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Second Edition
Introduction to
Environmental
Geotechnology
Second Edition
Introduction to
Environmental
Geotechnology
Hsai-Yang Fang • Ronald C. Chaney
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Version Date: 20160830
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-3730-6 (Hardback)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Fang, Hsai-Yang. author. | Chaney, Ronald C. author.

Title: Introduction to environmental geotechnology / by Hsai-Yang Fang and
Ronald C. Chaney.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, CRC Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa
business, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016014144 | ISBN 9781439837306 (acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Environmental geotechnology.
Classification: LCC TD795.7 .F36 2017 | DDC 624.1/51--dc23
LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016014144
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Dedication
to both the Fang family

Julia, Andrew, and Janice
and
to the Chaney family
Patricia Jane Chaney
for their continued encouragement and support
Contents
Preface to Second Edition........................................................................................................... xxxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................1
1.1 I ntroduction........................................................................................................1
1.2 Development of Environmental Geotechnology................................................1
1.2.1 General Discussion................................................................................1
1.2.2 Population Growth and Rising Living Standards.................................1
1.3 Aims of Environmental Geotechnology............................................................3
1.4 Environmental Cycles and Their Interaction with Geotechnology....................4
1.4.2 The Natural Environment.....................................................................4
1.4.2.1 The Atmosphere....................................................................4
1.4.2.2 The Biosphere........................................................................5
1.4.2.3 The Hydrosphere...................................................................5
1.4.2.4 The Lithosphere..................................................................... 6
1.4.2.5 The Geomicrobiosphere........................................................6
1.4.3 The Cycles of Nature.............................................................................6
1.4.3.1 Oxygen Cycle.........................................................................6
1.4.3.2 Nitrogen Cycle.......................................................................6
1.4.3.3 Carbon Cycle.........................................................................6
1.4.4 Water Stability in Natural Environmental Systems.............................. 7
1.5 Man-Made Environment....................................................................................8
1.5.2 Solid and Liquid Wastes........................................................................8
1.5.3 Solid Wastes (Urban Refuse).................................................................9
1.5.4 Waste Rubber Tires...............................................................................9
1.5.5 Petroleum-Contaminated Soil...............................................................9
1.6 Acid Rain and Acid Drainage.......................................................................... 10
1.6.1 Acid Rain (Acid Deposition)............................................................... 10
1.6.2 Acid Mine Drainage............................................................................ 11
1.7 Environmental Geotechnical Problems............................................................ 12
1.7.1 Arid Lands and Desert........................................................................ 12
1.7.2 Marginal Lands (Wetlands)................................................................. 12
1.7.3 Coastal Margins.................................................................................. 12
1.7.4 Soil Erosion......................................................................................... 13
1.8 Pollution Processes and Soil-Pollution Interaction.......................................... 13
1.8.1 General Discussion.............................................................................. 13
1.8.2 Ground Pollution Sources or Routes................................................... 13
1.8.3 Pollution Process Mechanisms............................................................ 15
1.9 Energy–Environment–Disaster Cycle.............................................................. 15
1.9.1 General Discussion ............................................................................. 15
1.9.2 Environmental Geotechnical Problems.............................................. 15
1.10 Methods for Analysis of Environmental Geotechnical Problems.................... 15
1.10.2 Review of Current Soil Mechanics Concepts..................................... 16
vii
viii Contents
1.10.3 P roposed Approaches or Methods for Evaluation of

Soil Behavior....................................................................................... 17
1.10.3.1 General Discussion.............................................................. 17
1.10.3.2 Instruction............................................................................ 17
1.10.3.3 Laboratory Testing............................................................... 17
1.10.3.4 Data Interpretation and Analysis......................................... 18
1.11 Scope and Organization of the Text................................................................. 18
1.12 Summary.......................................................................................................... 19
Problems...................................................................................................................... 19
Chapter 2 Particle-Energy-Field Theory and Its Applications.................................................... 21

2.1 I ntroduction...................................................................................................... 21
2.2 The Concept of Particle-Energy-Field Theory................................................. 21
2.2.1 Fundamentals...................................................................................... 21
2.2.2 Assumptions........................................................................................ 21
2.2.3 Elementary Particles........................................................................... 22
2.2.4 Particle Systems.................................................................................. 23
2.3 Energy, Energy Field, and Particle Energy Field.............................................24
2.3.1 Energies between Particles..................................................................24
2.3.1.1 Bonding Behavior between Particles...................................24
2.3.1.2 Attractive and Repulsive Forces..........................................24
2.3.2 Energy and Energy Fields ..................................................................24
2.3.3 Particle Force Field.............................................................................24
2.3.4 Energy Fields and Environments........................................................24
2.4 The States of Aggregation of Idealized Particles.............................................25
2.4.1 General Discussion..............................................................................25
2.4.2 Types of Bonds and Energy Ranges....................................................26
2.4.3 Volume Relationships for Idealized Particles .................................... 27
2.5 Crystal—A True Solid...................................................................................... 29
2.5.2 Crystal Symmetry............................................................................... 29
2.5.3 The Crystal Systems............................................................................ 30
2.5.4 Crystal Classes.................................................................................... 31
2.5.5 Crystal Lattices................................................................................... 31
2.6 Granular Particles and Their Packing Characteristics..................................... 32
2.6.2 Granular Particle Measurement.......................................................... 33
2.6.2.1 Size Measurement................................................................ 33
2.6.2.2 Shape Measurement............................................................. 33
2.6.3 Packing Characteristics of Granular Materials................................... 33
2.6.4 Interparticle Characteristics and Their Primary Structure.................34
2.6.4.1 The Laws of Granulometry................................................. 34
2.6.4.2 Interparticle Forces..............................................................34
2.6.5 Particle Packing Systems....................................................................34
2.6.5.1 Uniform Packings................................................................34
2.6.5.2 Polygonal Shapes.................................................................34
2.6.5.3 Binary Systems.................................................................... 35
2.6.5.4 Ternary Systems.................................................................. 35
2.6.5.5 Continuous Gradings........................................................... 35
2.7 Chemical Fundamentals................................................................................... 35
Contents ix
2.8 Phenomena of Solid–Liquid–Gas at Interface................................................. 36

2.8.1 Single-Phase Interface......................................................................... 36
2.8.2 Two-Phase Interface............................................................................ 36
2.8.3 Multiphase Interface............................................................................ 37
2.9 Particle Behavior Under Load-Mechanical Energy Field................................ 38
2.9.2 Load–Deformation Process................................................................. 38
2.9.3 Particle Dynamics............................................................................... 39
2.10 Multimedia Energy Field..................................................................................40
2.10.2 Thermal Energy Field......................................................................... 41
2.10.3 Electric and Magnetic Energy Fields.................................................. 42
2.10.4 Radiation Energy Field........................................................................ 42
2.11 Justification for Application to Geotechnology................................................ 43
2.12 Summary.......................................................................................................... 43
Problems......................................................................................................................44
Chapter 3 Nature of Soil and Environment................................................................................. 45

3.1 oil as a Natural Genetic System..................................................................... 45
S
3.2 Soil as a Polydisperse System........................................................................... 45
3.2.1 Characteristics of the Solid Phase....................................................... 45
3.2.2 Characteristics of the Liquid Phase.....................................................46
3.2.3 Characteristics of Soil–Air Interface .................................................46
3.2.4 Characteristics of Soil at In Situ Condition......................................... 47
3.3 Soil Texture, Strata, Horizons, and Profiles..................................................... 49
3.3.1 Soil Strata and Texture........................................................................ 49
3.3.2 Horizons and Profile............................................................................ 49
3.3.3 Podzol Soil Profiles............................................................................. 49
3.3.4 PCA Simplified Soil Profile and Horizons System............................. 51
3.3.4.2 Horizons............................................................................... 51
3.4 Identification and Classification Systems of Soils............................................ 52
3.4.2 Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487)........................... 52
3.4.3 AASHTO Soil Classification System (AASHTO M145-88)............... 52
3.4.4 Other Soil Classification Systems....................................................... 53
3.5 USDA Soil Classification System..................................................................... 56
3.5.2 Orders—Zonal, Intrazonal, and Azonal............................................. 56
3.5.3 Great Soil Groups and Soil Series....................................................... 56
3.5.3.1 Great Soil Group.................................................................. 56
3.5.3.2 Soil Series............................................................................ 56
3.5.4 Soil Taxonomy..................................................................................... 57
3.6 Chemical Composition of Natural Soil and Clay Fraction............................... 58
3.6.2 General Chemistry of the Soil............................................................ 58
3.6.3 Soil Organic Matter............................................................................. 58
3.6.4 Silica/Sesquioxide Ratio (SSR) of Clay Fraction................................60
3.7 Granular Soils (Cobble, Boulder, Gravel, Sand, and Silt)................................ 62
x Contents
3.7.2 Aggregates........................................................................................... 63
3.7.3 Sand and Gravel..................................................................................64
3.7.4 Silt (0.02–0.002 mm)...........................................................................64
3.8 Identification and Characterization of Contaminated Soils.............................64
3.8.2 Visual Identification of Contaminated Soils.......................................66
3.8.3 Color of Ground Soil and Water..........................................................66
3.8.3.1 Color of Ground Soil...........................................................66
3.8.3.2 Color of Water and Characteristics of Water Bubbles......... 67
3.8.4 Odors in the Environments................................................................. 67
3.8.4.2 Odor of Natural or By-Product Gases................................. 67
3.8.4.3 Odor of Soil and Water........................................................ 68
3.8.5 Cracking Patterns of Ground Soil....................................................... 68
3.8.6 Properties Employed in Characterization of Contaminated Soil........ 68
3.9 Classification of Contaminated Soils............................................................... 69
3.9.1 Basic Concept...................................................................................... 69
3.9.2 Sensitivity of Soil to Environment...................................................... 70
3.9.3 Pollution Sensitivity Index (PSI)......................................................... 70
3.10 Dust: Microscopic Debris................................................................................. 71
3.10.2 Characteristics of Dust........................................................................ 71
3.10.3 Dust in the Environment..................................................................... 72
3.11 Suspension: Dust in the Water.......................................................................... 72
3.11.1 Characteristics of Suspension............................................................. 72
3.11.2 Suspension in the Environment........................................................... 72
3.12 Summary.......................................................................................................... 73
Problems...................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 4 Soil Technology........................................................................................................... 75

4.1 I ntroduction...................................................................................................... 75
4.2 Clay Mineralogy............................................................................................... 75
4.2.2 Mineralogical Data Requirements...................................................... 75
4.3 Structural Units of Soils................................................................................... 76
4.3.2 Clay Mineral Structures...................................................................... 76
4.3.3 Identification and Determination of Clay Minerals............................ 77
4.3.3.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis..................................... 77
4.3.3.2 Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA)................................. 78
4.3.3.3 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)................................ 79
4.4 Size and Shape Measurement of Soil............................................................... 79
4.4.1 Effective Size and Uniformity Coefficient.......................................... 79
4.4.2 Size and Shape Measurement for Granular Soils................................80
4.4.3 Surface Area for Fine-Grained Soil....................................................80
4.5 Particle Bonds, Bond Energies, and Linkages................................................. 81
4.5.1 Particle Bonds..................................................................................... 81
4.5.2 Bond Energies..................................................................................... 82
4.5.3 Linkage between Particles..................................................................84
4.6 Interparticle Energies or Forces.......................................................................84
Contents xi
4.6.1 ipole Moment and Orientation Effect...............................................84

D
4.6.2Attractive Energy or Force.................................................................. 85
4.6.2.1 Norrish Equation (1954)...................................................... 85
4.6.2.2 MacEwan Equation (1954)................................................... 86
4.6.2.3 Jordine et al. (1962) and Jordine Equation (1963)............... 86
4.6.3 Repulsive Energy or Force.................................................................. 86
4.6.3.1 Pauling Equation (1945, 1960)............................................. 86
4.6.3.2 Van Olphen Equation (1954)................................................ 87
4.7 Particle Arrangement and Clay Structures....................................................... 87
4.7.1 Particle Arrangement and Structures.................................................. 87
4.7.2 Isomorphous Substitution.................................................................... 88
4.8 Ion-Exchange Reaction and Ion-Exchange Capacity....................................... 89
4.8.2 Characteristics and Mechanisms of Ion-Exchange Reaction.............. 89
4.8.2.2 Ion-Exchange Reaction Mechanisms..................................90
4.8.2.3 Ion-Exchange Capacity........................................................90
4.8.3 Factors Affecting IEC.........................................................................90
4.8.3.1 Particle Size.........................................................................90
4.8.3.2 Specific Surface Area..........................................................90
4.8.3.3 Temperature or Heat............................................................92
4.8.3.4 Effect of Size of Ions...........................................................92
4.8.3.5 Correlation with Other Parameters......................................92
4.8.4 Anion Exchange.................................................................................. 93
4.8.5 Ion-Exchange Reaction in Contaminated Soil–Water Systems..........94
4.8.5.1 General Discussion..............................................................94
4.8.5.2 Ion-Exchange Reaction between Solids............................... 95
4.8.5.3 Ion-Exchange Reaction between Phases.............................. 95
4.9 The Clay–Water–Electrolyte System................................................................ 95
4.9.1 Characteristics of Diffuse Double-Layer............................................ 95
4.9.2 The Clay Micelle and Its Structure.....................................................96
4.9.3 Free Water and Environmental Water.................................................97
4.9.3.1 Adsorbed Water...................................................................97
4.9.3.2 Osmotic Water.....................................................................97
4.9.3.3 Hydration Water and Hydratation Water.............................97
4.9.3.4 Oriented Water.....................................................................97
4.10 Characteristics and Structures of Some Typical Clay Minerals.......................97
4.10.2 Kaolin, Montmorillonite, and Illite Groups........................................ 98
4.10.2.1 Kaolinite Group................................................................... 98
4.10.2.2 Montmorillonite Group.......................................................99
4.10.2.3 Illite Group..........................................................................99
4.10.3 Chlorites and Halloysites....................................................................99
4.10.3.1 Chlorites...............................................................................99
4.10.3.2 Halloysites......................................................................... 100
4.10.4 Geotechnical Properties of Clay Minerals........................................ 100
4.11 Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Soils............................................................... 101
4.11.1 General Discussion............................................................................ 101
4.11.2 The Changing Mechanisms between Hydrophobic–Hydrophilic
Conditions�� 101
4.11.3 Characteristics of Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Soils..................... 102
xii Contents
4.12 H omoionic Modifications (Pure Soil)............................................................ 102

4.12.2 Method for Preparation of Homoionic Soil Samples........................ 102
4.12.3 Typical Homoionic Modification Data.............................................. 103
4.13 The Man-Made Soil........................................................................................ 104
4.13.2 The Concept and Approach of Man-Made Soil................................ 105
4.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 106
Problems.................................................................................................................... 106
Chapter 5 Soil–Water–Air Interaction in the Environment....................................................... 109

5.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 109
5.1.2 Soil Moisture Terminology............................................................... 109
5.1.2.1 Suspensions........................................................................ 109
5.1.2.2 Gravitational Water............................................................ 109
5.1.2.3 Capillary Range................................................................. 109
5.1.2.4 Hygroscopic Range and Ignition Point.............................. 110
5.1.3 Soil–Water System and Its Measurable Parameters.......................... 110
5.2 Nature of Water.............................................................................................. 111
5.2.1 Molecular Dimensions and Bulk Properties..................................... 111
5.2.2 Packing Characteristics..................................................................... 112
5.2.3 Chemical Composition of Water....................................................... 112
5.3 Properties of Water and Water Substances..................................................... 114
5.3.1 Density, Unit Weight, and Specific Gravity of Water....................... 114
5.3.1.1 Density and Unit Weight.................................................... 114
5.3.1.2 Specific Gravity................................................................. 114
5.3.2 Surface Tension................................................................................. 114
5.3.3 Viscosity of Water and Other Pore Fluids......................................... 115
5.3.3.1 Absolute or Dynamic Viscosity......................................... 115
5.3.3.2 K inematic Viscosity.......................................................... 115
5.3.4 Dielectric Constant of Water............................................................. 117
5.4 Solutions, Compounds, Mixtures, and Electrolytes....................................... 117
5.4.1 Solutions, Solvents, and Solute.......................................................... 117
5.4.1.1 Solutions............................................................................ 117
5.4.1.2 Solvent and Solute............................................................. 117
5.4.2 Compounds and Mixtures................................................................. 118
5.4.3 Electrolytes........................................................................................ 118
5.4.4 Acidity and pH Value........................................................................ 119
5.5 Types and Sources of Water........................................................................... 120
5.5.1 Groundwater...................................................................................... 120
5.5.2 River and Lake Waters...................................................................... 120
5.5.3 Hard, Soft, Acidic, and Alkali Waters.............................................. 120
5.5.3.1 Hard and Soft Waters......................................................... 120
5.5.3.2 Acidic and Alkali (Basic) Waters...................................... 120
5.6 Electrochemical Characteristics of the Soil–Water System........................... 121
5.6.1 Surface Electrochemical Characteristics of Soil............................... 121
5.6.2 Flow Routes Relating to Soil–Water Interaction............................... 122
5.6.2.1 Flow Path—Wetting Process............................................. 122
5.6.2.2 Flow Path—Drying Process.............................................. 123
Contents xiii
5.6.3 Soil–Water Interaction in Various Energy Fields.............................. 123

5.7 Soil–Water Interaction in the Thermal Energy Field..................................... 123
5.7.1 Heat of Wetting................................................................................. 123
5.7.2 Water Intake Ability.......................................................................... 127
5.7.3 K inetic Dispersive Force................................................................... 127
5.8 Soil–Water Interaction in the Electric Energy Field...................................... 129
5.8.1 Polarization....................................................................................... 129
5.8.2 Proton Migration............................................................................... 129
5.9 Geomorphic Process (Aging Process)............................................................ 129
5.9.1 Concept of Geomorphic Process....................................................... 129
5.9.2 Geomorphic Process Mechanisms.................................................... 130
5.9.2.1 Mechanical Causes and Short-Term Process..................... 130
5.9.2.2 Chemical and Physicochemical Processes........................ 130
5.9.2.3 Geomicrobiological Process.............................................. 131
5.9.2.4 Soil-Forming Process........................................................ 133
5.10 Corrosion Process........................................................................................... 133
5.10.2 Corrosion Causes, Types, and Protection.......................................... 134
5.10.2.1 General Discussion............................................................ 134
5.10.2.2 Corrosion Causes............................................................... 134
5.10.2.3 Bacteria Corrosion............................................................. 134
5.10.2.4 Corrosion Protection and Example.................................... 134
5.11 Effect of Bacteria on Behavior of the Soil–Water System............................. 136
5.11.1 Characteristics of Bacteria................................................................ 136
5.11.2 Soil–Water–Bacteria Interaction....................................................... 137
5.12 Sensitivity of Soil to the Environment........................................................... 137
5.12.2 Sensitivity of Soil to Load................................................................. 138
5.12.3 Sensitivity of Soil to Pore Fluid........................................................ 140
5.13 Soil–Water–Air Interaction............................................................................ 141
5.13.1 Behavior of Air in Soil–Water System.............................................. 141
5.13.2 Soil–Water–Vapor Interaction........................................................... 142
5.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 143
Problems.................................................................................................................... 143
Chapter 6 Shrinkage, Swelling, and Cracking Characteristics of Soil...................................... 145

6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 145
6.2 Shrinkage Characteristics............................................................................... 145
6.2.1 Characteristics of Shrinkage of Soil ............................................... 145
6.2.2 Factors Affecting Shrinkage of Soil................................................. 145
6.3 Swelling Characteristics................................................................................. 148
6.3.1 Swelling Mechanism......................................................................... 148
6.3.2 Swelling Measurements.................................................................... 149
6.3.3 Factors Affecting Swelling Characteristics of Soil........................... 149
6.4 Sorption Characteristics................................................................................. 152
6.4.1 Water Sorption................................................................................... 152
6.4.2 Absorption and Degree of Saturation................................................ 152
6.4.3 Absorption of Organic Molecules..................................................... 152
6.5 Adsorption Phenomena.................................................................................. 153
6.5.1 Types of Adsorption.......................................................................... 153
xiv Contents
6.5.1.1 Physical Adsorption........................................................... 154

6.5.1.2 Chemical or Activated Adsorption.................................... 154
6.5.2 Adsorption Mechanism..................................................................... 155
6.5.3 Adsorption Measurements................................................................ 156
6.5.3.1 Absorption Relating to the FME....................................... 156
6.5.3.2 Adsorption Relating to the CME....................................... 156
6.5.4 Adsorption Characteristics in the Environment................................ 157
6.5.4.1 Adsorption Characteristics................................................ 157
6.5.4.2 Polymer Adsorption........................................................... 158
6.5.4.3 Adsorption of Hazardous Substances................................ 158
6.5.4.4 Adsorption and Stabilizing Materials................................ 159
6.6 Cracking Phenomena and Mechanisms......................................................... 160
6.6.1 Soil Cracking Phenomena................................................................. 160
6.6.1.2 Soil Cracking Types........................................................... 160
6.6.2 Cracking Mechanisms....................................................................... 161
6.6.2.1 Cracking–Fracture Phenomena and Relationships............ 161
6.6.2.2 Cracking–Moisture Relationship....................................... 162
6.6.3 Cracking Pattern and Measurements................................................ 162
6.6.3.1 Cracking Pattern Measurement Procedure
(Lehigh Method)................................................................ 162
6.6.3.2 Internal Soil Cracking Measurement................................. 164
6.6.3.3 Cracking Behavior of Contaminated Soils........................ 165
6.6.3.4 Soil Structures Relating to Cracking Patterns................... 165
6.7 Tensile Characteristics of Soil........................................................................ 166
6.7.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 166
6.7.2 Mechanism of Tensile Strength of Soil............................................. 167
6.7.3 Measurement of Tensile Strength of Soil.......................................... 168
6.7.4 Tensile Strength Relating to Other Soil Constants............................ 168
6.7.4.1 Atterberg Limits and Density............................................ 168
6.7.4.2 Activity and Toughness Index........................................... 168
6.7.4.3 Compressive Strength........................................................ 170
6.7.4.4 Cohesion and Friction Angle............................................. 171
6.7.4.5 Effect of Exchangeable Ions.............................................. 171
6.7.4.6 Soil Classification Based on Tensile Strength................... 172
6.8 Fracture Characteristics of Soil...................................................................... 174
6.8.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 174
6.8.2 Application of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)............. 174
6.8.3 Laboratory Fracture Tests on Soils................................................... 174
6.8.3.1 Preparation of Test Specimen............................................ 174
6.8.3.2 Gc and Kc Measurements and Computations..................... 175
6.8.3.3 Fracture Load Tests on Stabilized and
Contaminated Soils............................................................ 176
6.8.4 Applications from Cracking and Fracture Data................................ 181
6.8.4.1 Use as a Guideline in Ground Improvement Program...... 181
6.8.4.2 Cracking Patterns Used for Identification and
Characterization of Soil�� 182
6.8.4.3 Internal Cracks Used to Evaluate the
Soil Disturbance................................................................ 182
6.9 Summary........................................................................................................ 182
Problems.................................................................................................................... 182
Contents xv
Chapter 7 Hydraulic Conductivity and Mass Transport Phenomena......................................... 185

7.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 185
7.2 Capillarity....................................................................................................... 185
7.2.2 Height and Rate of Capillary Rise.................................................... 185
7.2.2.1 Height of Capillary Rise.................................................... 185
7.2.2.2 Rate of Capillary Rise....................................................... 186
7.2.3 Factors Affecting Capillary Rise...................................................... 186
7.2.3.1 Effect of Time and Soil Particle Size................................ 186
7.2.3.2 Effect of Moisture Content and Types of
Pore Fluids......................................................................... 187
7.2.3.3 Effect of Temperature........................................................ 187
7.2.4 Capillary Measurements................................................................... 187
7.2.4.2 Typical Test Results and Comments.................................. 188
7.3 Hydraulic Conductivity.................................................................................. 189
7.3.1 Darcy’s Law....................................................................................... 189
7.3.2 Hydraulic Head and Energy.............................................................. 189
7.3.3 Hydraulic Conductivity Equations.................................................... 189
7.3.3.1 Theoretical Relationships.................................................. 189
7.3.3.2 Empirical Relationships..................................................... 191
7.3.4 Hydraulic Conductivity Measurements............................................. 191
7.3.5 Factors Affecting Conductivity Results............................................ 193
7.3.5.1 General Discussions.......................................................... 193
7.3.5.2 Hydraulic Conductivity of Contaminated Soil.................. 193
7.3.5.3 Triaxial-Permeameter for Contaminated Pore Fluid......... 195
7.4 Infiltration, Percolation, and Retention.......................................................... 197
7.4.1 Characteristics of Infiltration............................................................ 197
7.4.1.2 Infiltration Rate or Capacity.............................................. 198
7.4.2 Infiltration of Water through a Pavement Surface.............................200
7.4.2.1 Infiltration of Water through PCC Pavement....................200
7.4.2.2 Infiltration of Water through Base Course........................200
7.4.2.3 Infiltration of Water through Both Rigid and
Flexible Pavement.............................................................. 201
7.4.3 Percolation and Retention.................................................................. 201
7.5 Mass Transport Phenomena in Moist Fine-Grained Soils.............................202
7.5.1 Creeping Flow...................................................................................202
7.5.2 Nature of Pore Fluid in Soil..............................................................202
7.5.3 Coupled Flow....................................................................................204
7.5.3.1 General Discussion............................................................204
7.5.3.2 Soil Conductivity Measurements.......................................204
7.6 Osmosis and Reverse Osmosis Phenomena.................................................... 205
7.6.1 Osmotic Phenomena..........................................................................205
7.6.1.2 Osmotic Membranes and Osmotic Pressures....................206
7.6.2 Osmotic Pressure in Soils..................................................................206
7.6.2.1 Osmotic Flow in Soils.......................................................206
7.6.2.2 Osmotic Repulsive Pressure in Soils.................................206
7.6.3 Reverse Osmosis Phenomena............................................................207
xvi Contents
7.7 oil–Water Suction and Diffusivity................................................................207

S
7.7.1 Soil–Water Suction............................................................................207
7.7.2 Soil–Water Diffusivity......................................................................208
7.7.2.2 Field Measurements...........................................................208
7.8 Moisture Migration......................................................................................... 211
7.8.1 Characteristics of Moisture Migration.............................................. 211
7.8.2 Limits of Moisture Migration........................................................... 212
7.8.3 Factors Affecting Moisture Migration in Soils................................. 212
7.8.3.1 Possible Modes.................................................................. 212
7.8.3.2 Porosity and Specific Surface Area................................... 213
7.8.3.3 Soil Structure..................................................................... 213
7.9 Diffusion Phenomena..................................................................................... 213
7.9.2 Diffusion Phenomena in Soil–Water System.................................... 214
7.10 Water Movement in Vadose Zone.................................................................. 215
7.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 215
Problems.................................................................................................................... 216
Chapter 8 Thermal Properties of Soils...................................................................................... 219

8.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 219
8.2 Characteristics of Heat and Heat Sources...................................................... 219
8.2.1 Characteristics of Heat...................................................................... 219
8.2.2 Heat Sources...................................................................................... 219
8.2.3 Heat Exchange near the Ground Surface.......................................... 219
8.3 Heat Transfer Process and Measurable Thermal Parameters........................ 220
8.3.1 Heat Transfer Process........................................................................ 220
8.3.1.1 Conduction......................................................................... 220
8.3.1.2 Convection......................................................................... 220
8.3.1.3 Radiation Process.............................................................. 220
8.3.2 Measurable Thermal Parameters...................................................... 221
8.3.2.2 Temperature and Heat........................................................ 221
8.3.2.3 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat....................................... 223
8.3.2.4 Diffusivity.......................................................................... 223
8.4 Soil–Heat Interaction......................................................................................224
8.4.1 Mechanism of Soil–Heat Interaction................................................224
8.4.2 Soil Thermal Storage Capacity.........................................................224
8.5 Thermal Conductivity and Resistivity of Soil................................................ 225
8.5.1 Thermal Conductivity....................................................................... 225
8.5.2 Thermal Resistivity........................................................................... 225
8.5.2.2 Practical Aspects of Thermal Resistivity.......................... 227
8.5.2.3 Effects of Moisture Content and Density.......................... 227
8.6 Effects of Heat or Temperature on Soil Behavior.......................................... 229
8.6.2 Characteristics of Soil–Heat System................................................. 229
8.6.3 Effect of Soil Behavior at Low-Temperature Range......................... 230
8.6.3.1 Soil Constants.................................................................... 230
8.6.3.2 Unit Weight–Moisture Relationship of Soil...................... 230
Contents xvii
8.6.3.3 Compressibility.................................................................. 230

8.6.3.4 Porewater Pressures........................................................... 232
8.6.3.5 Modulus and Shear Strength............................................. 232
8.6.4 Effect of Soil Behavior at Medium-Temperature Range................... 233
8.6.5 Fusion................................................................................................ 235
8.7 Frozen and Thawing Soils.............................................................................. 235
8.7.1 Identification and Description of Ice in Soil..................................... 235
8.7.2 Frost Depth (Penetration) and Heave................................................ 235
8.7.2.1 Analytical Approaches...................................................... 235
8.7.2.2 In Situ Measurement.......................................................... 238
8.7.2.3 Frost Heave and Rate of Heave.......................................... 241
8.7.2.4 Freezing Index................................................................... 242
8.7.3 Environmental Geotechnical Problems of Frozen Soil..................... 242
8.7.3.1 Geotechnical Properties and Foundation
Problems............................................................................ 242
8.7.3.2 De-Icing Problems.............................................................244
8.7.4 Characteristics of Thawing Soil........................................................ 245
8.7.4.2 Properties of Thawing Soil................................................246
8.8 Characteristics of Snow..................................................................................246
8.8.1 General Discussion............................................................................246
8.8.2 Properties and Problems of Snow..................................................... 247
8.9 Summary........................................................................................................ 249
Problems.................................................................................................................... 249
Chapter 9 Electrical Properties of Soils..................................................................................... 251

9.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 251
9.2 Characteristics of Particles and Electricity.................................................... 251
9.2.2 Electric Field and Electric Charge.................................................... 251
9.3 Measurable Parameters in Soil–Water–Electricity System............................ 252
9.3.2 Electromotive Force and Resistance................................................. 252
9.3.2.1 Electromotive Force........................................................... 252
9.3.2.2 Resistance.......................................................................... 252
9.3.3 Conductance, Capacitor, and Capacitance........................................ 252
9.3.3.1 Conductance...................................................................... 252
9.3.3.2 Capacitor............................................................................ 252
9.3.3.3 Capacitance........................................................................ 253
9.4 Fundamentals of Soil–Electrochemistry........................................................ 253
9.4.2 Soil–Electrochemical Interaction and Its Measurement................... 253
9.4.2.1 Evapotranspiration............................................................. 254
9.4.2.2 Leaching............................................................................ 254
9.4.3 Electrode and Cell............................................................................. 254
9.4.4 Electrolysis........................................................................................ 255
9.4.4.1 Faraday’s Laws.................................................................. 255
9.4.4.2 Faraday Unit...................................................................... 255
9.5 Electrolytes and Electrical Reactions............................................................. 256
9.5.1 Characteristics of Electrolytes.......................................................... 256
xviii Contents
9.5.1.1 Salts and Base.................................................................... 256

9.5.1.2 Natural Electrolytes—Acid Rain and Acid Drainage....... 256
9.5.2 Electrode and Redox Reactions......................................................... 256
9.5.2.1 Electrode Reaction............................................................. 256
9.5.2.2 Redox Reaction.................................................................. 256
9.5.2.3 Redox Potential.................................................................. 256
9.5.3 Characteristics of Eh and pe and Their Relationship........................ 257
9.6 Electric Properties of Soil, Water, and Rock (When Additional
Electricity Is Applied)�� 258
9.6.1 Mechanism of Soil–Electricity Interaction....................................... 258
9.6.2 Properties Measured by Electric Current and Voltage .................... 259
9.6.2.1 Soil–Water Properties........................................................ 259
9.6.2.2 Locating Leak Sources of Geomembrane Liners.............. 259
9.6.2.3 Soil Fabric Replication Using Formation Factor............... 259
9.6.3 Electric Charge and Surface Charge Density................................... 261
9.6.3.1 Characteristics of Electric Charge in
Soil–Water System............................................................. 261
9.6.3.2 Effect of Electric Surface Density on
Soil–Water System............................................................. 263
9.6.4 Electric Resistivity of Soil, Rock, and Water.................................... 263
9.6.4.2 Soil and Rock..................................................................... 263
9.6.4.3 Water Quality Measured by Electric Resistivity/
Conductance��264
9.6.5 Electrical Properties of Contaminated Soil......................................266
9.7 Dielectric Constant of Soil–Water System.....................................................266
9.7.1 Characteristics of the Dielectric Constant........................................266
9.7.2 Dielectric Constant of Substance...................................................... 267
9.7.2.2 Dielectric Constant Measurement..................................... 267
9.7.2.3 Electrical Dispersion Measurement................................... 267
9.7.3 Dielectric Constant of Water and Other Pore Fluids......................... 268
9.7.3.1 Dielectric Constant of Water............................................. 268
9.7.3.2 Dielectric Constant versus pH Value................................. 268
9.7.4 Effect of Dielectric Constant on Soil Behavior................................. 269
9.7.4.1 Soil Constants.................................................................... 269
9.7.4.2 Dielectric Constant Related to CEC and Zeta
Potential............................................................................. 270
9.7.4.3 Effect of Dielectric Constant on Conductivity and
Compressibility�� 271
9.7.4.4 Effect of Dielectric Constant on Swelling......................... 271
9.8 Electric Conductivity and Electrokinetic Phenomena.................................... 272
9.8.2 Assumptions and Equation of Helmholtz–Smoluchowski
Theory............................................................................................... 274
9.8.3 Discussions of Helmholtz–Smoluchowski Theory........................... 274
9.8.3.1 Limitations of Helmholtz–Smoluchowski Theory............ 274
9.8.3.2 Modifications and the Gouy–Chapman Theory................ 274
9.8.4 Electric-Double-Layer Thickness and Zeta Potentials..................... 275
9.8.4.1 Electric-Double-Layer Thickness...................................... 275
9.8.4.2 Zeta (ζ) Potential............................................................... 277
Contents xix
9.9 Ground Improvement by Electrokinetic Process........................................... 277

9.9.1 Characteristics and Mechanisms....................................................... 277
9.9.2 Dewatering and Soil Stabilization..................................................... 279
9.9.3 Factors Affecting the Electrokinetic Process....................................280
9.10 Soil Decontamination by Electrokinetic Process...........................................280
9.10.2 Mechanism of Soil Decontamination................................................ 281
9.11 Electrophoresis and Electromigration............................................................ 282
9.11.2 Experimental Measurements............................................................. 282
9.12 Electrochemical Process................................................................................. 283
9.12.1 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Process....................................... 283
9.12.2 U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) Method...................................284
9.12.2.1 Approaches........................................................................284
9.12.2.2 Laboratory Condition: Computation of Osmotic
Permeability and Specific Resistance��284
9.13 Multienergy Effect on Soil–Water System..................................................... 286
9.13.2 Electroviscous Effect......................................................................... 287
9.13.3 Thermoelectric Effect....................................................................... 287
9.13.3.2 Laboratory Experiments.................................................... 288
9.13.4 Electromagnetic Effect...................................................................... 288
9.13.4.2 Characteristics of Electromagnetic Force.......................... 288
9.13.4.3 Laboratory Experiments.................................................... 289
9.14 Summary........................................................................................................290
Problems.................................................................................................................... 291
Chapter 10 Radiation Effects on Water, Soil, and Rock.............................................................. 293

10.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 293
10.1.2 Review of Basic Nuclear Physics and Chemistry.............................. 293
10.2 Characteristics of Radioactivity..................................................................... 294
10.2.1 Radioactive Decay............................................................................. 294
10.2.2 Half-Life, Mean Lifetime, and Activity............................................ 294
10.2.3 Units of Radioactivity....................................................................... 296
10.2.3.1 Curie (Ci)........................................................................... 296
10.2.3.2 Becquerel (Bq)................................................................... 296
10.2.3.3 Atomic Mass Unit (amu, AMU, u).................................... 296
10.3 Radioactive Decay Process............................................................................ 296
10.3.2 Conservation Laws and Radioactive Decay Process......................... 297
10.3.2.1 Conservation Laws in Radioactive Decay......................... 297
10.3.2.2 Radioactive Decay Process................................................ 297
10.3.3 Energies of Radiation........................................................................ 297
10.4 Uranium and Radium Interaction with Environment..................................... 298
10.4.1 Uranium and Radium........................................................................ 298
10.4.1.1 Uranium (U)...................................................................... 298
10.4.1.2 Radium (Ra)....................................................................... 298
xx Contents
10.4.2 Interrelationship among Uranium, Radium, and Radon Gas............ 298

10.5 T he Noble Gas Family.................................................................................... 299
10.5.1 Characteristics of Noble Gases......................................................... 299
10.5.2 Radon and Radon Family..................................................................300
10.6 Environmental Geotechnical Aspects of Radiation....................................... 301
10.6.2 Water–Radiation Interaction............................................................. 301
10.6.3 Rock/Soil–Radiation Interactions.....................................................304
10.6.3.1 Rock...................................................................................304
10.6.3.2 Soil..................................................................................... 305
10.7 Radioactive and Toxic Radon Gas..................................................................306
10.7.1 Nature of Radon Gas.........................................................................306
10.7.1.2 Radon Gas and Human Health and Environments............308
10.7.2 Engineering Properties of Radon Gas...............................................308
10.7.3 Radon Emanation in Rock or Minerals.............................................309
10.7.3.2 Giletti and Kulp Approach (1955)..................................... 310
10.7.3.3 α-Recoil Approach (Fleischer and
Mogro-Camero, 1978)....................................................... 310
10.7.3.4 α-Recoil-Environmental Approach (Fang, 1990).............. 311
10.7.4 Interaction Mechanisms between Radon and Environment............. 311
10.7.4.1 Interaction Based on Radon’s Molecular Structure........... 311
10.7.4.2 Radon Particle Direct Interaction with Water
Molecules........................................................................... 312
10.7.4.3 Interaction through Dust-Suspension................................ 313
10.8 Radon Mitigation Methods............................................................................. 313
10.8.1 Radon Mitigation by Passive Approach............................................ 313
10.8.1.1 U.S. EPA/DER Method..................................................... 313
10.8.1.2 Discussions—Advantages and Disadvantages.................. 313
10.8.2 Radon Mitigation by Active Approach............................................. 315
10.8.3 Monitoring Techniques..................................................................... 316
10.8.3.2 Commercially Available Methods (EPA Approved
Methods)�� 316
10.8.3.3 Radon Measurements in Subsurface Soil Layer................ 316
10.8.3.4 Photochemical Method...................................................... 316
10.9 Nuclear Waste Disposal.................................................................................. 318
10.9.1 Review of Background...................................................................... 318
10.9.2 Sources and Types of Nuclear Wastes............................................... 318
10.9.2.1 Basic Sources of Nuclear Wastes....................................... 318
10.9.2.2 High-Level Radioactive Waste (HLRW)........................... 319
10.9.2.3 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLRW)............................ 319
10.9.3 Management of Nuclear Wastes........................................................ 319
10.9.4 Disposal Locations and Disposal Techniques................................... 320
10.9.4.2 Disposal Locations............................................................ 320
10.9.4.3 Radioactive Waste Storage................................................ 321
10.9.4.4 Waste Form and Leaking Routes....................................... 321
10.9.4.5 Comments on Existing Waste Sites................................... 321
Contents xxi
10.10 U tilization of Nuclear Energy for Construction Applications........................ 322

10.10.1 General Discussion.......................................................................... 322
10.10.2 Research Findings and Safety Considerations................................ 322
10.10.2.1 Research Findings.......................................................... 322
10.10.2.2 Benefit/Cost Ratio and Safety Considerations............... 322
10.11 Other Applications......................................................................................... 322
10.12 Summary........................................................................................................ 323
Problems.................................................................................................................... 324
Chapter 11 Compressibility and Stress–Strain–Time Behavior of Soils..................................... 325

11.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 325
11.2 Soil Compaction (Densification).................................................................... 325
11.2.2 Compaction Theories........................................................................ 325
11.2.2.1 Proctor Theory (1933)........................................................ 327
11.2.2.2 Hogentogler Theory (1937a).............................................. 327
11.2.2.3 Lambe Theory (1958)........................................................ 327
11.2.2.4 Compaction Theory Based on Particle-Energy-Field
Theory�� 327
11.2.3 Effect of Organics on Compaction.................................................... 327
11.2.4 Effect of Light Weight Nonorganic Material on Compaction........... 330
11.2.5 Factors Influencing Compaction Test Results................................... 332
11.3 Dynamic Consolidation (Dynamic Densification)......................................... 334
11.3.2 Load–Deformation Relationship and Effective Depth...................... 335
11.3.2.1 Menard and Broise Method (1975).................................... 335
11.3.2.2 Leonards et al. Modified Method (1980)........................... 335
11.3.2.3 Lukas Method (1980)......................................................... 336
11.3.2.4 Charles et al. Method (1981).............................................. 336
11.3.2.5 Fang–Ellis Method (1983, 1995a)...................................... 337
11.4 Consolidation.................................................................................................. 338
11.4.2 Terzaghi Consolidation Theory......................................................... 338
11.5 Normally and Overconsolidated Clays...........................................................340
11.5.2 Preconsolidation Pressure and Overconsolidation Ratio..................340
11.5.2.1 Preconsolidation Pressure..................................................340
11.5.2.2 Overconsolidation Ratio (OCR).........................................340
11.5.2.3 Shear Characteristics of Overconsolidated Clay............... 341
11.5.3 Factors Affecting Consolidation Test Results................................... 341
11.5.3.1 Temperature or Heat.......................................................... 341
11.5.3.2 Pore Fluid........................................................................... 341
11.5.3.3 Exchangeable Ions............................................................. 342
11.6 Prefailure Deformation and Failure Condition of Soil................................... 343
11.6.1 Prefailure Characteristics of Soil...................................................... 343
11.6.2 Relationship between Prefailure and Failure Conditions..................344
11.6.2.1 Prefailure Stage (Point a to b in Figure 11.19)................... 345
11.6.2.2 Prefailure Stage-Environmental-Load (Point b to c)......... 345
11.7 Stress–Strain–Strength Characteristics of Soil.............................................. 345
11.7.1 Failure Criteria.................................................................................. 345
xxii Contents
11.7.2 T ypes of Shear Testing...................................................................... 345

11.7.2.1 Standard Shear Testing...................................................... 345
11.7.2.2 Determination of Undrained Shear Parameters
from qu and σt��346
11.7.3 Factors Affecting Shear Strength......................................................346
11.7.3.1 Temperature and Electrolyte Concentration......................346
11.7.3.2 Contaminated Pore Fluids................................................. 347
11.7.3.3 Ion-Exchange Reaction...................................................... 347
11.7.4 Sensitivity, Creep, and Relaxation of Soil......................................... 351
11.7.4.1 Sensitivity.......................................................................... 351
11.7.4.2 Effect of Time on Soil Behavior........................................ 352
11.7.4.3 Creep Behavior.................................................................. 353
11.7.4.4 Stress Relaxation............................................................... 358
11.8 Residual Shear Strength................................................................................. 359
11.8.1 Characteristics of Residual Shear Strength....................................... 359
11.8.1.2 Methods for Determination of Residual Strength............. 359
11.8.2 Residual Strength Data Interpretations............................................. 359
11.8.3 Correlation of Residual Strength to Other Soil Parameters..............360
11.8.3.1 Correlation with Clay Content and Atterberg Limits........ 361
11.8.3.2 Correlation with Liquidity Index (LI)............................... 362
11.8.3.3 Correlation with Applied Normal Stress........................... 362
11.8.3.4 Correlation with Residual Strength
Coefficient (μr)................................................................... 363
11.9 Soil Dynamics................................................................................................ 363
11.9.1 Dynamic Shear Modulus and Damping Ratio of Soils..................... 363
11.9.1.1 Introduction....................................................................... 363
11.9.1.2 Experimental Results.........................................................364
11.9.2 Dynamic Shear Modulus of Contaminated Soil............................... 369
11.10 Blasting Dynamics......................................................................................... 370
11.10.2 Blasting Energy and Safe Limits..................................................... 370
11.10.2.1 Safe Distance and Particle Acceleration........................ 370
11.10.2.2 Energy Ratio.................................................................. 371
11.10.2.3 Particle Velocity and Scaled Distance........................... 371
11.10.2.4 Fang–Koerner Cracking-Intensity Concept................... 371
11.10.2.5 Blasting Safe Limits Criteria......................................... 372
11.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 373
Problems.................................................................................................................... 374
Chapter 12 Environmental Geotechnical Engineering Applications.......................................... 377

12.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 377
12.1.2 Environmental Geotechnical Applications....................................... 377
12.1.3 Basic Considerations of Ground Improvement Systems................... 377
12.2 L oad–Environmental Factor Design Criteria................................................. 378
12.2.1 Load Factor Design Criteria and Approaches................................... 378
12.2.1.1 Load Factor Design Criteria.............................................. 378
12.2.1.2 Load Factor Design Approaches....................................... 379
Contents xxiii
12.2.2 E nvironmental–Load Factor Design Criteria.................................... 379

12.2.2.2 Environmental Factors....................................................... 379
12.2.2.3 Load–Environmental Factor Design Approaches............. 379
12.3 Soil–Structure versus Structure–Soil Interactions......................................... 380
12.3.2 Structure–Soil Interaction................................................................. 380
12.3.3 Soil–Foundation–Structure Interaction............................................. 381
12.4 Load, Factor of Safety, and Allowable Conditions......................................... 383
12.4.1 Loads and Environmental Loads...................................................... 383
12.4.1.1 Loads................................................................................. 383
12.4.1.2 Environmental Loads........................................................ 383
12.4.2 Factor of Safety and Allowable Loads.............................................. 384
12.5 Bearing Capacity of Ground Soil................................................................... 384
12.5.1 Load–Footing Interaction.................................................................. 384
12.5.2 Bearing Capacity from Building Codes............................................ 384
12.6 Lateral Earth Pressures.................................................................................. 385
12.6.1 Active and Passive Earth Pressures................................................... 385
12.6.2 Coefficient of Earth Pressure at Rest, K0.......................................... 386
12.6.3 K0 for Clay-Like Soil and Sand......................................................... 387
12.6.3.1 Clay-Like Soil.................................................................... 387
12.6.3.2 K0 for Sand......................................................................... 388
12.7 F riction Forces and Angles between Two Materials...................................... 388
12.7.1 Friction Angle between Soil and Soil............................................... 388
12.7.2 Friction Angle between Soil and Wall.............................................. 389
12.8 Pile Foundations............................................................................................. 390
12.8.1 Characteristics of Piles...................................................................... 390
12.8.1.2 Selection of Pile Types...................................................... 390
12.8.1.3 Soil–Pile Interaction in the Environment.......................... 391
12.8.1.4 Friction Resistance between Pile and Soil......................... 391
12.8.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Pile Capacity............................... 392
12.8.2.1 Fluctuation of Groundwater Table..................................... 392
12.8.2.2 Ground Temperature and Freezing–Thawing Cycles........ 392
12.8.2.3 Pollution Intrusion and Corrosion Effects......................... 392
12.8.2.4 Pile Damage during Driving Process................................ 392
12.8.3 Field Inspection of Pile Foundations................................................. 392
12.8.4 Special Types of Pile and Their Uses................................................ 394
12.8.4.2 Highly Acid-Resistant Piles............................................... 394
12.8.4.3 Piles Used in Special Conditions....................................... 395
12.8.4.4 Piles Made from Waste or By-Products............................ 395
12.9 U nderwater Foundation Problems.................................................................. 395
12.9.1 Underwater Inspection of Substructures........................................... 395
12.9.2 Maintenance and Repair of Underwater Facilities............................ 396
12.9.2.1 Prevention.......................................................................... 396
12.9.2.2 Corrosion Protection and Repair Techniques.................... 396
12.10 Grouting and Injection Processes................................................................... 396
12.10.2 Grouting Process and Soil–Grout Interaction................................. 397
xxiv Contents
12.10.2.1 Grout and Injection Processes....................................... 397

12.10.2.2 Soil–Grout Interaction................................................... 398
12.10.3 Grout Used for Controlling Hazardous/Toxic Wastes.................... 398
12.10.3.1 General Discussion........................................................ 398
12.10.3.2 Grout System for Control of Hazardous/Toxic Wastes. 398
12.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 399
Problems.................................................................................................................... 399
Chapter 13 Problematic Soils and Rocks..................................................................................... 401

13.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 401
13.2 Shale and Weathered Rocks........................................................................... 401
13.2.2 Rock-Like and Soil-Like Shales........................................................ 401
13.2.3 Engineering Properties of Shales......................................................402
13.3 Residual Soils.................................................................................................403
13.3.1 Characteristics of Residual Soils.......................................................403
13.3.2 Engineering Behavior of Residual Soils...........................................405
13.3.3 Environmental Effects on Residual Soils..........................................405
13.4 Expansive Clays..............................................................................................405
13.4.2 Factors’ Effect on Swelling...............................................................406
13.4.3 Identification and Classification of Expansive Clays........................407
13.4.3.1 Single Index Methods........................................................407
13.4.3.2 Identification Based on Soil Constants..............................409
13.4.3.3 Dielectric Dispersion Method............................................409
13.4.4 Properties and Problems of Expansive Clay Deposits......................409
13.4.5 Black Cotton Soils............................................................................. 413
13.5 Organic Soils.................................................................................................. 413
13.5.1 Characteristics of Organic Soils........................................................ 413
13.5.2 Classification of Organic Soils.......................................................... 413
13.5.2.1 NRC Classification (1969)................................................. 414
13.5.2.2 ASTM Classification (1972).............................................. 414
13.5.2.3 Louisiana State Classification System (1970).................... 415
13.5.3 Engineering Properties of Organic Soils.......................................... 415
13.5.3.1 Water Content and Soil Constants..................................... 415
13.5.3.2 Permeability, Compressibility, and Others........................ 415
13.6 Karst Region (Sinkhole)................................................................................. 420
13.6.2 Solution Processes and Mechanisms................................................. 420
13.6.3 Sinkhole and Its Interaction with Environment................................ 421
13.6.4 Remedial Actions for Sinkholes........................................................ 422
13.7 Loess (Aeolian Deposits)................................................................................ 422
13.7.1 Origin and Distribution..................................................................... 422
13.7.2 Collapsibility Mechanisms and Phenomena..................................... 423
13.7.3 Properties and Foundation Problems................................................ 423
13.8 Dispersive Clays............................................................................................. 424
13.8.2 Identification Procedures................................................................... 427
Contents xxv
13.9 Laterite Soils................................................................................................... 428

13.9.1 Characteristics of Laterite Soil.......................................................... 428
13.10 Lacustrine Sediments and Varved Clays........................................................ 432
13.10.2 Marls and Tufas............................................................................... 432
13.10.3 Varved Clays................................................................................... 432
13.10.3.1 Characteristics of Varved Clays.................................... 432
13.10.3.2 Environmental Factors Affecting Formation of
Varved Clays�� 432
13.10.3.3 Engineering Properties and Foundation Problems
of Varved Clays�� 433
13.11 Saline and Alkali Soils................................................................................... 433
13.11.2 Properties and Foundation Problems.............................................. 433
13.12 Bentonite Clays............................................................................................... 435
13.12.1 Characteristics of Bentonite Clays.................................................. 435
13.12.2 Properties and Foundation Problems.............................................. 435
13.13 Tephra, Coral, and Sea Shells......................................................................... 436
13.13.1 Tephra (Volcanic Ash and Cinder).................................................. 436
13.13.2 Coral and Sea Shells........................................................................ 436
13.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 437
Problems.................................................................................................................... 437
Chapter 14 Wetlands, Coastal Margins, and Soil Erosion Problems........................................... 439

14.1 W
etlands......................................................................................................... 439
14.1.2 Definitions, Types, and Classifications............................................. 439
14.1.2.1 Definitions......................................................................... 439
14.1.2.2 Types and Classifications of Wetland Systems..................440
14.1.3 Natural Characteristics of Wetlands................................................. 441
14.1.4 Rice Paddy (Man-Made Wetland)..................................................... 441
14.1.5 Environmental Geotechnical Problems of Wetlands........................ 441
14.1.5.1 Ecological Effects.............................................................. 442
14.1.5.2 Engineering Difficulties.................................................... 443
14.2 Land and Coastal Margins............................................................................. 443
14.2.2 Land/Coastal Margin Ecosystem...................................................... 443
14.2.2.2 Land Margin Ecosystyem Research (LMER)
Sites.................................................................................... 443
14.2.2.3 Estuarine Characteristics of LMER Sites..........................444
14.2.3 Basic Parameters Needed for Evaluation.......................................... 445
14.2.3.2 Characteristics of Ocean Waves........................................ 445
14.2.3.3 Climatological and Geo-Environmental Conditions
along the Coastline............................................................ 445
14.2.4 Environmental Geotechnical Problems............................................446
14.3 Beaches and Beach Erosion............................................................................446
xxvi Contents
14.3.1 C haracteristics of Beaches and Beach Sand.....................................446

14.3.1.1 Characteristics of Beaches.................................................446
14.3.1.2 Characteristics of Beach Sand........................................... 447
14.3.2 Beach Erosion and Pollution Problems.............................................448
14.4 Saltwater Intrusion, Estuaries, and Greenhouse Effect..................................448
14.4.2 Estuaries and Estuarine Systems......................................................448
14.4.3 Greenhouse Effect on Coastal Environment.....................................449
14.5 Marine Sediments and Sea Floor Problems................................................... 450
14.5.1 Marine Environments........................................................................ 450
14.5.2 Properties of Seawater....................................................................... 450
14.5.3 Engineering Behavior of Marine Sediments..................................... 451
14.5.4 Pollution and Contaminated Marine Sediments............................... 451
14.5.5 Marine Structures and Slopes........................................................... 453
14.5.5.1 Marine Structures.............................................................. 453
14.5.5.2 Slopes of Submarine Sediments........................................ 454
14.6 Dredging and Dredging Material................................................................... 454
14.6.2 Case Studies and Management Techniques...................................... 456
14.7 Soil Erosion.................................................................................................... 456
14.7.2 Erosion Causes and Mechanisms...................................................... 457
14.8 Water Erosion................................................................................................. 459
14.8.1 Soil Erosion by Water........................................................................ 459
14.8.1.1 Equation Estimation by Water Erosion.............................. 459
14.8.1.2 Rainfall Factor (R).............................................................460
14.8.1.3 Soil Erodibility Factor (K).................................................460
14.8.1.4 Topographic Factor (LS)....................................................460
14.8.1.5 Erosion Control Factor (VM).............................................460
14.8.2 Factors Affecting Water Erosion....................................................... 461
14.9 Wind Erosion.................................................................................................. 462
14.9.1 Soil Erosion by Wind........................................................................ 462
14.9.1.1 Estimation by Wind Erosion.............................................. 462
14.9.1.2 Soil Wind Erodibility Factor (I′)....................................... 463
14.9.1.3 Local Wind Erosion Climatic Factor (C′)......................... 463
14.9.1.4 Other Factors.....................................................................464
14.10 Erosion Control in Construction Areas..........................................................464
14.11 Summary........................................................................................................464
Problems....................................................................................................................465
Chapter 15 Ground Surface Subsidences..................................................................................... 467

15.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 467
15.2 Characteristics and Classifications of Land Subsidence................................ 467
15.2.1 Characteristics of Land Subsidence.................................................. 467
15.2.2 Classification of Ground Subsidence................................................. 467
15.2.2.1 Geotechnical Engineering Classification.......................... 467
15.2.2.2 Genetic Classification........................................................469
15.3 Mechanisms and Phenomena of Ground Subsidence.....................................469
15.3.1 Creep and Progressive Failures.........................................................469
15.3.2 Phenomena Associated with Subsidence.......................................... 470
Contents xxvii
15.4 G round Subsidence due to Natural Causes.................................................... 470

15.4.1 Tectonic Movement and Earthquake................................................. 470
15.4.2 Flora and Fauna of the Soil............................................................... 471
15.4.3 Flood or Rainstorm........................................................................... 472
15.5 Dewatering..................................................................................................... 473
15.5.1 Phenomena and Mechanism of Dewatering...................................... 473
15.5.2 Stress Distribution during Dewatering Process................................ 474
15.5.2.1 Unconfined Aquifer........................................................... 474
15.5.2.2 Confined Aquifer............................................................... 475
15.5.2.3 Effect of Pumping on Clay Strata...................................... 475
15.5.2.4 Storage Coefficient............................................................ 476
15.5.3 Ground Subsidence Prediction.......................................................... 476
15.5.3.2 Mechanisms of Subsidence due to Dewatering................. 477
15.5.4 Terzaghi and Zeevaert Methods........................................................ 477
15.5.4.1 Terzaghi Method (Terzaghi and Peck, 1967)..................... 477
15.5.4.2 Zeevaert Method (1972)..................................................... 478
15.6 Mining Subsidence......................................................................................... 478
15.6.2 Ground Surface Movement...............................................................480
15.6.2.1 Discontinuous Deformation...............................................480
15.6.2.2 Continuous Deformation................................................... 481
15.6.3 Prediction of Possible Surface Damage............................................ 481
15.6.3.2 Empirical Method.............................................................. 482
15.6.3.3 Profile Function Method.................................................... 482
15.6.3.4 Influence Function Method................................................ 482
15.6.3.5 Phenomenological Method................................................ 483
15.6.4 Underground Precaution for Active Mining..................................... 483
15.6.4.1 Safety Pillars......................................................................484
15.6.4.2 Controlled Undermining....................................................484
15.6.4.3 Stowing..............................................................................484
15.6.4.4 Partial Extraction...............................................................484
15.6.4.5 Rapid Undermining...........................................................484
15.6.4.6 Special Mine Geometries.................................................. 485
15.6.4.7 Structural Precautions....................................................... 485
15.6.5 Abandoned Mines............................................................................. 486
15.6.5.1 Characteristics of Abandoned Mines................................ 486
15.6.5.2 Support Methods and Structural Precautions.................... 487
15.7 Construction Operations................................................................................. 488
15.7.1 Deep Excavation................................................................................ 488
15.7.2 Pile Driving Operation...................................................................... 489
15.7.3 Dynamic Compaction and Blasting.................................................. 489
15.7.4 Subsidence Caused by Local Environmental Conditions................. 489
15.7.4.1 Underground Openings..................................................... 489
15.7.4.2 Rapid Drawdown............................................................... 489
15.7.4.3 Hazardous/Toxic Wastes Disposal.................................... 490
15.8 Geoarchaeology and Archaeogeotechnology................................................. 490
15.8.2 Types and Classification of Archaeology.......................................... 491
15.8.3 Natural and Man-Made Causes for Damage to Artifacts................. 491
xxviii Contents
15.8.4 Site Survey, Planning, Retrofit, and Land Reclamation.................... 492

15.9 Summary........................................................................................................ 493
Problems.................................................................................................................... 493
Chapter 16 Slope Stability of Earth Slopes and Landslides........................................................ 495

16.1 I ntroduction.................................................................................................... 495
16.2 Causes and Phenomena Associated with LandslideS.................................... 495
16.2.1 Causes of Ground Movement............................................................ 495
16.2.2 Prefailure Phenomena Associated with Landslide............................ 495
16.3 Progressive Failures and Surface Creep......................................................... 497
16.3.2 Progressive Failure and Surface Creep............................................. 497
16.4 Slope Stability Analysis Procedures.............................................................. 497
16.4.2 Limit Equilibrium and Limit Analysis Methods.............................. 497
16.4.2.1 Limit Equilibrium Method................................................ 497
16.4.2.2 Limit Analysis Method...................................................... 498
16.4.3 Selection of Strength Parameters and Factor of Safety..................... 498
16.4.3.1 Selection of Strength Parameters....................................... 498
16.4.3.2 Factor of Safety, Fs............................................................. 499
16.4.4 Uncertainties and Probability of Failure........................................... 499
16.5 Effect of Rainfall on Slope Stability..............................................................500
16.5.1 Rainfall and Rainfall Intensity..........................................................500
16.5.2 Soil–Water Interaction Relating to Slope Stability........................... 502
16.5.2.1 Mechanism Based on Physicochemical Concept.............. 502
16.5.2.2 Mechanism Based on Ion-Exchange Effect....................... 502
16.5.2.3 Mechanism Based on Linear Elastic Fracture
Mechanics (LEFM) Concept�� 502
16.5.2.4 Mechanism Based on Particle-Energy-Field Theory........ 503
16.5.3 Depth of Saturated Zone (Wetting Band)......................................... 503
16.5.3.1 Depth of Saturated Zone (No Surface Cracks).................. 503
16.5.3.2 Corrections of Wetting Band due to Ground
Surface Cracks��506
16.6 L andslides in Residual Soil and Weathering Rocks.......................................507
16.6.1 Characteristics of Residual Soil........................................................ 507
16.6.2 Case Study.........................................................................................507
16.6.2.1 Bucaramanga, Colombia....................................................507
16.6.2.2 Hong Kong Landslides, 1972............................................. 507
16.7 Landslides in Dispersive and Expansive Clay Regions.................................. 508
16.7.1 Dispersive Clay Regions................................................................... 508
16.7.2 Expansive Clay Slopes......................................................................508
16.8 Landslides in Overconsolidated Clay Areas.................................................. 510
16.8.1 Failure Mechanism in Overconsolidated Clays................................ 510
16.8.2 Review of Various Failure Mechanisms........................................... 510
16.8.3 Environmental Geotechnical Approach............................................ 511
16.9 Earthquake Trigger-Causing Landslides........................................................ 513
16.9.1 Shallow Slope Failure....................................................................... 513
16.9.2 Deep Slope Failure............................................................................ 513
16.10 Slope Stability/Landslide Problems in Adverse Environments..................... 513
16.10.1 Effects of Logging Operations and Tree Roots................................. 513
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1.10.3 P  roposed Approaches or Methods for Evaluation of

Chapter 2 Particle-Energy-Field Theory and Its Applications.................................................... 21

2.8 Phenomena of Solid–Liquid–Gas at Interface................................................. 36

Chapter 3 Nature of Soil and Environment................................................................................. 45

Chapter 4 Soil Technology........................................................................................................... 75

4.6.1 ipole Moment and Orientation Effect...............................................84

4.12 H omoionic Modifications (Pure Soil)............................................................ 102

Chapter 5 Soil–Water–Air Interaction in the Environment....................................................... 109

5.6.3 Soil–Water Interaction in Various Energy Fields.............................. 123

Chapter 6 Shrinkage, Swelling, and Cracking Characteristics of Soil...................................... 145

6.5.1.1 Physical Adsorption........................................................... 154

Chapter 7 Hydraulic Conductivity and Mass Transport Phenomena......................................... 185

7.7  oil–Water Suction and Diffusivity................................................................207

Chapter 8 Thermal Properties of Soils...................................................................................... 219

8.6.3.3 Compressibility.................................................................. 230

Chapter 9 Electrical Properties of Soils..................................................................................... 251

9.5.1.1 Salts and Base.................................................................... 256

9.9 Ground Improvement by Electrokinetic Process........................................... 277

Chapter 10 Radiation Effects on Water, Soil, and Rock.............................................................. 293

10.4.2 Interrelationship among Uranium, Radium, and Radon Gas............ 298

10.10 U tilization of Nuclear Energy for Construction Applications........................ 322

Chapter 11 Compressibility and Stress–Strain–Time Behavior of Soils..................................... 325

11.7.2 T  ypes of Shear Testing...................................................................... 345

Chapter 12 Environmental Geotechnical Engineering Applications.......................................... 377

12.2.2 E  nvironmental–Load Factor Design Criteria.................................... 379

12.10.2.1 Grout and Injection Processes....................................... 397

Chapter 13 Problematic Soils and Rocks..................................................................................... 401

13.9 Laterite Soils................................................................................................... 428

Chapter 14 Wetlands, Coastal Margins, and Soil Erosion Problems........................................... 439

14.3.1 C  haracteristics of Beaches and Beach Sand.....................................446

Chapter 15 Ground Surface Subsidences..................................................................................... 467

15.4 G round Subsidence due to Natural Causes.................................................... 470

15.8.4 Site Survey, Planning, Retrofit, and Land Reclamation.................... 492

Chapter 16 Slope Stability of Earth Slopes and Landslides........................................................ 495

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1.10.3 P roposed Approaches or Methods for Evaluation of

2.8 Phenomena of Solid–Liquid–Gas at Interface................................................. 36

4.6.1 ipole Moment and Orientation Effect...............................................84

4.12 H omoionic Modifications (Pure Soil)............................................................ 102

5.6.3 Soil–Water Interaction in Various Energy Fields.............................. 123

6.5.1.1 Physical Adsorption........................................................... 154

7.7 oil–Water Suction and Diffusivity................................................................207

8.6.3.3 Compressibility.................................................................. 230

9.5.1.1 Salts and Base.................................................................... 256

9.9 Ground Improvement by Electrokinetic Process........................................... 277

10.4.2 Interrelationship among Uranium, Radium, and Radon Gas............ 298

10.10 U tilization of Nuclear Energy for Construction Applications........................ 322

11.7.2 T ypes of Shear Testing...................................................................... 345

12.2.2 E nvironmental–Load Factor Design Criteria.................................... 379

12.10.2.1 Grout and Injection Processes....................................... 397

13.9 Laterite Soils................................................................................................... 428

14.3.1 C haracteristics of Beaches and Beach Sand.....................................446

15.4 G round Subsidence due to Natural Causes.................................................... 470

15.8.4 Site Survey, Planning, Retrofit, and Land Reclamation.................... 492