Guidelines  289
Secure a Yes Response  223 Speaking in the Panel Group  290
Anticipate Selective Exposure  224 Speaking in the Symposium and Team
Use Positive Labeling  224 Presentations  290

Ask for Reasonable Levels of Change  225 Presenting Oral and Written Reports  291
Summary: Speaking in Groups  292
Provide Social Proof  225
Key Terms: Speaking In Groups  293
Follow a Motivated Sequence  226
Public Speaking/Group Exercises 293
The Three Persuasive Proofs  229
Logical Proof (Logos)  229 Glossary295
Emotional Proof (Pathos)  232 References302
Credibility Proof (Ethos)  234 Index307

ETHICAL CHOICE POINTS
Silencing a Speech and Speaker (Chapter 1, p. 9)
Openness to Listening (Chapter 2, p. 39)
[Un]Suitable Theses (Chapter 3, p. 59)
Self and Audience Interests (Chapter 4, p. 65)
Reporting Plagiarism (Chapter 5, p. 98)
Misdirecting Your Audience (Chapter 6, p. 103)
Professional Assistance (Chapter 7, p. 124)
Organizing the Speech (Chapter 8, p. 156)
Self-Correction (Chapter 9, p. 177)
Code Switching to Imitate (Chapter 10, p. 189)
Informing to Persuade (Chapter 11, p. 200)
Fear as a Persuasive Strategy (Chapter 12, p. 235)
Appropriate Honesty (Chapter 13, p. 263)
Lying (Chapter 14, p. 289)
PUBLIC SPEAKING CHOICE POINTS
Journal 1.1 Preparing a Podcast: The Importance of Public
Speaking (Chapter 1, p. 5)
Journal 1.2 Cultural Insensitivity (Chapter 1, p. 6)
Journal 1.3 Dealing with Apprehension (Chapter 1, p. 14)
Journal 1.4 Finding the Right Supporting Material
(Chapter 1, p. 18)
Journal 1.5 Introducing Yourself (Chapter 1, p. 21)
Journal 2.1 Self-Identification (Chapter 2, p. 26)
Journal 2.2 Active Listening (Chapter 2, p. 30)
Journal 2.3 Ethical Listening (Chapter 2, p. 35)
Journal 2.4 Culture Clash (Chapter 2, p. 43)
Journal 3.1 Limiting a Topic (Chapter 3, p. 52)
Journal 3.2 Specific Purposes (Chapter 3, p. 56)
Journal 3.3 Statement of Thesis (Chapter 3, p. 59)
Journal 4.1 Mobile Competition (Chapter 4, p. 65)
Journal 4.2 Learning About Your Audience
(Chapter 4, p. 68)
Journal 4.3 Considering Age (Chapter 4, p. 74)
Journal 4.4 Unwilling Audience (Chapter 4, p. 77)
Journal 4.5 The Disengaged Audience (Chapter 4, p. 79)
Journal 5.1 Primary or Secondary (Chapter 5, p. 85)
Journal 5.2 Research Sources (Chapter 5, p. 90)
Journal 5.3 Checking Up (Chapter 5, p. 92)
Journal 5.4 Persuasive Citation (Chapter 5, p. 94)
Journal 5.5 Avoiding Plagiarism (Chapter 5, p. 98)
Specialized Table
of Contents
Journal 6.1 The Effective Example (Chapter 6, p. 104)
Journal 6.2 Selling Analogies (Chapter 6, p. 105)
Journal 6.3 Using Definitions (Chapter 6, p. 107)
Journal 6.4 The Ideal Interviewees (Chapter 6, p. 110)
Journal 6.5 Supporting Materials (Chapter 6, p. 112)
Journal 6.6 Additional Forms of Support
(Chapter 6, p. 114)
Journal 7.1 Presentation Aids (Chapter 7, p. 120)
Journal 7.2 The Infographic (Chapter 7, p. 124)
Journal 7.3 PowerPoint (Chapter 7, p. 129)
Journal 7.4 Presentation Aids (Chapter 7, p. 132)
Journal 8.1 Generating Main Points (Chapter 8, p. 137)
Journal 8.2 Choosing an Organizational Pattern
(Chapter 8, p. 144)
Journal 8.3 Developing an Effective Introduction
(Chapter 8, p. 149)
Journal 8.4 The Value of Outlines (Chapter 8, p. 157)
Journal 9.1 Speaking Style (Chapter 9, p. 171)
Journal 9.2 The Great Ending (Chapter 9, p. 172)
Journal 9.3 Combatting Cultural Insensitivity
(Chapter 9, p. 173)
Journal 9.4 Vocalized Pauses (Chapter 9, p. 177)
Journal 10.1 Presentation Methods (Chapter 10, p. 185)
Journal 10.2 Mispronunciation (Chapter 10, p. 189)
Journal 10.3 Audience Questions (Chapter 10, p. 194)
Journal 11.1 Memorable Speeches (Chapter 11, p. 201)
Journal 11.2 Describing for Diverse Audiences
(Chapter 11, p. 202)
Journal 11.3 Defining the Ideal (Chapter 11, p. 205)
Journal 11.4 Unexpected Happenings (Chapter 11, p. 207)
Journal 12.1 Using the Motivated Sequence (Chapter 12,
p. 229)
Journal 12.2 Selecting Persuasive Arguments (Chapter 12,
p. 232)
Journal 12.3 Developing Main Points (Chapter 12, p. 240)
Journal 12.4 Choosing Support (Chapter 12, p. 242)
Journal 12.5 Choosing an Organizational Pattern
(Chapter 12, p. 244)
Journal 13.1 Crafting the Speech of Introduction
(Chapter 13, p. 255)
Journal 13.2 Introducing a Favorite Personality
(Chapter 13, p. 258)
Journal 13.3 Presenting an Award (Chapter 13, p. 259)
Journal 13.4 Securing Goodwill (Chapter 13, p. 260)
Journal 13.5 The Dedication Speech (Chapter 13, p. 261)
ix
x Specialized Table of Contents
Journal 13.6 The Commencement Speech (Chapter 13,
p. 262)
Journal 13.7 An Inspiration Speech (Chapter 13, p. 264)
Journal 13.8 The Eulogy (Chapter 13, p. 264)
Journal 13.9 The Farewell Speech (Chapter 13, p. 265)
Journal 13.10 The Toast (Chapter 13, p. 267)
Journal 14.1 Stimulating Contributions (Chapter 14,
p. 277)
Journal 14.2 Demonstrating Leadership Skills
(Chapter 14, p. 285)
Journal 14.3 Making Adjustments (Chapter 14, p. 290)
PUBLIC SPEAKING EXERCISES
1.1 A Model of Public Speaking (p. 24)
1.2 Cultural Beliefs and Your Audience (p. 24)
2.1 Do You Really Remember What You Hear? (p. 45)
2.2 Listening to New Ideas (p. 45)
2.3 Writing a Critical Review (p. 45)
3.1 Brainstorming for Topics (p. 60)
3.2 Limiting Topics (p. 61)
4.1 How Well Do You Know Your Audience? (p. 81)
4.2 Analyzing an Unknown Audience (p. 81)
5.1 Research Effectiveness and Efficiency (p. 99)
5.2 Selecting Sources (p. 100)
6.1 Supporting Materials (p. 116)
6.2 Evaluating Testimony (p. 116)
7.1 Galileo and the Ghosts (p. 134)
7.2 Evaluating Presentation Aids (p. 134)
8.1 Generating Main Points (p. 164)
8.2 Constructing Introductions and Conclusions (p. 164)
8.3 Scrambled Outline (p. 164)
9.1 Distinguish Between Commonly Confused Words
(p. 179)
9.2 Giving Life to Your Sentences (p. 179)
10.1 Speech Delivery (p. 196)
10.2 Checking Pronunciation (p. 196)
11.1 Defining Terms (p. 216)
11.2 A 2-Minute Informative Speech (p. 217)
12.1 Constructing Motivational Appeals (p. 252)
12.2 Questions of Fact, Value, and Policy (p. 252)
13.1 Developing the Introduction Speech (p. 269)
13.2 Developing the Special Occasion Speech (p. 269)
14.1 Using Brainstorming Techniques (p. 293)
14.2 Solving Problems in Groups (p. 293)
14.3 Responding to Individual Roles (p. 294)
14.4 Empowering Group Members (p. 294)
PUBLIC SPEAKING SAMPLE ASSISTANTS
(SPEECHES AND OUTLINES)
Speeches:
Speech of Self-Introduction (Chapter 1, pp. 20–22)
A Poorly Constructed Informative Speech, “Biases”
(Chapter 11, pp. 210–211)
A Well-Constructed Informative Speech, “Mental Illness”
(Chapter 11, pp. 212–214)
A Poorly Constructed Persuasive Speech, “Football for Kids”
(Chapter 12, pp. 245–246)
An Excellent Persuasive Speech, “Funding Alzheimer’s
Research” (Chapter 12, pp. 247–249)
A Speech of Introduction (Chapter 13, pp. 256–258)
A Speech of Dedication (Chapter 13, p. 261)
A Speech of Inspiration (Chapter 13, p. 263)
A Eulogy (Chapter 13, pp. 264–265)
A Farewell Speech (Chapter 13, p. 266)
Outlines:
A Preparation Outline with Annotation (Topical
Organization) (Chapter 8, pp. 158–160)
A Template Outline (Topical Organization) (Chapter 8,
pp. 160–161)
A Phrase/Key-Word Delivery Outline (Chapter 8,
pp. 161–162)
A Preparation Outline with Annotations (Motivated Sequence
Organization) (Chapter 12, pp. 228–229)
 Welcome

to Essential Elements of Public

Speaking, Seventh Edition

I
t’s a great pleasure to write an introduction to this seventh edition of Essential
­Elements of Public Speaking. This book and this course will guide you through one of
the most important courses you’ll take in your entire college career. Public speak-
ing is a course that will prove exciting, challenging, and immensely practical. It is
also a course that is likely to create some anxiety and apprehension; this is normal.
Fortunately, the ­anxiety and apprehension can be managed, and we’ll deal with that
challenge right at the ­beginning, in Chapter 1.
This text and this course will help you master the skills you’ll need to give effective
informative, persuasive, and special occasion speeches and to speak more effectively in
and for a group. It will also teach you the skills of listening, especially the skills of criti-
cal listening. It will help you increase your personal and professional communication
abilities and will enhance a wide variety of academic and career skills such as organiza-
tion, research, and language usage.
This book is purposely short but not simplified or “dumbed down.” An “essentials”
book is not an elementary book; it’s an efficient book. And that’s what this book aims to
be—an efficient tool that will help you learn the essential skills for preparing and pre-
senting effective informative, persuasive, and special occasion speeches to an audience
and to apply these skills in small group settings.

What’s New in the Seventh Edition

Revel™
Revel is an interactive learning environment that deeply engages students and prepares
them for class. Media and assessment integrated directly within the authors’ ­narrative lets
students read, explore interactive content, and practice in one continuous l­earning path.
Thanks to the dynamic reading experience in Revel, students come to class p ­ repared to
­discuss, apply, and learn from instructors and from each other.

Learn more about Revel

www.pearson.com/revel

Rather than simply offering opportunities to read about and study ­communication,
Revel facilitates deep, engaging interactions with the c­ oncepts that matter most. For exam-
ple, when learning about public speaking, students are presented with a Personal Report
of Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA). The results of the a­ ssessment prompt students to
examine their level of a­ pprehension and consider how they could reduce their nervous-
ness in public speaking situations. By providing opportunities to read about and practice
­communication in tandem, Revel engages students directly and immediately, which leads
to a greater mastery of course material.

xi
xii Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speaking, Seventh Edition

A wealth of student and instructor resources and interactive materials can be

found within Revel, such as:

■■ Audio Speech Examples and Annotations In-line audio examples of effective

and ineffective speaking approaches are enhanced with audio demonstrations,
adding dimension and reinforcing learning in a way that a printed text cannot.
In the Public Speaking Sample Assistants, outlines and full speeches are anno-
tated by the author to highlight how the concepts in the text have been effectively
applied.

PUBLIC SPEAKING SAMPLE ASSISTANT

A PREPARATION OUTLINE WITH ANNOTATIONS (MOTIVATED SEQUENCE ORGANIZATION)

This outline illustrates how you might construct an outline lish a youth center, you might want to select two or three
and a speech using the motivated sequence. In a longer general arguments rather than limiting yourself to the one
speech, if you wanted to persuade an audience to estab- argument about reducing juvenile crime.

The Youth Center

General purpose: To persuade

Specific purpose: To persuade my listeners to vote in
favor of Proposition 14 establishing a
community youth center
Thesis: A youth center will reduce juvenile
crime.

I. If you could reduce juvenile crime by some 20 percent I. Attention step

by just flipping a lever, would you do it?
A. Thom’s drug store was broken into by teenagers.
B. Loraine’s video store windows were broken by
teenagers.
The speaker asks a question to gain attention and follows it with
specific examples that audience members have experienced. The
question and examples focus on one issue: the need to reduce
juvenile crime. If the speech were a broader one that included other
reasons for the center, then these would be previewed here as well.

II. Juvenile crime is on the rise. II. Need step

A. The overall number of crimes has increased.
1. In 2003 there were 32 juvenile crimes.
2. In 2010 there were 47 such crimes.
3. In 2013 there were 63 such crimes.
B. The number of serious crimes also has increased.
1. In 2003 there were 30 misdemeanors and 2
felonies.
2. In 2013 there were 35 misdemeanors and 28
felonies.
The speaker states the need directly and clearly and shows that
a problem exists. The speaker then demonstrates that the rise in
crime is significant both in absolute numbers and in the severity of
the crimes. To increase the listeners’ ability to understand these fig-
ures, it would help if these figures were written on a whiteboard, on
a prepared chart, or on PowerPoint slides. In a longer speech, other
needs might also be identified in this step; for example, the need to
offer teenagers a place where they can learn useful vocational and
social skills.

III. A youth center will help reduce juvenile crime.
A. Three of our neighboring towns reduced juvenile
crime after establishing a youth center.
1. In Marlboro there was a 20 percent decline in
overall juvenile crime.
2. In both Highland and Ellenville, the number of
serious crimes declined 25 percent.
B. The youth center will not increase our tax burden.
1. New York State grants will pay for most of the
expenses.
2. Local merchants have agreed to pay any re-
maining expenses.
III. Satisfaction step
In this step the speaker shows the listeners that the proposal to
establish a youth center has great benefits and no significant draw-
backs.
The speaker argues that the youth center will satisfy the need to
reduce juvenile crime by showing statistics from neighboring towns.
The speaker also answers the objection and removes any doubts
about increased taxes. If the speaker had reason to believe that
listeners might have other possible objections, those objections,
too, should be answered in this step.

IV. Juvenile crime will decrease as a result of the youth
center.
A. If we follow the example of our neighbors, our ju-
venile crime rates are likely to decrease by 20 to
25 percent.
B. Thom’s store would not have been broken into.
C. Loraine’s windows would not have been broken.
IV. Visualization step
Here the speaker visualizes what the town would be like if the youth
center were established, using both the statistics developed earlier
and the personal examples introduced at the beginning of the
speech.

■■ Videos and Video Quizzes A variety of videos are interspersed throughout the
narrative. Sketchnote videos walk students through important core concepts,
while clips of expert advice and speech examples boost mastery of those concepts.
Many videos are bundled with correlating self-checks, enabling students to test
their knowledge. The two excellent speeches in Chapters 11 and 12 are available
with accompanying video.
 Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speaking, Seventh Edition xiii

■■ New and Interactive Figures Figures, such as 8.4: A Sample Conclusion, give stu-
dents a hands-on experience, increasing their ability to grasp difficult concepts.
By allowing students to examine specific parts of a speech or model and offering
accompanying examples and explanations, broad and theoretical concepts be-
come easier to understand.

Figure 8.4 A Sample Conclusion

In this brief talk, I identified four main reasons Here the speaker repeats
why sports and education should be separated: his main assertion or
thesis.
■ Sports programs drain funds from other
activities and programs.
■ Sports programs divert attention, time, and
energy away from more important subjects.
■ Sports programs create an in-group and an
out-group. The speaker summarizes
■ Sports programs set up unrealistic goals. the four points he made
in the speech.
When school issues come up for a vote or
for debate, think about these reasons as to why
This brief motivation is sports and education should be separated. Or,
an attempt to get the
listeners to apply what’s when your nephew or niece or daughter or son
been said in the speech asks about playing sports, consider discussing the
to their own lives. very real disadvantages of sports in education.
By the way, I still enjoy playing basketball; it’s Here the speaker closes
in a way that signals the
end of the speech.

■■ Integrated Writing Opportunities To help students connect chapter content with

their own personal and social lives, each chapter offers two varieties of writing
prompts: Journal: Public Speaking Choice Point questions provide opportunities
for free-form, topic-specific responses (one per module) while the Shared Writing
prompt at the end of every chapter offers an opportunity for focused, brief
­responses that students can share with each other.
To access your own Revel account and get more information about the tools and
resources in Revel, go to www.pearson.com/revel.
xiv Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speaking, Seventh Edition
JOURNAL 1.3
Public Speaking Choice Point
DEALING WITH APPREHENSION
This is Harry’s first experience with pub-
lic speaking and he’s very nervous. He’s
afraid he’ll forget his speech or stumble
somehow. So, he’s wondering if it would
be a good idea to alert the audience of
this fear. What are Harry’s options for
dealing with this issue? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each
option? What would you advise Harry
to do?
This new seventh edition of Essential Elements of Public Speaking also contains ­major
structural and content changes. All of these changes were made to make the text narra-
tive flow more freely and to give greater emphasis where needed. These changes should
make the book easier to read, more easily adaptable to d ­ ifferent teaching/learning
styles, and more in line with today’s public speaking.
Structural Change
There are a few structural changes in this edition that should be noted:
■■ In the previous edition, audience analysis and research were covered in the
same chapter. In this edition, each topic is given its own chapter: Analyze Your
Audience (Chapter 4) and Research Your Speech (Chapter 5).
■■ Similarly, the chapter on wording, rehearsing, and presenting the speech has
been divided into two chapters: Word and Rehearse Your Speech (Chapter 9) and
Present Your Speech (Chapter 10).
■■ The speeches—instead of being placed in an appendix—are now included in
the relevant chapters. So, the speech of self-presentation appears in Chapter 1
­(Introducing Public Speaking); both a poorly-constructed and a well-constructed
informative speech appear in Chapter 11 (Informing Your Audience); both a
poorly constructed and a well-constructed persuasive speech appear in Chapter
12 (Persuading Your ­Audience); and the special occasion speeches, which were
in Chapter 11 in the previous edition, now appear in Chapter 13 (Speaking on
Special Occasions). A complete list of speeches (and outlines) is provided in the
Specialized Table of Contents.
Chapter Overview and Updates
Throughout the text, there are new and updated Viewpoints (photos and captions),
­Journal: Public Speaking Choice Points, and Ethical Choice Points. Explanations of
these features have been added with the feature’s first appearance in Chapter 1 and are
­explained further under “Text Features” below. To keep the text current we have given
­increased attention to online public speaking and updated the research. Stylistic revisions
and organizational changes were made throughout to make the text flow more s­ moothly.
Here is a brief discussion of the chapters’ main content and some notable changes.
Part One: Fundamentals of Public Speaking consists of two chapters that introduce
public speaking and listening.
■■ Chapter 1 (Introducing Public Speaking) discusses the benefits of studying
public speaking, the essential elements in the public speaking process, public
speaking apprehension, the ten steps for preparing a speech, and the speech of
self-­introduction. New to this chapter are an expansion of the discussion of ethics
and a new self-test on ethical public speaking. The discussion of apprehension
includes more coverage on the nature of apprehension and the factors causing
apprehension. A new annotated sample speech of self-introduction offers spe-
cific guidelines on this common first speech assignment. Also in Revel are three
new videos: What Should I Study Public Speaking, TED’s Secret to Great Public
Speaking, and Why Is Ethics Important in Free Speech.
■■ Chapter 2 (Listening and Criticism) covers the role of listening in public speaking,
guidelines for effective listening, critical evaluation in public speaking, and the role
of culture in listening and criticism. The coverage of listening remains ­essentially as
in the previous edition with some new photos and some stylistic changes. In Revel,
Chapter 2 includes a new video exploring how to listen across cultures.
 Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speaking, Seventh Edition xv

Part Two. Preparing and Presenting Public Speeches consists of eight chapters that
cover the ten essential steps in preparing a public speech.
■■ Chapter 3 (Select Your Topic, Purposes, and Thesis, Step 1) covers selecting and
limiting speech topics, phrasing speech purposes, and developing, wording, and
applying the thesis. New to this chapter is the addition of the tree diagram as a
method for limiting topics along with an illustrated diagram, and new examples.
A new video in Revel explores how to choose the right topic for your speech.
■■ Chapter 4 (Analyze Your Audience, Step 2) covers the importance of audience
analysis and adaptation, specific characteristics of audiences to consider when
preparing a speech and suggestions for adapting to these variations. This chapter
contains new examples and a major new section on universals of audiences, that
is, those characteristics that all audiences have in common and that a speaker
needs to understand (unique, diverse, profit seeking, time limited, involved, and
receptive). In Revel, new videos include topics such as communicating to different
audiences, getting to know your audience, analyzing your audience, and how to
connect with a virtual audience.
■■ Chapter 5 (Research Your Speech, Step 3) considers the reasons for and the types of
research, the major sources of information, the criteria for evaluating ­information,
integrating and citing research, and how to avoid plagiarism. This chapter c­ ontains
­additional guidelines for evaluating information and an expansion of the p ­ lagiarism
section with a new self-test on what is and what is not plagiarism as well as
discussions of the types of plagiarism (direct, self, mosaic, and accidental), and
­
what determines fair use and common knowledge. It also contains a new ­exercise
on ­selecting sources. Revel expands its video offerings to include videos on ­finding
supporting materials, selecting sources right for your research, the i­ssues with
­cherry-picking data, ­evaluating sources, and oral citations.
■■ Chapter 6 (Collect Supporting Materials, Step 4) covers the traditional s­ upporting
materials: examples, illustrations, and narratives; analogies; definitions; testimony;
and numerical data (as well as quotations, comparisons and contrasts, fact series,
and repetition and restatement). New student examples are used to ­illustrate the
varied forms of support.
■■ Chapter 7 (Using Presentation Aids, Step 4, continued) continues the discussion of
using supporting materials, here on presentation aids—their importance, the types
of aids (reorganized into static and dynamic aids), computer-assisted presentation
aids (along with new PowerPoint slides), and general guidelines for using all types of
­presentation aids. The chapter in Revel features new videos about types of presenta-
tion aids, how typeface influences presentations, and how to use presentation aids.
■■ Chapter 8 (Organize Your Speech, Steps 5, 6, and 7) covers three closely related steps
in the public speaking process: developing your main points, organizing the main
points, and constructing the introduction, conclusion, and transitions. A s­ ection on
outlining with examples of the preparation, delivery, and template outlines con-
cludes the chapter. The video program in Revel has been expanded to include vid-
eos on structuring speeches, how spoilers can improve speeches, i­ntroductions and
conclusions, how to use signposting, and using outlines for speech presentation.
■■ Chapter 9 (Word and Rehearse Your Speech, Steps 8 and 9) covers language
(choosing words and constructing sentences for oral presentation) and offers a va-
riety of suggestions for rehearsing the speech. This chapter now includes a discus-
sion of abstraction (moved from the informative speaking chapter), an expansion
on sentence construction, and a more thorough discussion of cultural sensitivity
and cultural identifiers. In Revel, new video topics discuss whether profanity is
ever okay to use in public speaking, examine Roosevelt’s first ­inaugural speech,
and present an overview of delivery.
xvi Welcome to Essential Elements of Public Speaking, Seventh Edition

■■ Chapter 10 (Present Your Speech, Step 10) discusses the varied methods of presenta-
tion (including a new section on the memorized speech), effective vocal delivery, and
effective bodily action, along with suggestions for using notes and handling ques-
tions. Several new videos in Revel explore what news anchors can teach us about
public speaking, modes of delivery, how vocal fry and upspeak affect speech, why
we use filler words, vocal delivery, how politicians know their audience, ­physical
­delivery, and how to run a successful social media Q & A.
Part Three: Types of Speeches contains four chapters that cover the major speaking
purposes: speaking to inform, speaking to persuade, speaking on special occasions, and
speaking in and for the group.
■■ Chapter 11 (Informing Your Audience) covers the principles of informative ­speaking
and the three major types of informative speeches (the speech of description,
­definition, and demonstration). This chapter contains a variety of new examples and
a new annotated excellent informative speech on mental illness. In Revel, Chapter 11
includes two new videos featuring sweating and showcasing an informative speech:
Mental Illness.
■■ Chapter 12 (Persuading Your Audience) covers the principles of persuasive
speaking, the three persuasive proofs (logos, pathos, and ethos), and the three
types of persuasive speeches (speeches on questions of fact, value, and policy).
This chapter also contains new student examples and a new poorly constructed
speech. The video program in Revel has been expanded to include videos on
analyzing the persuasive situation, Monroe’s motivated sequence, persuasive ap-
peals, and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
■■ Chapter 13 (Speaking on Special Occasions) covers the wide variety of special
occasion speeches, for example, the speech of introduction, presentation and
acceptance, the eulogy, the toast, the speech to secure goodwill, and a brief
­
consideration of the speech of concession in a Viewpoint. This chapter now
­
­contains a new section on the general principles of special occasion speeches and
new speeches of introduction and dedication. In Revel, all new videos showcase
Senator John McCain’s concession speech, Tiger Woods’ body language, a tribute
to Steve Prefontaine, and an elegy for a special person by Eric Keller.
■■ Chapter 14 (Speaking in Groups) focuses on the skills of group membership and
group leadership and the skills for presenting the group’s thinking and decisions.
Revel features many new videos including the speech “Helping Annie,” and vid-
eos discussing how to balance group roles, leadership styles, and how to give a
great virtual presentation.

Text Features
This book is a complete learning package, enhanced by a variety of features that make
this course and this book more interesting, more relevant, and more useful.

■■ Ten Steps to Public Speaking guide you in the preparation and presentation of
a public speech. The 10-step system makes the preparation and presentation of
a public speech more efficient by breaking the process into discrete, manageable
steps that are addressed in detail throughout the book. A major section of Chapter
1 ­presents the 10 steps in brief. Here you’ll learn to accomplish everything from
selecting a topic to organizing your materials, rehearsing, and presenting your
speech. The ­remaining chapters parallel the steps outlined in this section and
elaborate on each step—­helping you to gradually refine and perfect your public
speaking skills.
■■ Learning Objectives Learning objectives appear at the beginning of the chapter,
at the beginning of each major section or module, and in the summary at the end
10 Chapter 1

speaking to of 20 or 30 people or creating a podcast that will be heard by thousands.

Plus, you’re being evaluated. Your fear is normal. Fortunately, this fear is also some-
thing that can be managed and made to work for you rather than against you. So, let’s
deal with this fear of public speaking and explain what it is and how you can manage it.
You may wish to pause here and consider your own apprehension about speaking
in public by taking the accompanying test (McCroskey, 1970).

Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA)

Directions: Below are 34 statements that people sometimes make about them-
selves. Please indicate whether you believe each statement applies to you by marking
whether you:
Strongly Disagree ∙ 1; Disagree ∙ 2; Neutral ∙ 3; Agree ∙ 4; Strongly Agree ∙ 5.
1. _____ While preparing for giving a speech, I feel tense and nervous.
2. _____ I feel tense when I see the words speech and public speech on a course
outline when studying.

3. _____ My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech.

4. _____ Right after giving a speech I feel that I have had a pleasant experience.

5. _____ I get anxious when I think about a speech coming up.

6. _____ I have no fear of giving a speech.

7. _____ Although I am nervous just before starting a speech, I soon settle down after
starting and feel calm and comfortable.

8. _____ I look forward to giving a speech.

9. _____ When the instructor announces a speaking assignment in class, I can feel
myself getting tense.

10. _____ My hands tremble when I am giving a speech.

11. _____ I feel relaxed while giving a speech.

12. _____ I enjoy preparing for a speech.

13. _____ I am in constant fear of forgetting what I prepared to say.

14. _____ I get anxious if someone asks me something about my topic that I don’t know.

15. _____ I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence.

16. _____ I feel that I am in complete possession of myself while giving a speech.

17. _____ My mind is clear when giving a speech.

18. _____ I do not dread giving a speech.

19. _____ I perspire just before starting a speech.

20. _____ My heart beats very fast just as I start a speech.

21. _____ I experience considerable anxiety while sitting in the room just before my
speech starts.

22. _____ Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech.

23. _____ Realizing that only a little time remains in a speech makes me very tense
and anxious.

24. _____ While giving a speech, I know I can control my feelings of tension and stress.

25. _____ I breathe faster just before starting a speech.

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
hardly capable of dealing with more than 500 tons per annum. I
found complaints rife as to the alleged favouritism shown by the
company in its management of the transport, but I failed to discover
any specific facts justifying them. Of course the company enjoys a
complete monopoly of that road, even the Government, it seems,
having to apply to the company for carriers; and a monopoly is
always undesirable in theory and sometimes very irritating in
practice. (Apparently the same situation has come about in regard to
the Riga-Chikum road.) But it is difficult to see how any tin at all
could have been got down, or machinery and stores got up, to and
from the river if it had not been for the company’s enterprise and far-
seeing methods. Certainly the loudest of its local critics would have
been quite unable to have coped with the problem.
Something remains to be said of the Bauchi province. The
province consists of the Bauchi and Gombe Emirates, the Ningi
Division, an independent community half Muslim, half pagan, of
erstwhile noted freebooters and fighters, and the purely pagan
section, of which the Hill Division is the most important. The total
population is about half a million. In no part of Africa probably is
there such a conglomeration of different tribes—Angass, Sura,
Tangali, Chip, Waja, Kanna, Bukurus, etc., etc.—as is to be found in
the pagan division of Bauchi which, for centuries, has been the
refuge of communities fleeing from Hausa, Fulani and Beri-Beri
(Kanuri) pressure. No fewer than sixty-four distinct languages—not
dialects—are said to have been noted within it. The men are an
upstanding race, lithe rather than muscular, great archers and in
many cases daring horsemen, riding bare-backed, covering
immense distances in a phenomenally short space of time and
shooting accurately (with the bow) while mounted. Most of them go
about absolutely naked but for a sanitary adornment of special
character. For a picture of primitive man commend me to the
spectacle of a naked Bauchi pagan carrying a bow in his hand, on
his back a quiver of arrows; on his head, its horns sticking out on
either side, the gory and newly severed head of an ox—the “Boar of
the Ardennes” in variation and in an African setting of rugged
mountains and dying sun! I observed this sight one evening riding
into Naraguta from a distant mining camp, passing, ten minutes later,
a gorgeously attired Mohammedan Sariki in his many coloured robes
on a richly caparisoned horse. Northern Nigeria is a land of
extraordinary contrasts, which to some extent no doubt is the secret
of its fascination. The women’s clothing is also of the scantiest,
consisting of a bunch of broad green leaves fixed round the waist
and falling over the hips and lower abdomen. Their chastity is
proverbial even among the dissolute camp-followers.

SCENE IN THE BAUCHI HIGHLANDS.

Among these people many customs of great anthropological

interest must linger, many religious practices and philological secrets
that might give us the key to much of which we are still ignorant in
the history of the country, and assist us in the art of government. It
seems a pity that their gradual Hausa-ising, which must be the
outcome of the pax britannica, should become accomplished before
these facts have been methodically studied and recorded. The
pagan division of Bauchi is a unique corner of Africa, and it would be
well worth the while of Government and of some scientific body at
home to prosecute research within it. The Administration has no
money to spare. But it is really a misfortune that public opinion in
England is so lax in these matters. We wait in order to understand
the ethnological lore of our African dependencies, until German
scientists have gone through them and told us what they contain of
anthropological value, incidentally sweeping the country bare of its
ethnological treasures. In these things we appear to have no national
pride whatever. If any British scientific body should be stung by these
mild remarks into some sort of action, I would advise its
communicating with Captain Foulkes, the Political Officer until
recently in charge of the Hill Division, who is keenly interested in the
people and their customs which he has more knowledge of than any
one else.
The soil of the province is supposedly poor, but I observed it to be
covered in many places with millions of casts of virgin soil flung up
by earthworms, and these must, when the rains come, enrich its
recuperative properties. The province would probably grow wheat.
The pagan cultivation is very deep and remarkably regular, and
these communities, for all their primitiveness, weave grass mats of
tasteful finish, colouring and design; grow cotton which they
manufacture and sell, and tobacco which they smoke, and snuff, and
smelt iron. They are also readily taking to the rubber trade and
learning how to tap the rubber trees which, in some parts, are to be
met with in every village, without destroying the tree. In the plains
there are large herds of cattle, which form the principal wealth of the
inhabitants, and an abundance of good grazing land. The Fulani
herdsman, ubiquitous as ever, may be seen tending his beasts.
On all hands the Bauchi plateau is looked upon as an eventual
sanatorium where officials can recoup, and thanks to which the term
of service may be ultimately prolonged, which, with the keenness
which distinguishes this service, they all seem to want—the
Politicals, I mean. Even now they play hide-and-seek with the
doctors, and keep uncommonly quiet when the time comes round for
furlough, lying low like Brer Rabbit. I hesitate to strike a discord
where so much unanimity prevails. No doubt it is a generally
accepted maxim that the bracing air of a mountainous region, its cool
nights and mornings, have recuperative effects upon the system
undermined with malaria and other ills, and it may well be—I
devoutly hope so—that in course of time the plateau will become the
Nigerian Simla and may also contain a population of white settlers
engaged in stock-raising and, perhaps, agriculture. But the period
within which these things can come about strikes me as still remote.
If they are to be, it will mean the expenditure of much money, and,
under existing circumstances of transport and housing, the climate of
Bauchi has been over-praised. You have always the tropical African
sun to reckon with, and there appears to be some subtly dangerous
quality about it which even men who have lived in other tropical
lands find very trying.
 CHAPTER XVII
THE NECESSITY OF AMALGAMATING THE TWO PROTECTORATES

No interested student of Nigerian affairs can fail, I think, especially

after an examination of the problem on the spot, to arrive at the
conclusion that the present dual system of administration, with its
artificial territorial boundaries, its differing methods, and its inevitable
rivalries, has served its turn and should be brought to an end as
speedily as possible. The situation, as it obtains to-day, is
incongruous—in some respects almost absurd; and the absence of a
sense of proportion in estimating responsibilities and acknowledging
public services is conspicuous. No comprehensive scheme of
development and, what is more important, no unity of principle in
public policy is possible while it lasts. Moreover, just as each
Administration settles itself more firmly in the saddle and pursues its
own aims with increasing determination, so will differences in the
handling of great public issues accentuate themselves and eventual
adjustment on a common basis of principle be attended with
additional perplexity. It is not only quite natural, but under the
existing circumstances it is right that the Administration of Southern
Nigeria should work for the interests of Southern Nigeria and the
Administration of Northern Nigeria for the interests of the latter. But
Nigeria is geographically a single unit, and Imperial policy suffers
from a treatment which regards the interests of one section as not
only distinct from, but in certain cases antagonistic to the interests of
the other. It is not suggested that administration should everywhere
be carried out on the same pattern. No one would contend that the
problems of government in the Northern Hausa provinces can, for
instance, be assimilated to the problems of government in the
Eastern Province of the Southern Protectorate. But that the main
principles of government should be identical, and that the governing
outlook should be directed to a consideration of the interests of
Nigeria as a whole, can hardly be disputed. Take, for example, the
question of direct and of indirect rule. The tendency in Southern
Nigeria, as the Secretariat gets stronger and the initiative of the
Commissioners decreases, is towards direct rule, especially in the
Western Province. Northern Nigeria has resolutely set the helm in
the contrary direction. Take the question of taxation. North of the
imaginary line which separates the two Protectorates the native pays
a direct tax to the Administration, and tribute from the people to their
natural Chiefs and to the Government is assured on specific
principles. South of that line the native pays no direct tax to
Government, and in the Western Province the Central Administration
doles out stipends, apparently suspendable, to the Chiefs, while the
paying of native tribute to the Chiefs, where it has not altogether
ceased, exists only by the internal conservatism of native custom.
Take the question of education. The Southern Nigerian system is
turning out every year hundreds of Europeanized Africans. The
Northern Nigeria system aims at the establishment of an educational
system based upon a totally different ideal. In Northern Nigeria the
land question has been settled, so far as the Northern Protectorate is
concerned, on a broad but sure foundation; but the Southern
Nigerian native is an alien in Northern Nigerian law. In Southern
Nigeria there is no real land legislation, and the absence of such,
especially in the Western Province, is raising a host of future
complications. Every year the gulf widens between the two ideals,
and its ultimate bridging becomes a matter of greater difficulty. While
on the one hand the Northern Nigeria Administration has had the
priceless advantage of “starting fresh” and has been compelled to
concentrate upon political and administrative problems, British rule in
Southern Nigeria has been the slow growth of years, advancing here
by conquest, there by pacific penetration, here by one kind of
arrangement with native Chiefs, there by another kind of
arrangement. Politically and of necessity British rule in Southern
Nigeria is a thing of shreds and patches. The last two Governors,
both very able men in their respective ways, have had, moreover,
strong leanings in particular directions; sanitation was the load-star
of the first; road construction, clearing of creeks and channels,
harbour improvements and commercial development the chief
purpose of the latter. It is no reflection upon either (the material
advance of the Protectorate under Sir Walter Egerton’s
administration has been amazing) to say that, between them,
questions vitally affecting the national existence of the people, the
study and organization of their laws and courts and administrative
authority, have been left somewhat in the background. In criticizing a
West African Administration it must always be borne in mind that no
broad lines of public policy are laid down from home. None of the
Secretary of State’s advisers have ever visited Nigeria, and however
able they may be that is a disadvantage. There is no West African
Council composed of men with experience of the country, as there
ought to be, which would assist the Permanent Officials in advising
the Secretary of State. The result is that each Governor and each
Acting-Governor “runs his own show” as the saying is. One set of
problems is jerked forwards by this Governor, another by another.
The Governor’s position is rather like that of a Roman Emperor’s,
and the officials responsible for large districts, never knowing what a
new Governor’s policy is going to be, look upon every fresh change
with nervous apprehension, which has a very unsettling effect. A
vast wastage of time as well as many errors would be avoided if we
had clear ideas at home as to the goal we are pursuing, and laid
down specific principles by which that goal could be attained. This
could be done without hampering the Governors. Indeed, the very
indefiniteness of the home view on all these problems is often a
serious handicap to a Governor who, for that very reason, may
hesitate to take action where action is required, fearing, rightly or
wrongly, the influence which Parliamentary questions may exercise
upon the Secretary of State, and who may also find himself
committed by an Acting-Governor, in his absence, to actions of
which he personally disapproves. In other instances the existence of
definite plans in London would act as a salutary check upon sudden
innovations by a new and inexperienced Governor. Frequent
changes of Governors there must be until the conditions of life in
Nigeria are very much improved; but the inconveniences arising
therefrom would be largely mitigated if there were continuity of a
well-thought-out policy at home.
This digression is not, perhaps, altogether irrelevant to the subject
under discussion.
 The position of Northern Nigeria is very anomalous. A vast
Protectorate shut off from the seaboard by another less than four
times its size; having no coastline, and the customs dues on whose
trade are collected by the latter. Southern Nigeria enjoying a very
large revenue; its officials decently housed and catered for; able to
spend freely upon public works and to develop its natural resources.
Northern Nigeria still poor, a pensioner upon the Treasury, in part
upon Southern Nigeria; unable to stir a step in the direction of a
methodical exploration of its vegetable riches; its officials housed in
a manner which is generally indifferent and sometimes disgraceful,
many of them in receipt of ridiculously inadequate salaries, and now
deprived even of their travelling allowance of five shillings a day. The
latter measure is so unjust that a word must be said on the subject.
The reason for the grant of this allowance [which the Southern
Nigerian official enjoys] was frequent travelling, expensive living, and
mud-house accommodation. As regards the two first, the arguments
to-day are even stronger than they used to be. The safety of the
roads and the increased pressure of political work compels the
Resident and his assistants to be more or less constantly on the
move if they are worth their salt. When travelling about the country,
4s. to 5s. a day and sometimes a little more is an inevitable
expenditure; at present, a clear out-of-pocket one. As to living, it is a
commonplace that the price of local food supplies is very much
higher than it was seven years ago, while the price of goods
imported from abroad have not all appreciably decreased. So far as
the mud-houses are concerned, probably more than half the officials,
except at places like Zungeru and Kano, live in mud-houses to-day.
The Resident at Naraguta, for instance, lives in a leaky mud-house,
while the Niger Company’s representative at Joss, five miles off, has
a beautiful and spacious residence of brick and timber. A good mud-
house is not to be despised, but the money to build even good ones
is quite inadequate. I could give several examples where officials
have spent considerable sums out of their own pockets to build
themselves a decent habitation of mud and thatch. Some of the
juniors have to be content with grass-houses, draughty, bitterly cold
at night and in the early morning, and leaky to boot. Moreover, many
of the brick-houses supplied are an uncommonly poor exchange for
£90 a year. They are made of rough local brick, which already show
symptoms of decay, and the roof is often so flimsy that in the
verandah and supper-room one has to keep one’s helmet on as
protection against the sun. I am not at all sure that the real official
objection to all but leading officials bringing out their wives is not to
be sought in the assumption that married officials, other than of the
first grade, would no longer put up with the crude discomfort they
now live in, and would be a little more chary of ruining their health by
touring about in the rains—at their own expense. That Northern
Nigeria is not under present conditions a fit place for other than an
exceptional type of woman I reluctantly admit; but that the constant
aim of Government should be to improve conditions in order to make
it so I am fully persuaded. Our women as well as our men have built
up the Empire and made it, on the whole, the clean and fine thing it
is, and what a good woman, provided she is also a physically strong
one, can accomplish in Northern Nigeria is beyond calculation. It is
not too much to say of a very extensive region in the eastern part of
the Protectorate, that the moral influence of one such woman is
powerfully felt throughout its length and breadth. Other aspects of
this question will obviously suggest themselves, and they ought to be
boldly tackled; but the national prudery makes it difficult to discuss
such matters openly. The salaries paid in Northern Nigeria fill one
with astonishment. The salary of a first class Resident appears to
vary from £700 to £800; that of a second class Resident from £550
to £650; that of a third class Resident from £450 to £550. Kano
Province when I visited it was in charge of a third class Resident,
admittedly one of the ablest officials in the country, by the way; that
is to say, an official drawing £470 a year was responsible for a region
as large as Scotland and Wales, with a population of 2,571,170! The
Bauchi Province was in charge of a second class Resident, drawing
£570 a year; it is the size of Greece, has a population of about three-
quarters of a million, and additional administrative anxieties through
the advent of a white mining industry. These two instances will
suffice. The men saddled with these immense responsibilities are
really Lieutenant-Governors and should be paid as such. It is
perfectly absurd that an official in whom sufficient confidence is
reposed to be given the task of governing a huge Province like Kano
should be paid the salary of a bank clerk, when, for instance, the
Governor of Sierra Leone, with half the population,[12] is drawing
£2500, exclusive of allowances. A comparison of the Northern
Nigeria salaries with those paid to the Governors of the West Indian
Islands gives furiously to think. The Governorship of the Bahamas,
4404 square miles in extent, with a population of 61,277, is
apparently worth £2000; that of the Bermudas, with an area of
twenty-nine square miles and a population of 17,535, £2946; that of
Barbados, 166 square miles and a population of 196,498, £2500.
 CHAPTER XVIII
RAILWAY POLICY AND AMALGAMATION

SCENE ON THE SOUTHERN NIGERIA (EXTENSION) RAILWAY.

 PLATE-LAYING ON THE NORTHERN NIGERIA RAILWAY.

To all these incongruities must be added the series of events

which have led to the creation of two competing railway systems,
and, consequently, to open rivalry between the two Administrations
in the effort to secure the traffic from the interior, a rivalry which is
certainly not lessened by the circumstance that the method of
railway construction followed in one Protectorate differs radically
from that pursued in the other. This rivalry, needless to say, is
perfectly honourable to both sides, but it is deplorable, nevertheless,
and not in the public interest, and were the two systems placed
under one management before the amalgamation of the
Protectorates, i.e. if Southern Nigeria took over the Northern line,
which it very naturally wishes to do, having lent the money for its
construction, and not appreciating the rôle of milch cow without
adequate return, friction between the railway management and the
Political Staff would be inevitable owing to the fundamental
divergence of method already referred to. Moreover, the results
achieved by Mr. Eaglesome and his staff in laying the Baro-Kano
railway have been of so revolutionary a character as to suggest the
advisability of reconsidering the whole policy of railway construction
in British West Africa, such as has been pursued hitherto. I will refer
briefly to this method in a moment. Meanwhile the position of the
competing lines is roughly this. Southern Nigeria has built—or rather
is building, for the last section is not quite finished—a railway from
Lagos which crosses the Niger at Jebba, proceeds therefrom to
Zungeru, the capital of Northern Nigeria, and onwards to a place
called Minna.[13] Northern Nigeria has built a railway from Baro, a
spot 407 miles up the Niger to Minna, where the junction is effected,
and thence to Kano. Southern Nigeria, which looks upon the
Northern Protectorate as its natural hinterland, wishes to attract the
trade of the north over its line to Lagos, and desires that the through
rates it has drawn up should be accepted by Northern Nigeria, and
claims the right of fixing the rates on the section of its railway from
the point where it enters Northern Nigeria territory (Offa) to the point
of junction. The Northern Nigeria Administration, which does not in
the least regard itself as the natural appanage of Southern Nigeria,
desires to feed the Baro-Kano railway in conjunction with the Niger,
and declares that the through rates proposed by Southern Nigeria
are so manipulated as to ensure the deflection of the northern trade
to Lagos and thus to starve the Baro-Kano line, which would tend to
reduce a considerable section of it, apart from its very definite
strategical importance, to scrap iron. That was the position when I
left the country, and I do not gather that it has greatly advanced
since. There has been a conference, but it has not resulted, and
could not result, in agreement as to the question of what line is to get
preferential treatment; and that, of course, is the main question
which should be decided by an impartial authority, having regard to
the interests of Nigeria as a whole. Now a word as to the two
systems. So far as governing principles are concerned, it would
probably be regarded as a fair description to state that the Southern
Nigerian method is less concerned with capital expenditure and with
rapidity of construction, as with the advisability of securing
permanently good construction and putting in permanent work
throughout, including stone ballast, fine stations and so on. The
Northern Nigerian method, on the other hand, aims at keeping down
initial capital expenditure and interest, exercising strict economy in
the matter of buildings, both for the public and for the staff, combined
with rapidity of construction and improving the line as the traffic
grows. These ideas represent two schools of thought, and beyond
the general remark that a rich Administration may be able to afford
what a poor one certainly cannot, the non-expert had best not
venture upon an expression of opinion lest peradventure he be
ground between the upper and the nether millstone. But as regards
the respective systems under which these principles are carried out,
it is impossible to resist the conclusion that Northern Nigeria has
demonstrably proved its superiority so far as actual construction is
concerned. The Southern Nigeria line has been, and is being,
constructed on the old model. Consulting engineers in London are
employed by the Colonial Office, and appoint the staff in Africa. They
are unchecked, for the Colonial Office has no independent railway
adviser for tropical Africa, no railway board, or department, or
anything of that kind. Thus there are two distinct staffs concerned, a
staff appointed by and responsible to the Consulting Engineers in
London, and the General Manager’s Staff in the Dependency. Where
the responsibility of one begins and the other ends, both would
probably find it difficult to define; and no one who knows West Africa
can fail to appreciate the divided counsels, the friction, the waste of
time and money which such a system must inevitably entail, even
though every human rivet in the machine were endowed with
superlative qualities. It is very difficult to arrive at a clear idea as to
what the average expenditure of the Southern Nigerian railway has
been per mile, but it does not appear to be disputed that the cost of
construction of the first section of 120 miles to Ibadan, plus the
capital expenditure incurred on the open line and the working capital
for stores, was enormous, viz. £11,000 per mile. The expenditure
upon the remaining sections will probably be found to work out at an
average of between £5000 and £6000 per mile, exclusive of railway
stock and maintenance. Contract labour has been employed except
in the later stages, when the line entering Northern Nigeria territory
has come under the system of political recruiting which will now be
described.
 LANDING-PLACE AT BARO.

GROUP OF RAILWAY LABOURERS—BARO.

 The great advantage which the Northern Nigerian system
possesses over that of Southern Nigeria is unity of direction. But the
vital difference between the two systems is this: Northern Nigeria
has shown that it is possible to construct a railway without the
services of Consulting Engineers in England at all. Now this is a fact
which cannot be too pointedly emphasized; because Consulting
Engineers are most expensive luxuries if they are not necessities.
The logical deduction is, either that Consulting Engineers can be,
and if they can be should be, dispensed with for any future railways
in West Africa; or that the Baro-Kano railway, without them, is a
failure. It appears to me that the Baro-Kano railway has been a
marvellous success from the point of view of construction. What are
the facts? The Administration, i.e. its Public Works Department, with
the help of a few Royal Engineer officers lent by the Home
Government, has been its own builder. The absence of any foreign
body has reduced friction to a minimum. In fact, there has been no
friction whatever, because the Railway Staff has co-operated in
every way with the Political Staff, and the exercise of the Political
Officers’ legitimate duties in protecting the interests of the natives
has not been resented or looked upon in the light of vexatious
interference by the railway management. I should be the last to wish
to minimize the excellence of the individual work performed by the
engineers in charge of the Southern Nigeria line, which I was able to
admire, and from whom I received the greatest hospitality and
kindness at various stages in my journey; but the nature of the
system there followed precludes that enthusiastic co-operation of all
the elements concerned which is the predominating characteristic of
Northern Nigerian methods. And, as already stated, there is a very
considerable item of expense to be considered through the
employment of Consulting Engineers in London. In the Northern
Protectorate every one, from the Governor—the Baro-Kano railway
owes, of course, its inception to Sir Percy Girouard—down to the
foreman, has been, as it were, a member of a single family. In fact,
one might almost say that the line has been built on the communistic
principle. In no direction does the system show better results than in
the organization of labour. It has proved to demonstration what is the
right way of dealing with native labour in West Africa, viz.: that the
labourer on public works shall be drawn from the neighbourhood
where the public works are situate, that he shall proceed to the
scene of his labours accompanied by his own Village or District
Headman, the native authority to whom he owes allegiance, and
whom he knows and trusts; that he shall perform his duties in the
presence and under the supervision of that Headman, and that for
the conduct of the Headman himself, and for the whole proceedings
under which recruitment is carried on and labour performed, the
Political Officer shall be responsible. In other words, it shows the
right procedure to be that of recruiting through and with the co-
operation of, and by the orders of, the natural authorities of the
people under the supreme control of the Resident, combined with a
form of payment which shall ensure the wage being placed in the
wage-earner’s own hand, not in somebody else’s hand. By this
system alone can the labour of the country employed in agricultural
and industrial pursuits be capable of bearing an additional burden for
public purposes, without injustice, without ferment, without
dislocating the whole labour system of the region. Persuaded of this
truth, the Political Officers of Northern Nigeria, aided by the ready
willingness of the Railway Staff, have achieved a veritable triumph of
organization which should ever remain a model to follow. And in that
triumph can be read a deep political lesson. That such organization
has been possible in Northern Nigeria is due, primarily, to the
existence of a native political organization to which we could appeal
and upon which we could rely. The principle adopted on the works
themselves has been to give to each foreman his own set of
Headmen, with their own gangs to look after, and to so regulate the
labour that no individual should work more than eight hours per
diem. Built under conditions such as these, the Northern Nigeria
railway, constructed under great difficulties with wonderful rapidity
and at a cost of well under £4000 per mile, rolling-stock and stores
included, is not only in itself a striking performance—with, I believe, if
free conditions of development are assured to it, a bright economic
future—but a political and educational work of permanent value. It
has helped to bring the Political Officers into closer personal touch
with the population. It has increased the confidence of the people in
the honesty of their alien overlords, and has imbued them with a
personal interest and friendly curiosity in the railway. It has taught
them many things which they did not know before, things which will
be useful to themselves in their own social life. It has brought
previously hostile tribes together into the same trench, effacing tribal
barriers and burying old feuds. It has largely increased the use of
silver coinage, and stimulated commercial activity. The same system
is being followed in the construction, now proceeding, of the branch
line towards the tin-fields; but many more railways will be required to
develop the commercial potentialities of Northern Nigeria, and the
fact constitutes one more argument to those already given in favour
of an amalgamation of the two Protectorates, and the evolution of
one set of governing ideas.

VILLAGE HEAD-MEN.
 VILLAGE HEAD-MEN.

I cannot leave the question of railway construction in the Nigerias

without expressing regret that in authorizing the construction of the
new line, the Colonial Office should have been led to break the
gauge, and to decide upon a 2 feet 6 inch line instead of the 3 feet 6
inch standard. Apart from other objections, which can be urged more
fittingly by experts, it is obvious that this departure necessitates a
complete equipment of new rolling stock, and the erection of special
engineering shops to deal with it. Every freshly constructed line is
bound to have a surplus of rolling stock. The Baro-Kano railway is no
exception to the rule, and its surplus stock could have been utilized
on the new branch line. It is a penny wise and pound foolish policy,
and, in all probability, the ultimate result will be that this 2 feet 6 inch
line will cost very little, if at all, less than a 3 feet 6 inch would have
done.
 CHAPTER XIX
AN UNAUTHORIZED SCHEME OF AMALGAMATION

An effort was made in the previous chapter to depict some of the

disadvantages and drawbacks arising, and likely to become
accentuated with time, from the dual administrative control now
obtaining in Nigeria. For the following suggestions as to the
character amalgamation could assume, the writer claims no more
than that they may, perhaps, constitute an attempt, put forward with
much diffidence, to indicate a few constructive ideas which might
form the basis for expert discussion.
The objects an amalgamation might be expected to secure, apart
from the inconveniences needing removal, would, in the main, be
four in number. (a) Financial management directed not only to
meeting present needs but to making provision for the future. (b) The
right sort of man to fill the important and onerous post of Governor-
General. (c) The division of the territory into Provinces corresponding
as far as possible with natural geographical boundaries and existing
political conditions, involving as few changes as possible. (d) A
comprehensive scheme of public works.
These various points can, in the limits of a chapter, be best
examined collectively.
In the accompanying map Nigeria is divided into four great
Provinces. I. The Northern or Sudan Province, comprising the
regions where a Mohammedan civilization has existed for many
centuries, and where the majority of the people, except in Kontagora,
are Muslims. The ruling families in Kontagora are, however, so
closely related with those of Sokoto that it would probably be found
expedient to incorporate the former into the same Province, which
would, therefore, consist of Sokoto, Kano, Bornu, the Zaria Emirate
and Kontagora. Its headquarters would be Kano. II. The Central
Province, comprising the pagan section of the present Zaria
province, i.e. Zaria outside the limits of the Emirate proper, and the
Nassarawa, Bauchi, Niger, Yola, and Muri (north of the Benue)