Geography Prepladder NCERT

NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
6th Standard
CONTENTS
The Earth: Our Habitat ................................................................................................................. 1 - 2
Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes ............................................................................................... 3 - 5
Motions of the Earth ...................................................................................................................... 6 - 8
Maps ................................................................................................................................................... 9 - 9
Major Domains of the Earth ................................................................................................... 10 - 12
Major Landforms on Earth ...................................................................................................... 13 - 16
Our Country India ...................................................................................................................... 17 - 18
India: Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife .............................................................................. 19 - 20

1 THE EARTH: OUR HABITAT
Our Earth is part of the solar system which consists of various other objects like the sun, planets, asteroids,
twinkling stars, etc. Earth has all life supporting systems which work in sync to make life possible on Earth.
What are celestial bodies?

● Celestial bodies or heavenly bodies are objects in space such as the Sun, Moon, Planets, and Stars.
They are part of the Universe.
● Stars like the Sun are made up of very hot gases and they emit their own light and heat.
● Twinkling stars are like the Sun but we do not feel their heat or light as they are far away from us.
What are constellations?

● These are groups of stars and they form different patterns.
● Ursa Major or big bear is one such example of constellations.
● One of the most recognizable constellations is Saptarishi; it is a group of seven stars that forms part of
the Ursa Major constellation.
● We can locate the position of the Pole star with the help of Saptarishi constellations.
What are the Planets?

● The word Planet came from the Greek word “Planetai” which means Wanderers.
● These are the celestial Bodies that don't emit heat and light.
What is the Solar system?

The Sun, eight planets, satellites, and some other celestial bodies known as asteroids and meteoroids
constitute our solar system.
The Sun:
It is made of extremely hot gases and it is the centre of our solar system. It acts as pulling factor around
which other planets and objects revolve.
The Planets:
● There are eight planets in our solar system. In order of their distance from the Sun, they are: Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.
THE EARTH: OUR HABITAT
● All these planets revolve around the Sun in an elongated orbit.

● Mercury is nearest to the Sun and it takes only 88 days to complete 1 orbit around the Sun.
● Venus is called Earth's twin because of its same size and shape which is very much similar to that of
Earth.
The Earth:
● It is the third nearest and fifth largest planet in our solar system. It is slightly flattened at poles. That's
why; its shape is described as “Geoid”.
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● Life favourable conditions such as presence of water, air and neither too hot nor too cold temperature
etc. makes the Earth a unique planet.
● It is also called 'Blue planet' because its two-third part is covered with water.
● Earth has only one satellite, the Moon, which is 3, 84,400 km away from Earth.
● The Moon revolves around the Earth in 27 days; it takes exactly the same time to complete one spin.
Asteroids:
These are numerous tiny bodies which move around the Sun. They generally found between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. They are considered as part of the planets which exploded many years back.
Meteoroids:
These are tiny rocks that move around the Sun. Sometimes, they come in contact with the Earth's
atmosphere and due to the friction, they get heated up and burn with a flash of light. While Meteor, without
being completely burnt, falls on Earth and makes hollow.
Galaxy:
A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars that look whitish. The Milky Way is such an example. Our solar
system is part of the galaxy which is called the Akash Ganga. The whole universe is made of millions of such
galaxies.
Interesting Points:
● Jupiter, Saturn and Uranus have rings around them which are belts of small debris.
● Sol' in Roman mythology is the 'Sun god'. 'Solar' means 'related to the Sun'. The family of the Sun is,
therefore, called the solar system.
● A Satellite is a celestial body that moves around the planets in the same way as the planets move
around the Sun.
● A Human-made Satellite is an artificial body which is designed by scientists to gather information
about the universe or for communication.
● The moon and the planets shine due to reflected sunlight (According to Aryabhatta).
● Light travels at the speed of about 300,000 km per second.
● The light of the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach the Earth.
THE EARTH: OUR HABITAT
2
GLOBE: LATITUDES AND
2 LONGITUDES
Globe is a true model (miniature form) of the Earth, which is very helpful to improve understanding of Earth's
shape and size such as the Earth is flattened at Poles and bulge at Equator (middle).
What is the globe?

● Globes may be of varying size and type – big ones, which cannot be carried easily, small pocket globes,
and globe-like balloons, which can be inflated and are handy and carried with ease. The globe is not
fixed. It can be rotated the same way as topspin or a potter's wheel is rotated. On the globe, countries,
continents, and oceans are shown in their correct size.
● A needle is fixed through the globe in a tilted manner, which is called its axis.
● Two points on the globe through which the needle passes are two poles – the North Pole and the
South Pole.
● But in case of the real Earth, it has no such needle. It moves around its axis, which is an imaginary line.
What is the Equator?

● The imaginary line running on the globe divides it into two equal parts. This line is known as the
equator. The Northern Hemisphere is north of this line and the Southern Hemisphere is south of this
line.
● All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles are called parallels of latitudes. Latitudes are
measured in degrees.
● The Equator represents the zero degrees latitude. Since the distance from the Equator to either of the
poles is one-fourth of a circle round the Earth, it will measure ¼th of 360 degrees, i.e. 90°. Thus, 90
degrees north latitude marks the North Pole and 90 degrees south latitude marks the South Pole.
● All parallels north of the Equator are called 'north latitudes.' Similarly, all parallels south of the Equator
are called 'south latitudes.'
● The value of each latitude is, therefore, followed by either the word North or South. Generally, this is
indicated by the letter 'N' or 'S'.
GLOBE: LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
Important parallels of latitude:

Besides the Equator (0°), the North Pole (90°N), and the South Pole (90° S), there are four important parallels
of latitudes:
● Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere.
● Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern Hemisphere.
● Arctic Circle at 66½° north of the Equator.
● Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the Equator.
Heat zones of the Earth:

● Torrid Zone:
The mid-day Sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes between the Tropic of Cancer and
the Tropic of Capricorn. These areas receive maximum heat thus called Torrid Zones.
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Fig: 2.1: Important lattitude and Heat zones
Temperate Zone:
● The mid-day Sun never shines overhead beyond the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The
angle of the Sun's rays goes decreasing towards the poles.
● This is the area between the Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere and
between the Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic in the southern hemisphere.
● This area is having a moderate temperature.
Frigid zones:
This is the area between the Arctic Circle and North Pole in northern hemisphere and Antarctic Circle and
Southern pole in southern hemisphere. These are very cold areas and the Sun never shines above the

horizon here.
What is the longitude?

● In order to locate any place on Earth precisely, we must find out how far east or west these places are
from a given line of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole. These lines of references
are called the meridians of longitude, and the distances between them are measured in 'degrees of
longitude'.
● Each degree is further divided into minutes, and minutes into seconds. They are semi-circles and the
distance between them decreases steadily pole wards until it becomes zero at the poles, where all the
meridians meet. All meridians are of equal length.
● The Meridian which is passing through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is located is
called the Prime Meridian. Its value is “0” longitude and from it we count 180° eastward as well as 180°
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westward.
● 180° meridian divide the Earth into two equal halves, the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western
Hemisphere.
● The longitude of a place is followed by the letter E for the east and W for the west. It is, however,
interesting to note that 180° East and 180° West meridians are on the same line.
Fig: 2.2: Grids
Longitude and Time:

● The best means of measuring time is by the movement of the Earth, the Moon, and the planets.
● The shadow cast by the Sun is the shortest at noon and longest at sunrise and sunset.
● The Earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes.
● In India, the longitude of 82½° E (82° 30'E) is treated as the standard meridian.
Therefore the longitude and the latitude are very crucial in understanding about any place on globe or on
Earth.
Interesting points
● Tonga Islands (in the Pacific Ocean) and Mauritius Islands (in the Indian Ocean) are situated on the
same latitude.
● We can know the latitude of our place by measuring the angle of the Pole Star from our place.
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MOTIONS OF THE EARTH
3
The Earth has two types of motions, namely Rotation and Revolution.
● Rotation is the movement of the Earth on its axis.
● Revolution is the movement of the Earth around the Sun in a fixed path or orbit.
Rotation and associated terms:

● The axis of the Earth, which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane. The
plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane.
● The circle that divides the day from night on the globe is called the circle of illumination.
● The period of rotation is known as Earth day which is the daily motion of the earth.
Fig. 3.1: Day and Night on the Earth due to rotation
Important points related to Revolution:

● Every fourth year, February is 29 days instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366 days is called a leap
year.
● In this revolution time, the Earth goes around the sun in an elliptical orbit. Throughout its orbit, the
Earth is inclined in the same direction.
● Seasonal changes are due to change in the earth's position around the Sun.
Fig. 3.2: Inclination of the Earth's axis and the orbital plane
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Important dates in Earth's revolution:
On 21st June:
● The Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun. The rays of the Sun fall directly on the Tropic of
Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat and areas near poles receive less heat due to
slanting rays. Places around the Arctic Circle receive continuous daylight for 6 months. Therefore it is
called the summer season in the northern hemisphere.
● The longest day and the shortest night occur at these places on 21st June. The reverse happens in the
southern hemisphere. This position of the Earth is called the Summer Solstice.
On 22nd December:
● The Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the Sun as the South Pole tilts towards it. As the sun's
rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S), a larger portion of the Southern Hemisphere
gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere with longer days and shorter nights.
The reverse happens in the Northern Hemisphere. This position of the Earth is called the Winter
Solstice.
On 21stMarch and 23rdSeptember:

● Direct rays of the Sun fall on the Equator. At this position, neither of the poles is tilted towards the Sun;
so, the whole Earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
● On 23rdSeptember, it is the autumn season in the Northern Hemisphere and spring season in the
Southern Hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st March when it is spring in the Northern
Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.
Fig. 3.3: Revolution of the Earth and Seasons
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Thus, the rotation and revolution of the Earth is responsible for formation of days and nights and seasonal
changes respectively.
Interesting points
● The ancient Indian astronomer Aryabhata had stated that 'the Earth is round and rotates on its
own axis'.
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MAPS
4
A map is a representation or a drawing of the Earth's surface or a part of it drawn on a flat surface
according to a scale. Generally, maps provide more information than a globe.
Types of Maps:
● Physical Maps: Maps showing natural features of the Earth such as mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers,
oceans, etc. are called physical or relief maps.
● Political Maps: Maps showing cities, towns and villages, and different countries and states of the
world with their boundaries are called political maps.
● Thematic Maps: Some maps focus on specific information; such as roadmaps, rainfall maps, maps
showing the distribution of forests, industries, etc. are known as thematic maps.
Important components of maps:

● Scale: Scale is the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance shown on the map.
Small scale and large scale maps are two types of maps.
● Cardinal points: These points on maps are directions such as North, East, West, and South.
● Symbols: Maps have a universal language that can be understood by all. There is an international
agreement regarding the use of these symbols. These are called conventional symbols.
Fig. 4.1: Conventional Symbols
● Sketch: A sketch is a drawing mainly based on memory and spot observation and not to scale. It is a
rough drawing without scale.
● Plan: A plan is a drawing of a small area on a large scale. A large-scale map gives a lot of information,
for example, the length and breadth of a room, which can't be shown on a map.
Thus, maps act as a blue print as it provides authentic information about any place or region.
MAPS
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MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH
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Earth is made up of a complex system of interacting domains which makes life on the Earth possible. These
domains consist of land, water and air on Earth. The surface of the Earth is a complex zone in which three
main components of the environment i.e. Lithosphere, Atmosphere and Hydrosphere meet, overlap and
interact.
Lithosphere:
● The solid portion of the Earth is called the Lithosphere. It comprises the rocks of the Earth's crust and
the thin layers of soil that contain nutrient elements that sustain organisms.
● There are two main divisions of the Earth's surface. Large landmasses are known as continents while
huge water bodies are called as ocean basins.
Seven Major Continents on Earth:

● Asia: It is the largest continent which comprises one-third area of the Earth. It lies in the Eastern
Hemisphere. It is separated from Europe by the Ural Mountains on the west side. The Tropic of Cancer
passes through it.
● Europe: It lies west of Asia. The Arctic Circle passes through it and it is surrounded by water bodies
from three sides.
● Africa: It is second largest continent after Asia. All the three latitudes pass through this continent.
World's biggest desert Sahara is present on the northern part of the continent. It is the only continent
which is bound by water from all sides of the continent. The world's longest river Nile flows through
this continent.
● North America: It is third largest continent which is linked to South America by a very narrow strip of
land called the Isthmus of Panama. The continent lies completely in the Northern and Western
Hemispheres. Three oceans surround this continent.
● South America: It lies mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. The Andes, the world's longest mountain
range, runs through its length from north to south. South America has the world's largest river, the
Amazon.
● Australia: It is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. It is surrounded on
all sides by the oceans and seas. It is also called as island continent.

● Antarctica: It is a huge continent lying completely in the Southern Hemisphere. The South Pole lies
almost at the centre of this continent. As it is located in the South Polar Region, it is permanently
covered with thick ice sheets. There are no permanent human settlements. Many countries have
research stations in Antarctica. India also has research stations there. These are named Maitri and
Dakshin Gangotri.
Atmosphere:
● The thin layer of gas which surrounds the Earth is called the atmosphere.
● It extends up to a height of about 1,600 kilometres.
● The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on composition, temperature, and other properties.
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These layers starting from the Earth's surface are called the troposphere, the stratosphere, the
mesosphere, the thermosphere, and the exosphere.
Fig. 5.1: Layers of the Atmosphere
● The atmosphere is composed mainly of Nitrogen and Oxygen, which make up about 99 per cent of
clean, dry air.
● Nitrogen 78 per cent, Oxygen 21 per cent and other gases like carbon dioxide, argon and others
comprise 1 per cent by volume.
Hydrosphere:
● The Hydrosphere comprises water in all its forms, i.e. ice, water, water vapour, running water in
ocean, river, underground water, etc.
● More than 71 per cent of the Earth is covered with water and 29 per cent is with land. That's why, the
Earth is known as “Blue Planet”.
Oceans:
● Oceans are the major part of hydrosphere. They are all inter-connected and water in the ocean is
always moving.
● The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the tides, and the ocean currents.
● The five major oceans are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Southern
Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean, in order of their size.
● The Pacific Ocean: It is the largest ocean which is spread over one-third of the Earth. Mariana Trench,
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the deepest part of the Earth, lies in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is almost circular in shape. It
is surrounded by Asia, Australia, North, and South America.
● The Atlantic Ocean: It is the second-largest ocean in the world. It is 'S' shaped. It is flanked by the
North and South Americas on the western side, and Europe and Africa on the eastern side. The
coastline of the Atlantic Ocean is highly indented. This irregular and indented coastline provides an
ideal location for natural harbours and ports. From the point of view of commerce, it is the busiest
Ocean.
● The Indian Ocean: It is the only ocean named after a country, that is, India. The shape of the ocean is
almost triangular. In the north, it is bound by Asia, in the west by Africa, and in the east by Australia.
● The Southern Ocean: It encircles the continent of Antarctica and extends northward to 60 degrees
south latitude. The Arctic Ocean is located within the Arctic Circle and surrounds the North Pole. It is
connected with the Pacific Ocean by a narrow stretch of shallow water known as the Bering Strait. It is
bound by the northern coasts of North America and Eurasia.
Biosphere:
It is the narrow zone where we find land, water and air together, which contains all forms of life.
Fig. 5.2: The Biosphere
Interesting terms and facts:

● Strait: It is a narrow passage of water connecting two large water bodies like seas and ocean. E.g.
Strait of Malacca, Palk Strait etc.
● Isthmus: A narrow strip of land joining two land masses. E.g. Isthmus of Panama.
● In the Greek language, Lithos means Stone; Atmos means Vapour; Hudor means Water; and Bios
means Life.
● Edmund Hillary (New Zealand) and Tenzing Norgay Sherpa (India) were the first men to climb the
highest mountain peak Mt. Everest on the planet Earth on 29th May, 1953.
● Junko Tabei (Japan) was the first woman to reach the summit on 16th May, 1975.
The first Indian woman to climb the highest peak on 23rd May, 1984 was Bachendri Pal.
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6 MAJOR LANDFORMS ON EARTH
Landforms on the surface of the Earth are the ultimate result of internal and external processes.
● Internal process which leads to the upliftment and sinking of the Earth's surface at several places.
● External process is the continuous wearing down and rebuilding of the land surface. The wearing
away of the earth's surface is called erosion. The surface is being lowered by the process of erosion
and rebuilt by the process of deposition. These two processes are carried out by running water, ice, and
wind.
Fig. 6.1: Landforms
Types of landforms depending on elevation and slopes

Mountains:
● A mountain is any natural elevation of the Earth surface which is considerably higher than the
surrounding area.
● The arrangement of mountains in a line is known as the range.
● Many mountain systems consist of a series of parallel ranges extending over hundreds of kilometres.
The Himalayas, the Alps, and the Andes are mountain ranges of Asia, Europe, and South America,
respectively.
MAJOR LANDFORMS ON EARTH
● In some mountains, there are permanently frozen rivers of ice. They are called glaciers.
Three types of mountains:

● Fold Mountains: These mountains are created where two or more of Earth's tectonic plates are pushed
together. At these colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are warped and folded into
rocky outcrops, hills, mountains, and entire mountain ranges.
⮚ The Himalayan Mountains and the Alps are young fold mountains with rugged relief and high
conical peaks.
⮚ The Aravali range in India is one of the oldest fold mountain systems in the world.
⮚ The Appalachians in North America and the Ural mountains in Russia have rounded features and
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low elevation. They are very old fold mountains.
Fig. 6.2: Fold Mountains
● Block Mountains: These types of mountains are created when large areas are broken and displaced
vertically. The uplifted blocks are termed as horst and the lowered blocks are called graben. The Rhine
valley and the Vosges Mountain in Europe are examples of such mountain systems.
Fig. 6.3: Block Mountains
● Volcanic Mountains: These Mountains are formed due to volcanic activity. Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa
and Mt. Fujiyama in Japan are examples of such mountains
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Fig. 6.4: Volcanic Mountains
Significance of the Mountains:

● They are storehouse of water.
● Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation and generation of hydro-electricity.
● Mountains provide an idyllic site for tourists.
● They are also useful for crop cultivation e.g. terrace farming etc.
Plateaus:
It is a flat tableland standing above the surrounding area. Like mountains, they are also young and old. E.g.
Deccan plateau is one of the oldest plateaus. Other examples are the East African Plateau in Kenya,
Tanzania, and Uganda and the Western plateau of Australia.
Importance of Plateaus:
● World's major mining areas are generally found on plateaus. For example; African plateau is famous
for gold and diamond mining. In India, huge reserves of iron, coal, and manganese are found in the
Chota Nagpur plateau.
● In the plateau areas, there may be several waterfalls as the river falls from a great height. In India, the
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Hundru falls in the Chota Nagpur plateau on the river Subarnarekha and the Jog falls in Karnataka
are examples of such waterfalls.
● The lava plateaus are rich in black soil that is fertile and good for cultivation.
Plains:
These are large stretches of flatlands; they are generally not more than 200 meters above sea level.
Generally, plains are very fertile. Most of the plains are formed by the rivers by depositing the eroded material
along their courses and in their valleys. These plains are thickly populated regions in the world such
Gangetic belt in India, the Yangtze in China etc.
Interesting points
● A hill is a land surface that rises higher than the surrounding area. Generally, a steep hill with an
elevation of more than 600 metres is termed as a mountain.
● Mauna Kea (Hawaii) in the Pacific Ocean is an undersea mountain. It is higher than Mount Everest
being 10,205 metres high.
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7 OUR COUNTRY INDIA
India is a country of vast geographical expanse. In the North, it is bound by the lofty Himalayas. The Arabian
Sea in the West, the Bay of Bengal in the East and the Indian Ocean in the South, wash the shores of the
Indian peninsula.
Key points related to India:

● India has an area of about 3.28 million sq. km. The north-south extent from Kashmir to Kanyakumari
is about 3,200 km. And the east-west extent from Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh is about 2,900 km.
● Southern part is called peninsular land mass which is surrounded by water from three sides.
● The lofty mountains, the Great Indian Desert, the Northern Plains, the uneven plateau surface and the
coasts and islands present a diversity of landforms.
● There is a great variety in the climate, vegetation, wildlife as well as in the language and culture.
● There are seven countries that share land boundaries with India that are China, Bhutan, Nepal,
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the North or north-west, and with Bangladesh and Myanmar in the East.
Location:
● India located in the Northern hemisphere, the Tropic of Cancer divides India into 2 parts, the Southern
and the Northern part.
● From South to North, main land of India extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N latitudes. From West to
East, India extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E longitudes.
● There is a great longitudinal extent of about 29° which has an impact on local time differences.
● The local time changes by four minutes for every one degree of longitude. The local time of longitude
of 82°30'E has been taken as the Indian Standard Time.
Physical Division of India:

OUR COUNTRY INDIA
Fig. 7.1: Physical division of India
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● India is marked by a diversity of physical features such as mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts and
islands.
● Himalayan Mountain divided into 3 parallel mountain ranges such as Northernmost is Himadri or
greater Himalaya; world's highest mountain peaks are located in this range. In the South of greater
Himalaya, Middle or Himachal, Himalaya is situated. Many popular hill stations are situated here.
Shiwalik is the southernmost range.
● Northern Plains: These plains are South of the Himalayas and they are generally flat and level. These
plains are formed by rivers like Ganga, Brahmaputra, Sindhu and their tributaries. These regions
provide fertile soil for agriculture that's why these are one of the regions of highest population
concentration.
● The Great Indian Desert: It lies in the western part of the country. It is a dry, hot and sandy stretch of
land. It has very little vegetation.
● Peninsular Plateau:
⮚ It is situated south of the northern plains, it is triangular in shape and its relief is highly irregular.
This region has numerous hills such as Aravali, one of the oldest residual mountains in the world,
situated in the north-west part.
⮚ The rivers Narmada and Tapi (West flowing rivers) flow through Vindhyas and Satpura ranges.
⮚ The Western Ghats or Sahyadris border the plateau in the West and the Eastern Ghats provide the
Eastern boundary.
⮚ The Coastal plains lie to the West of the Western Ghats and the East of Eastern Ghats. Western
coastal plains are very narrow and eastern coastal plains are much broader due to delta formed by
various rivers such as Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna etc.
● Island groups: Two groups of islands also form part of India. Lakshadweep Islands (Coral islands) are
located in the Arabian Sea. The Andaman and the Nicobar Islands lie to the southeast of the Indian
mainland in the Bay of Bengal.
Interesting points
● The peninsula is a piece of land that is surrounded by water on three sides.
● Large countries which stretch extensively from east to west do not have a single Standard Time for
the whole country. The USA and Canada have seven and six time zones respectively.
● Alluvial deposits: These are very fine soils, brought by rivers and deposited in the river basins.
● Tributary: A river or stream which contributes its water to a main river by discharging it into Main
OUR COUNTRY INDIA
River from either side.

● World's largest delta is the Sunderban delta which is triangular in shape.
● Corals are skeletons of tiny marine animals called Polyps. When the living polyps die, their skeletons
are left. Other polyps grow on top of the hard skeleton which grows higher and higher, thus forming
the coral islands.
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8 INDIA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION
AND WILDLIFE
Weather is about day to day changes in the atmosphere. It includes changes in temperature, rainfall, and
sunshine, etc.
Seasons in India:
● Cold Weather Season or Winter (December to February): During this season, the Sun rays do not fall
directly in the region. As a result the temperatures are quite low in northern India.
● Hot Weather Season or Summer (March to May):In the hot weather season sun rays more or less
directly fall in this region. Temperature becomes very high. Hot and dry winds called loo, blow during
the day.
● Southwest Monsoon Season or Rainy (June to September): This season is marked by the onset and
advance of monsoon. The winds blow from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal towards the land. They
carry moisture with them. When these winds strike the mountain barriers, rainfall occurs.
● Season of Retreating Monsoon or Autumn (October and November): Winds move back from the
mainland to the Bay of Bengal. This is the season of the retreating monsoons. The southern parts of
India, particularly Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh receive rainfall in this season.
Climate:
Climate is about the average weather condition, which has been measured over many years. The climate of
India has broadly been described as Monsoon type. Monsoon is taken from the Arabic word 'mausim', which
means seasons.
Factors affecting climates:

The climate of a place is affected by its location, altitude, distance from the sea and relief. Therefore,
regional differences in the climate of India are experienced.
INDIA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
Natural vegetation:
● The grasses, shrubs, and trees, which grow on their own without interference or help from human
beings, are called natural vegetation.
● Due to varied climatic conditions, India has a wide range of natural vegetation.
Significance of the forests:

● Forests are the natural habitat of wild life.
● Forests perform various important functions such as providing oxygen, absorbing CO2, improving
quality of soil, controlling soil erosion etc.
● It also provides herbs, lac, honey, gum, fuel, fodder, shelter, raw material for various basic or primary
industries and also for secondary industries.
● It provides various medicinal plants for treatments and the cultural significance of forests is very high.
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Interesting points
● Tiger is national animal of India.
● Peacock is national bird of India.
● Gir National Park is home to Asiatic lions.
● The smallest migratory bird Little Stint weighing as low as 15 gram, from the Arctic region, travels
over 8000 km to reach India.
● The government has also started Project Tiger and Project Elephant to ensure their protection.
INDIA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE
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NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
7th Standard
CONTENTS
Environment ..................................................................................................................................... 1 - 3
Inside our Earth ............................................................................................................................... 4 - 5
Our Changing Earth ....................................................................................................................... 6 - 8
Air ...................................................................................................................................................... 9 - 12
Water ............................................................................................................................................ 13 - 15
Natural Vegetation And Wildlife ........................................................................................... 16 - 18
Human Environment - Settlement, Transport, and Communication ......................... 19 - 20
Human Environment Interactions: The Tropical and Subtropical Regions .............. 21 - 22
Life in Deserts ............................................................................................................................. 23 - 24

ENVIRONMENT
1
The environment is our basic life support system. It provides the air we breathe, the water we drink, the food
we eat, and the land where we live. The place, people, things, and nature that surround any living organism
are called the environment. The environment consists of two components i.e., Natural and Human-made.
Fig. 1.1: Components of Environment
Natural Environment:
The natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the Earth. It consists of:
· Lithosphere: It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the Earth. It is made up of rocks and minerals
and covered by a thin layer of soil. The lithosphere is the domain that provides us with forests,
grasslands for grazing, land for agriculture, and human settlements.
· Hydrosphere: It consists of water containing areas like lakes, oceans, atmospheric water vapour,
rivers, etc. essential for all living organisms.
· Atmosphere: It is the thin layer of air that surrounds the Earth. The gravitational force of the Earth
holds the atmosphere around it. It consists of a number of gases, dust, and water vapour. The changes
in the atmosphere produce changes in the weather and climate.
ENVIRONMENT
· Biosphere: Plant and animal kingdom together make a biosphere or the living world. It is a narrow
zone of the Earth where land, water, and air interact with each other to support life.
1
Fig. 1.2: Domains of the Environment
Human Environment:
It reveals the activities, creations and interactions among human beings.
Ecosystem: It is a system formed by the interaction of all living organisms with each other and
with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which they live, all linked by transfer
of energy and material.
ENVIRONMENT
Fig 1.3: Pond ecosystem
2
Interesting points
· Environment: French word Environer meaning “neighbourhood”.

· Biotic: The world of living organisms. E.g., plants and animals.
· Abiotic: The world of non-living elements. e.g., land.
· On 5 June, every year the World Environment Day is celebrated.
· Barter System: It is a trade system in which goods are exchanged without the use of money.
ENVIRONMENT
3
2 INSIDE OUR EARTH
The Earth, our homeland is a dynamic planet. It is constantly undergoing changes inside and outside.
Interior of the Earth:

The interior of the Earth consists of Crust, Mantle and the Core.
· Crust:
Ø It is the uppermost layer over the Earth's surface.
Ø It is the thinnest of all the layers.
Ø It is about 35 km on the continental masses and only 5 km on the ocean floors.
Ø The main mineral constituents of the continental mass are Silica and Alumina. It is thus called SiAl
(Si-Silica and Al-Alumina). The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium; it is
therefore called SiMa (Si-Silica and Ma-Magnesium).
· The Mantle: It extends up to a depth of 2900 km below the crust.
· Core: It is the innermost layer with a radius of about 3500 km. It is mainly made up of Nickel and Iron
and is called NiFe (Ni-Nickel and Fe- Ferrous i.e. Iron). The central core has very high temperature
and pressure.
Fig. 2.1: Interior of the Earth
Rocks and Minerals:

INSIDE OUR EARTH
Any natural mass of mineral matter that makes up the Earth's crust is called a rock. Rocks can be of different
colour, size and texture.
Three major types of Rocks:
· Igneous rocks: When the molten magma cools, it becomes solid. Rocks thus formed are called igneous
rocks. They are also called primary rocks. There are two types of igneous rocks: Intrusive rocks and
Extrusive rocks.
4
Ø Extrusive igneous rocks: When this molten lava comes on the Earth's surface, it rapidly cools down
and becomes solid. Rocks formed in such a way on the crust are called extrusive igneous rocks.
They have a very fine-grained structure. For example, Basalt. The Deccan plateau is made up of
basalt rocks.
Ø Intrusive igneous rocks: Sometimes the molten magma cools down deep inside the Earth's crust.
Solid rocks so formed are called intrusive igneous rocks. Since they cool down slowly, they form
large grains. For example, Granite.
· Sedimentary rocks: These rocks are formed by broken-down small fragments of the rock which are
transported and deposited by wind, water, etc. These loose sediments are compressed and hardened
to form layers of the rocks. For example, sandstone is made from grains of sand.
· Metamorphic rocks: Igneous and sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks under great
heat and pressure. For example, clay changes into slate and limestone into marble.
Rock cycle:
One type of rock changes to another type under certain conditions in a cyclic manner. This process of
transformation of the rock from one to another is known as the Rock cycle.
Fig. 2.2: Rock Cycle
Interesting points
INSIDE OUR EARTH
· The deepest mine in the world, is in South Africa. It is about 4 km deep.

· The Crust forms only 1 per cent of the volume of the Earth, 84 per cent consists of the Mantle and 15
per cent makes the Core.
· The radius of the Earth is 6371 km.
5
OUR CHANGING EARTH
3
The lithosphere is broken into a number of plates known as the Lithospheric plates. These plates move
around slowly due to the movement of the molten magma in circular manner inside the Earth. The movement
of these plates causes changes on the surface of the Earth. The Earth movements are the result of various
forces acting on the plates.
Various forces inside the Earth:

· The forces which act in the interior of the Earth are called Endogenic forces.
· The forces that work on the surface of the Earth are called Exogenic forces.
Fig.3.1: Evolution of landforms
Volcano:
A volcano is a vent (opening) in the Earth's crust through which molten material erupts suddenly.
Earthquakes:
The vibrations on the surface of Earth due to the movement of Lithospheric plates are called as earthquakes.
· The place in the crust where the movement starts is called the focus.
· The place on the surface above the focus is called the epicentre.
· The greatest damage is usually closest to the epicentre and the strength of the earthquake decreases
away from the centre.
OUR CHANGING EARTH
Fig. 3.2: Origin of an Earthquake
6
Major landforms and their evolution:
Different landforms on the surface of the Earth are created by two processes: weathering and erosion.
· Weathering is the breaking up of the rocks on the Earth's surface.
· Erosion is the wearing away of the landscape by different agents like water, wind, and ice.
Landforms formed by Rivers:

· Meanders: As the river enters the plain, it twists and turns to form large bends known as meanders.
· Ox-bow Lake: Meander loop cuts off from the river and forms a cut-off lake, called as ox-bow lake.
· Floodplains: Sometimes the river overflows its banks which lead to the flooding of the neighbouring
areas. As it floods, it deposits layers of fine soil and other material called sediments along its banks.
This leads to the formation of a flat fertile floodplain.
· Levees: These are raised banks.
· Distributaries: As the river approaches the sea, the speed of the flowing water decreases, and the river
begins to break up into a number of streams called distributaries. These distributaries help in
extending the delta.
OUR CHANGING EARTH
Fig. 3.3: Features made by a river in a flood plain
Coastal landforms:
The erosion and deposition of the sea waves gives rise to coastal landforms.
· Sea caves: Hollow-like caves formed on the rocks are known as Sea caves.
7
· Sea arches: As the cavities become bigger and bigger, only the roof of the caves remains, thus forming
sea arches.
· Stacks: Further, erosion breaks the roof and only walls are left. These wall-like features are called
stacks.
· Sea cliffs: The steep rocky coast rising almost vertically above seawater is called a sea cliff.
Landforms formed by Ice:

· Glaciers are “rivers of ice” which too erode the landscape by bulldozing soil and stones to expose the
solid rock below.
· Glaciers carve out deep hollows there. As the ice melts they get filled up with water and become
beautiful lakes.
· The material carried by the glacier such as rocks big and small, sand and silt gets deposited. These
deposits form glacial moraines.
Landforms formed by Winds:

An active agent of erosion and deposition in the deserts is wind.
· In deserts, various rocks in the shape of a mushroom, commonly called mushroom rocks are found.
· Sand dunes: These are formed by the deposition of sand by the wind in low hills – like structures.
· When such sand is deposited in large areas, it is called loess.
· Large deposits of loess are found in China.
Interesting points
· Lithospheric plates: The Earth's crust consists of several large and some small, rigid, irregularly
shaped plates (slabs) which carry continents and the ocean floor.
· There are three types of earthquake waves:
Ø P waves or longitudinal waves,
Ø S waves or transverse waves,
Ø L waves or surface waves.
· An earthquake is measured with a machine called a Seismograph.
OUR CHANGING EARTH
· The magnitude of the earthquake is measured on the Richter scale.

· The highest waterfall is Angel Falls of Venezuela in South America.
· The other waterfalls are Niagara Falls located on the border between Canada and USA in North
America and Victoria falls on the borders of Zambia and Zimbabwe in Africa.
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4 AIR
Our Earth is surrounded by a huge blanket of air called the atmosphere. All living beings on this Earth
depend on the atmosphere for their survival. It provides us the air we breathe and protects us from the
harmful effects of the Sun's rays.
Composition of Atmosphere:
· Nitrogen and Oxygen are two gases that make up the bulk of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide,
Helium, Ozone, Argon, and Hydrogen are found in lesser quantities.
Fig. 4.1: Composition of Air
· Plants need nitrogen for their survival. They cannot take nitrogen directly from the air. Bacteria that
live in the soil and roots of some plants take nitrogen from the air and change its form so that
plants can use it.
· Oxygen is the second most plentiful gas in the air. Humans and animals take oxygen from the air
as they breathe.
· Carbon dioxide is another important gas. Green plants use carbon dioxide to make their food and
release oxygen while humans or animals release carbon dioxide.
Structure of the Atmosphere:

The atmosphere is divided into five layers starting from the Earth's surface.
· Troposphere. This is the most important layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km. All
the weather phenomena like rainfall, fog, and hailstorm occur in this layer.
· Stratosphere: It lies above the troposphere and extends up to a height of 50 km. This layer is
AIR
almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making conditions most ideal for
9
flying aeroplanes. It contains a layer of ozone gas.
· Mesosphere: This is the third layer of the atmosphere. It lies above the stratosphere. It extends up
to a height of 80 km. Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from space.
· Thermosphere: In this layer, the temperature rises very rapidly with increasing height. The
Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km. This layer helps in radio
transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the Earth by this
layer.
· Exosphere: The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is known as the exosphere. This layer has very
thin air. Light gases like helium and hydrogen float into space from here.
Fig. 4.2: Layers of the Atmosphere
Weather and Climate:

Weather is the hour-to-hour, day to day condition of the atmosphere. Weather can change dramatically
from day to day. However, the average weather condition of a place for a longer period of time
represents the climate of a place.
Temperature:
· The degree of hotness and coldness of the air is known as temperature.
AIR
· An important factor that influences the distribution of temperature is insolation.
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· Insolation is the incoming solar energy intercepted by the Earth. The amount of insolation
decreases from the Equator to the Poles. Therefore, temperature decreases in the same manner.
Air Pressure:
· Air pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the weight of air on the Earth's surface.
· As we go up the layers of atmosphere, the pressure falls rapidly. The air pressure is highest at sea
level and decreases with height.
· Horizontally, the distribution of air pressure is influenced by the temperature of the air at a given
place.
· In areas where the temperature is high, the air gets heated and rises. This creates a low-pressure
area. Low pressure is associated with cloudy skies and wet weather.
· In areas having a lower temperature, the air is cold. It is therefore heavy. Therefore, high pressure
is associated with clear and sunny skies.
Wind:
The movement of air from a high-pressure area to low-pressure areas is called wind. Winds can be
broadly divided into three types:
· Permanent winds: These winds blow constantly throughout the year, e.g., Trade winds, westerlies
and easterlies.
· Seasonal winds: These winds change their path with the movement of the Sun e.g., monsoon
winds.
· Local winds: These winds blow during particular periods of the day or year in a particular direction.
e.g., sea breeze, land breeze, Loo etc.
AIR
Fig. 4.3: Major Pressure Belts and Wind System
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Moisture in the air:
· Moisture in the air at any time is known as humidity. When the air is full of water vapour, we call it
a humid day. As the air gets warmer, its capacity to hold the water vapour increases and so it
becomes more and more humid.
· When water evaporates from land and different water bodies, it becomes water vapour. When the
water vapour rises, it starts cooling. The water vapour condenses causing formation of droplets of
water. Precipitation that comes down to the Earth in liquid form is called rain. On the basis of
mechanism, there are three types of rainfall:
Ø Convectional rainfall
Ø Orographic rainfall
Ø Cyclonic rainfall
Fig 4.4: Types of Rainfall
Interesting points
· Air circulation: When air is heated, it expands, becomes lighter and goes up. Cold air is denser and
heavy, it tends to sink down. When hot air rises, cold air from surrounding area rushes there to fill in
the gap it is known as air circulation.
· The standard unit of measuring temperature is degree Celsius. It was invented by Anders
Celsius. On the Celsius scale, the water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.
· On the moon there is no air and hence no air pressure. Astronauts have to wear special
protective space suits filled with air when they go to the moon. If they did not wear these space
suits, the counter pressure exerted by the body of the astronauts would make the blood vessels
burst. The astronauts would bleed.
· A wind is named after the direction from which it blows, e.g. the wind blowing from the west is
called westerly.
· Other forms of precipitation are snow, sleet, hail.
AIR
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5 WATER
Our Earth is like a terrarium. The same water that existed centuries ago still exists today because of water
cycle.
Water Cycle:
The process by which water continually changes its form and circulates between oceans, atmosphere and
land is known as the water cycle.
Fig. 5.1: Water Cycle
Distribution of water bodies:
Ocean Circulation:
Ocean water keeps moving continuously. It is never still. The movements that occur in oceans can be broadly
categorised as waves, tides, and currents.
· Waves: When the water on the surface of the ocean rises and falls alternately, they are called waves.
An earthquake, a volcanic eruption or underwater landslides can shift large amounts of ocean water.
WATER
As a result, a huge tidal wave called tsunami that may be as high as 15 m is formed. The largest tsunami
ever measured was 150 m high. For example, tsunami of 2004 caused widespread damage in the
13
coastal areas of India. The Indira point in the Andaman and Nicobar islands got submerged after the
tsunami.
· Tides: The rhythmic rise and fall of ocean water twice in a day is called a tide. It is high tide when
water covers much of the shore by rising to its highest level. It is low tide when water falls to its lowest
level and recedes from the shore. The strong gravitational pull exerted by the Sun and the Moon on
the Earth's surface cause the tides.
Ø During the full moon and new moon days, the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth are in the same line and
the tides are highest. These tides are called Spring tides.
Ø When the Moon is in its first and last quarter, the ocean waters get drawn in diagonally opposite
directions by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon resulting in low tides. These tides are called
Neap tides.
Fig. 5.2: Spring Tides and Neap Tides
Benefits of High tides:

Ø High tides help in navigation by raising the water level close to the shores so that the ships can
arrive at the harbour more easily.
Ø The high tides also help in fishing as many more fish come closer to the shore during the high tide
Ø . The rise and fall of water due to tides is being used to generate electricity in some places.
· Ocean currents: Ocean currents are streams of water flowing constantly on the ocean surface in
WATER
definite directions. They may be warm or cold.

Ø The warm ocean currents originate near the Equator and move towards the Poles. The cold
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currents carry water from polar or higher latitudes to tropical or lower latitudes.
Ø The ocean current influences the temperature conditions of the area. The areas where the warm
and cold currents meet provide the best fishing grounds in the world. Seas around Japan and the
eastern coast of North America are such examples. The areas where a warm and cold current meet
also experience foggy weather making it difficult for navigation.
Fig. 5.3: Ocean currents
Interesting points
· Terrarium: It is an artificial enclosure for keeping small house plants.

· Salinity: It is the amount of salt in grams present in 1000 grams of water. The average salinity of
the oceans is 35 parts per thousand.
· Dead Sea in Israel has salinity of 340 grams per litre of water. Swimmers can float in it because
the increased salt content makes it dense.
· March 22 is celebrated as World Water Day.
· Waves are formed when winds scrape across the ocean surface. The stronger the wind blows,
the bigger the wave becomes.
WATER CRAFTS
· Tsunami is a Japanese word that means “Harbour waves” as the harbours get destroyed
whenever there is tsunami.
THEATRE
15
NATURAL VEGETATION
6 AND WILDLIFE
There is a close relationship between height of land and the character of vegetations. With the change in
height, the climate changes and that changes natural vegetation. The growth of vegetation depends on
various factors such as temperature, moisture, slope and thickness of soil.
Natural vegetation is generally classified into three broad categories:
· Forests: Which grow where temperature and rainfall are plentiful to support a tree cover. Depending
upon these factors, dense and open forests are grown.
· Grasslands: Which grow in the region of moderate rain.
· Shrubs: Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in the dry region.
Forests
· Tropical Evergreen Forests:
Ø These forests are also called tropical rainforests. These thick forests occur near the Equator and
close to the tropics.
Ø These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
Ø As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason
they are called evergreen.
Ø The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the
forest even in the day time. Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
· Tropical Deciduous Forests:

Ø These are monsoon forests which are found in large parts of India and also in northern Australia
and Central America.
Ø These regions experience seasonal changes. Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve
water.
Ø The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem, and shisham. Hardwood trees are
extremely useful for making furniture, transport, and constructional materials.
NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

· Temperate Evergreen Forests:
Ø These forests are located in the mid-latitudinal coastal region.
Ø They commonly found in the eastern margin of the continent, e.g., in south east USA, South China
and in South East Brazil.
Ø They comprise both hard and softwood trees like oak, pine, eucalyptus, etc.
· Temperate Deciduous Forests:

Ø These forests are located in higher latitudes.
Ø Found in the north-eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand, Chile, and also found in the coastal
regions of Western Europe.
Ø They shed their leaves in the dry season. The common trees are oak, ash, beech, etc.
16
· Mediterranean Vegetation:
Ø The west and south-west margins of the continents have Mediterranean vegetation.
Ø It is mostly found in the areas around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Ø Also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in California in the USA, South-West Africa,
south-western South America, and Southwest Australia.
Ø These regions are marked for hot dry summers and mild rainy winters. Citrus fruits such as
oranges, figs, olives, and grapes are commonly cultivated here.
· Coniferous Forests:
Ø These forests are found in the higher latitudes (50°-70°) of the Northern hemisphere. These
forests are also seen in the higher altitudes.
Ø These are also called as Taiga forests.
Ø They are tall, softwood evergreen trees. Woods of these trees are very useful for making pulp,
which is used for manufacturing paper and newsprint.
Ø Chir, pine, cedar etc. is the important variety of trees in these forests.
Grasslands:
· Tropical grasslands: These occur on either side of the Equator and extend till the tropics. This
vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall. The grass can grow very tall,
about 3 to 4 metres in height. Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
· Temperate grasslands: These are found in the mid latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the
continents. Usually, the grass here is short and nutritious.
· Thorny bushes: These are found in the dry desert-like regions. Tropical deserts are located on the
western margins of the continents. The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and
scorching heat.
Tundra type of vegetation:

· The growth of natural vegetation is very limited here.

· Only mosses, lichens, and very small shrubs are found here. It grows during the very short summer.
· This vegetation is found in the polar areas of Europe, Asia, and North America.
· The animals have thick fur and thick skin to protect themselves from the cold climatic conditions.
· Seal, walruses, musk-oxen, Arctic owl, Polar bear and snow foxes are some of the animals found here
17
Interesting points
· The tropical evergreen forest in Brazil is so enormous that it is like the lungs of the Earth.
· Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help of their thick barks and wax
coated leaves which help them reduce transpiration.
· Mediterranean regions are known as 'Orchards of the world' for their fruit cultivation.
· Taiga means pure or untouched in the Russian language.
· Grasslands are known by different names in different regions:
Ø Tropical Grasslands:
o East Africa- Savannah
o Brazil- Campos
o Venezuela- Llanos
Ø Temperate Grasslands
o Argentina- Pampas
o North America- Prairie
o South Africa- Veld
o Central Asia- Steppe
o Australia- Downs
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HUMAN ENVIRONMENT - SETTLEMENT,
7 TRANSPORT, AND COMMUNICATION
Settlements are places where people build their homes. They can be of two types:
· Temporary Settlements: Settlements which are occupied for a short time are called temporary
settlements. The people living in deep forests, hot and cold deserts and mountains often dwell in such
temporary settlements.
· Permanent Settlements: Settlements in which people build homes to live in. Mostly settlements today
are permanent settlements. They are of two types:
Ø Rural Settlement: The villages are rural settlements where people are engaged in activities like
agriculture, fishing, forestry, crafts work, and trading, etc. Rural settlements can be compact or
scattered.
o Compact settlement: It is a closely built area of dwellings, wherever flat land is available.
o Scattered settlement: In a scattered settlement, dwellings are spaced over an extensive area.
This type of settlement is mostly found in hilly tracts, thick forests, and regions of extreme
climate.
Ø Urban Settlement: The towns are small, and the cities are larger urban settlements. In urban areas
the people are engaged in manufacturing, trading, and services.
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT - SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT, AND COMMUNICATION
Transport:
It is the means by which people and goods move. The four major means of transport are roadways, railways,
waterways and airways.
Roadways:
· The most commonly used means of transport especially for short distances are roads.
· They are called mettled (pakka) and unmettled (kaccha).
· Manali-Leh highway in the Himlayan Mountains is one of the highest roadways in the world.
· Roads built underground are called subways/under paths. Flyovers are built over raised structures.
Railways:
· The railways carry heavy goods and people over long distances quickly and cheaply.
· The Indian railway network is well developed. It is the largest in Asia.
Waterways:
· Waterways are the cheapest for carrying heavy and bulky goods over long distances.
· They are mainly of two types: inland waterways and sea routes.
· Navigable rivers and lakes are used as inland waterways. For example, Ganga-Brahmaputra river
system, the Great Lakes in North America and the river Nile in Africa.
· Sea routes and oceanic routes are mostly used for transporting merchandise and goods from one
country to another. These routes are connected with the ports.
· Some of the important ports of the world are Singapore and Mumbai in Asia, New York, Los Angeles in
North America, Rio de Janerio in South America, Durban and Cape Town in Africa, Sydney in Australia,
London and Rotterdam in Europe.
Airways:
· This is the fastest way of transport developed in the early twentieth century.
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· It is also the most expensive due to high cost of fuels.
· It is the only mode of transport to reach the most remote and distant areas especially where there are
no roads and railways.
· Helicopters are extremely useful in most inaccessible areas and in time of calamities for rescuing
people and distributing food, water, clothes and medicines.
· Some of the important airports are Delhi, Mumbai, New York, London, Paris, Frankfurt and Cairo
Communication:
It is the process of conveying messages to others. With the development of technology, humans have
devised new and fast modes of communication.
· Mass Media through newspapers, radio and television can communicate with a large number of
people.
· The satellites have made communication even faster. Satellites have also helped in oil exploration, a
survey of forest, underground water, mineral wealth, weather forecast, and disaster warning.
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT - SETTLEMENT, TRANSPORT, AND COMMUNICATION

Interesting points
· Transhumance: It is a seasonal movement of people. People who rear animals move in search of
new pastures according to changes in seasons.
· The place where a building or a settlement develops is called its site.
· The natural conditions for selection of an ideal site are favourable climate, availability of water,
suitable land and fertile soil.
· The Golden Quadrilateral connects Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata.
· The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway system connecting St. Petersburg in Western
Russia to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast.
· The train from Xining to Lhasa runs at an altitude of 4,000m above sea level and the highest point
is 5,072 m
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HUMAN ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS:
8 THE TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL REGIONS
In this chapter, we will learn about the life of people in the different natural regions of the world.
Life in the Amazon Basin:
· The river Amazon flows through equatorial region that lies very close to the Equator; between 10°N
and 10°S.
· Numerous tributaries join the Amazon River to form the Amazon basin. The river basin drains portions
of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.
· Climate:
Ø The Amazon Basin stretches directly on the Equator thus it is characterized by hot and wet
climate.
Ø Both day and nights are almost equally hot and humid.
Ø It rains almost every day that too without much warning.
Ø The day temperatures are high with very high humidity. At night temperature goes down but the
humidity remains the same.
· Rainforests:
As it rains heavily in this region, thus thick forests grow. The forests are in fact so thick that the dense
“roof” created by leaves and branches does not allow the sunlight to reach the ground. The ground
remains dark and damp. Only shade-tolerant vegetation may grow here. Orchids, bromeliads grow as
Human Environment Interactions: The Tropical and Subtropical Regions
plant parasites. The rainforest is rich in flora and fauna. Birds such as toucans, humming birds, bird of
paradise etc are found here.
· People of the Rainforests:

Ø They mainly grow crops like tapioca, pineapple, and sweet potato. Their staple food is manioc, also
known as cassava that grows under the ground like the potato. They also eat queen ants and egg
sacs. Cash crops like coffee, maize, and cocoa are also grown.
Ø Some families live in thatched houses shaped like beehives. There are other large apartment-like
houses called “Maloca” with a steeply slanting roof.
The developmental activities are leading to the gradual destruction of the biologically diverse rainforests. It is
estimated that a large area of the rainforest has been disappearing annually in the Amazon basin. So, there is
need to conserve these forests for the sustenance of life.
Life in the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin:

· The tributaries of rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin in the
Indian subcontinent.
· The basin lies in the sub-tropical region that is situated between 10°N to 30°N latitudes. The area is
dominated by a monsoon climate.
· Himalayas and the Sundarbans delta are the main features of this basin.
· The soil is fertile. Agriculture is the main occupation of the people where flat land is available to grow
crops.
· The density of population of the plains is very high. The main crop is paddy. Wheat, maize, sorghum,
21
gram, and millets are the other crops that are grown. Cash crops like sugarcane and jute are also
grown.
· Vegetation cover: It varies according to the type of landforms. In the Ganga and Brahmaputra plain,
tropical deciduous trees grow, along with teak, sal and peepal. Thick bamboo groves are common in
the Brahmaputra plain. The delta area is covered with the mangrove forests.
· Wildlife: Elephants, tigers, deer and monkeys are common. The one-horned rhinoceros is found in
the Brahmaputra plain. In the delta area, Bengal tiger, crocodiles and alligator are found.
Interesting points
· Bromeliads are special plants that store water in their leaves. Animals like frogs use these pockets of
water for laying their eggs.
· Terraces are built on steep slopes to create flat surfaces on which crops are grown. The slope is
removed so that water does not run off rapidly.
· In the fresh waters of River Ganga and River Brahmaputra, a variety of dolphin locally called Susu
(also called blind dolphin) is found. The presence of Susu is an indication of the health of the river.
· To conserve the river Ganga, 'Namami' Ganga Programme has been initiated.
Human Environment Interactions: The Tropical and Subtropical Regions
22
LIFE IN DESERTS
9
Deserts are characterised by low rainfall, scanty vegetation and extreme temperatures. Depending on the
temperatures, there can be hot deserts or cold deserts.
The Hot Desert - Sahara:

· It is the world's largest desert. It has an area of around 8.54 million sq. km.
· It touches eleven countries. These are Algeria, Chad, Egypt, Libya, Mali, Mauritania, Morocco, Niger,
Sudan, Tunisia, and Western Sahara.
· Climate: The climate of the Sahara Desert is scorching hot and parch dry. It has a short rainy season.
The sky is cloudless and clear. Days are unbelievably hot. The temperatures during the day may soar
as high as 50°C, heating up the sand and the bare rocks, which in turn radiates heat making everything
around hot. The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures nearing zero degrees.
· Flora and Fauna: Vegetation in the Sahara Desert include cactus, date palms, and acacia. In some
places, there are oasis – green islands with date palms surrounding them. Camels, hyenas, jackals,
foxes, scorpions, snakes etc are the prominent animal species living there.
· Tribes: The Bedouins and Tuaregs. These groups are nomadic tribes rearing livestock such as goats,
sheep, camels, and horses.
· Agriculture: The oasis in the Sahara and the Nile Valley in Egypt supports settled populations. Crops
such as rice, wheat, barley, and beans are also grown. Egyptian cotton, famous worldwide, is grown in
Egypt.
The Cold Desert - Ladakh

· Region: Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas, on the eastern side of Jammu and
Kashmir. The Karakoram Range in the north and the Zaskar mountains in the south enclose it.
· Rivers: Several rivers flow through Ladakh, Indus being the most important among them. Important
glacier Gangotri is found here.
· Climate: The altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000 m in Kargil to more than 8,000 m in the
Karakoram. Due to its high altitude, the climate is extremely cold and dry. As it lies in rain shadow areas
of Himalayas, there is little rainfall, as low as 10 cm every year. The area experiences freezing winds
and burning hot sunlight.
· Flora and fauna:
Ø Due to high aridity, the vegetation is sparse. There are scanty patches of grasses and shrubs for
animals to graze.
Ø Groves of willows and poplars are seen in the valleys. During the summers, fruit trees such as
apples, apricots and walnuts bloom.
LIFE IN DESERTS
Ø Several species of birds such as Robins, redstarts, Tibetan snowcock, raven and hoopoe etc. can
be sighted in Ladakh.
Ø The animals of Ladakh are wild goats, wild sheep, yak and special kinds of dogs.
Ø The animals are reared to provide for the milk, meat and hides. Yak's milk is used to make cheese and
butter. The hair of the sheep and goat is used to make woollens
23
· People: Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi landscape with their traditional 'gompas'. Some
famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and Lamayuru.
· Agriculture: In the summer season the people are busy cultivating barley, potatoes, peas, beans, and
turnip. In winter people keep themselves engaged in festivals and ceremonies.
· Connectivity: Leh, the capital of Ladakh is well connected both by road and air. The National Highway
1A connects Leh to Kashmir Valley through the Zoji la Pass.
Interesting points
· Al Azizia in the Sahara Desert, South of Tripoli, Libya recorded the highest temperature of
57.7°C in 1922.
· Depressions are formed when the wind blows away the sands. In the depressions where
underground water reaches the surface, an oasis is formed.
· The Oasis areas are fertile. People may settle around these water bodies and grow date palms
and other crops. Tafilalet Oasis in Morocco is a large oasis with an area of about 13,000 sq. km.
· Drass, one of the coldest inhabited places on Earth is located in Ladakh.
· Ladakh is made up of two words – “La” meaning 'mountain pass' and “Dak” meaning 'country'.
Ladakh is also known as Khapa-chan which means snow land.
· The Chiru or the Tibetan antelope is Near Threatened species which is hunted for its wool known
as shahtoosh.
· Manali - Leh highway crosses four passes, Rohtang la, Baralacha la, Lungalacha la and
Tanglang la.
LIFE IN DESERTS
24
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
8th Standard
CONTENTS
Resources ..................................................................................................................................... 1 - 2
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources ............................................. 3 - 7
Mineral and Power Resources ..................................................................................................... 8 - 16
Agriculture ..................................................................................................................................... 17 - 21
Industries ....................................................................................................................................... 22 - 28
Human Resources ........................................................................................... 29 - 32

RESOURCES
1
Resource
Anything that can be used to satisfy a need is called as resource.
Characteristics of Resources:
· Utility: Utility or usability is what makes an object or substance a resource.
· Value: Its use or utility gives it a value. All resources have some value, and this Value may be economic
or may not. Some resources become economically valuable over time.
· Time and technology are two important factors that can change substances into resources. Both are
related to the needs of the people.
Types of Resources:
Resources are classified into Natural, Human made and Human resources.
· Natural Resources: These are resources that are drawn from Nature and used without much
modification. These resources are classified into two types:
Ø Renewable resources are those which get renewed or replenished quickly. Careless use of certain
renewable resources like water, soil, and forest can affect their stock.
Ø Non-renewable resources are those which have limited stock. Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are
some examples.
· Human Made Resources: People use natural resources to make buildings, bridges, roads, machinery
and vehicles, which are known as human made resources. Technology is also a human made resource.
· Human Resources: People can make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have
the knowledge, skill and the technology to do so. That's why, people are human resources. Education
and health help in making people a valuable resource.
Conserving Resources:
Using resources carefully and giving them time to get renewed is called resource conservation. There are
various ways to conserve resources such as reducing consumption, recycling, and reusing things.
Balancing the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future is called sustainable development.
Some of the principles of sustainable developments are as follows:
· Respect and care for all forms of life.
· Improve the quality of human life.
· Conserve the Earth's vitality and diversity.
· Minimise the depletion of natural resources.
RESOURCES
· Change personal attitude and practices towards the environment.

· Enable communities to care for their own environment.
1
Interesting points
· Patent: It means the exclusive right over any idea or invention.

· Stock of Resource: It is the amount of resources available for use.
· Human Resource refers to the number (quantity) and abilities (mental and physical) of the
people and skills of human that help in transferring the physical material into a valuable resource.
RESOURCES
2
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL
2 VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
All the natural resources like land, soil, water and wildlife provide various ecosystem services which make
human life easier and possible in following manner.
Land:
· Land is most important natural resource. It covers only about 30% of the total area of the Earth's
surface and all parts of this small percentage are not habitable.
· The uneven distribution of the population in different parts of the world is mainly due to varied
characteristics of land and climate.
· The rugged topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low-lying areas susceptible to waterlogging,
desert areas, thickly forested areas are normally sparsely populated or uninhabited.
· Plains and river valleys offer suitable land for agriculture. Hence, these are the densely populated
areas of the world.
Land use:
It refers to the use of land for different purposes such as agriculture, forestry, mining, building houses,
roads, and setting up of industries.
Factors affecting land use pattern:
· Physical factors, such as topography, soil, climate, minerals, and availability of water.
· Human factors, such as population and technology.
Classification of land based on ownership:
· Private land ownership: Private land is owned by individuals.
· Community land ownership: Community land is owned by the community for common uses like a
collection of fodder, fruits, nuts, or medicinal herbs. These community lands are also called common
LAND, SOIL, WATER, NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
property resources.
Challenges to land resources:
· Growing demand of the people despite of limited availability of land.
· Encroachments in urban areas on common or community lands for building housing complexes, and
to expand the agricultural land in the rural areas.
· Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification etc. deteriorating the quality of soil.
Measures for conserving land resources:
Afforestation, land reclamation, regulated use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, and checks on
overgrazing are some of the common methods used to conserve land resources.
Soil:
· The thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the Earth is called soil.
· It is closely linked to the land.
· Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals, and weathered rocks found on the Earth. This happens
through the process of weathering. The right mix of minerals and organic matter makes the soil fertile.
Weathering: The breaking up and decay of exposed rocks, by temperature changes, frost ac on,
plants, animals and human ac vity.
3
Factors of Soil formation:
· Major factors: Nature of parent rocks and climatic factors.
· Other factors: like the topography, role of organic material and time.
Fig. 2.1: Factors affecting Soil Formation
Factors responsible for Soil Degradation:

· Natural factors: Rain wash, landslides, and floods etc
· Human factors: Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilizers or pesticides etc.

Methods for Soil Conservation:
· Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps
to retain soil moisture.
· Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build barriers along contours. Trenches are made in
front of the barriers to collect water.
· Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of water. This prevents gullies and further soil
loss.
· Terrace farming: Broad flat steps or terraces are made on the steep slopes so that flat surfaces are
available to grow crops. They reduce surface runoff and soil erosion.
· Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at different times to protect
the soil from rain wash.
· Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier for water
to flow down the slope.
· Shelterbelts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows of trees are planted to check the wind movement to
protect soil cover.
4
Landslides:
Landslides are simply defined as the mass movement of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
They often take place in conjunction with earthquakes, floods, and volcanoes.
A prolonged spell of rainfall can cause heavy landslide that can block the flow of river for quite
some time. The formation of river blocks can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its
bursting.
In the hilly terrain, landslides have been a major and widely spread natural disaster that often
strike life and property and occupy a position of major concern.
Mitigation techniques for landslides:
Hazard mapping to locate areas prone to landslides so that such areas can be avoided for
building settlements.
Construction of retention wall to stop the land from slipping.
Increase in the vegetation cover to arrest landslide.
The surface drainage control works to control the movement of landslides along with rainwater
and spring flows.
Water:
· Water is a vital renewable natural resource. Three-fourth of the Earth's surface is covered with water.
· Water can neither be added nor subtracted from the Earth. Its total volume remains constant.
Abundance of water only seems to vary because it is in constant motion through the process of water
cycle.
· The oceans cover two-thirds of the Earth's surface and support a rich variety of plant and animal life.
· Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly 70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and
glaciers in Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions.
· Only 1 per cent of freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found as ground water, as
surface water in rivers and lakes and as water vapour in the atmosphere.
Problems of Water Availability:

· Countries located in drought climatic zones are most susceptible to face great problems of water
scarcity. Thus, water shortage may be a consequence of variation in seasonal or annual precipitation or
the scarcity is caused by over-exploitation and contamination of water sources.
· Increasing population, rising demands for food and cash crops, increasing urbanisation and rising
standards of living are the major factors leading to shortages in supply of fresh water either due to
drying up of water sources or water pollution.
Major Reason for the pollution of water:

· Discharging of untreated or partially treated sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial
effluents in water bodies.
5
Methods of conserving water resources:
· Water Treatment: Water pollution can be controlled by treating these effluents suitably before
releasing them in water bodies.
· Vegetation cover: Vegetation cover helps in slowing down the surface runoff and replenishes
underground water.
· Water Harvesting: Water harvesting is another method to save surface runoff.
· Use of modern irrigation methods such as proper construction of irrigation canals to reduce water
seepage, use of sprinklers and drip irrigation in dry regions etc.
Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:
· Biosphere: The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere where
natural vegetation and wildlife exists is called as Biosphere.
· Ecosystem: In the biosphere, living beings are inter-related and interdependent on each other for
survival. This life supporting system is known as the ecosystem.
· Importance/significance of vegetation: Vegetation is valuable resources. Plants provide us with
timber, give shelter to animals, produce oxygen we breathe, protects the soils. Also give us fruits, nuts,
latex, turpentine oil, gum, medicinal plants etc.
· Importance/significance of wildlife: Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects as well as the aquatic life
forms. They provide us milk, meat, hides and wool. Insects like bees provide us honey, help in
pollination of flowers and have an important role to play as decomposers in the ecosystem. Vultures

due to its ability to feed on dead livestock is a scavenger and considered a vital cleanser of the
environment.
Distribution of Natural Vegetation:
Vegetation depends primarily on temperature and moisture. The major vegetation types of the world are
grouped as forests, grasslands, scrubs, and tundra.
· Forests: These are the areas of heavy rainfall where huge trees may thrive. The vegetation in the
forests depends upon the amount of moisture present in the atmosphere. As the amount of moisture
decreases, the size of trees and their density reduces.
· Grass lands: These are the regions of moderate rainfall where short, stunted trees and grasses grow.
· Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in dry areas of low rainfall. In such areas, plants have deep roots and
leaves with thorny and waxy surface to reduce loss of moisture through transpiration.
· Tundra vegetation: These are generally found in cold Polar Regions such as mosses and lichens.
Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:

Forests are our wealth. Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the ecosystem.
6
Threats to forest and wildlife:
· Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of natural habitats for the plants and
animals.
· Deforestation, soil erosion, constructional activities, forest fires, tsunami and landslides are some of
the human and natural factors which accelerate the process of extinction of these resources.
· One of the major concerns is the poaching which result in a sharp decline in the number of particular
species.
Steps that need to be taken to conserve forests and wildlife:
· Establishment of National parks, Wildlife sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves to protect the natural
vegetation and wildlife.
· Promoting conservation of creeks, lakes, and wetlands to save the precious resource from depletion.
· Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanamohatasava should be encouraged at the
regional and community level.
Interesting points
· Amreli city in Saurastra region with a population of 1.25 lakhs is completely dependent on
purchasing water from the nearby talukas.
· CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is
an international agreement between governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in

specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.
· India is a member to CITES.
· Biosphere Reserves: These are series of protected areas linked through a global network, intended
to demonstrate the relationship between conservation and development.
· National Park: It is a natural area designated to protect the ecological integrity of one or more
ecosystems for the present and the future generations.
· Weathering: The breaking up and decay of exposed rocks, by temperature changes, frost action,
plants, animals and human activity.
· Rainwater harvesting: It is the process of collecting rainwater from roof tops and directing it to an
appropriate location where it is stored for future use.
· Diclofenac: It is a painkiller that is similar to aspirin or ibuprofen, used for livestock. It causes kidney
failure and resultant deaths among Vultures.
7
MINERAL AND POWER RESOURCES
3
A naturally occurring substance that has a definite chemical composition is a mineral. Minerals and power
resources are vital for economic growth and development of a country.
Types of Minerals:
There are over three thousand different minerals. On the basis of composition, minerals are classified
mainly as Metallic and Non-metallic minerals.
Fig. 3.1: Classification of Minerals
· Metallic minerals: These minerals contain metal in raw form. Metals are hard substances that conduct
heat and electricity and have a characteristic lustre or shine. Iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore are some
examples. Metallic minerals are of two types:
Ø Ferrous minerals: These minerals contain iron like iron ore, manganese, and chromite contain iron.
Ø Non-ferrous minerals: They do not contain iron but may contain some other metal such as gold,
silver, copper, or lead.
· Non-metallic minerals: These are the minerals that do not contain metals. For example, Limestone,
mica, and gypsum etc.

Mining:
The process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the Earth's surface is called mining.
Types of Mining:
· Opencast mining: Minerals that lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface layer; this
is known as open-cast mining.
· Shaft mining: Shafts which are also called deep bores, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that
lie at great depths. This is called shaft mining.
· Drilling: Petroleum and natural gas occur far below the Earth's surface. Deep wells are bored to take
them out, this is called drilling.
· Quarrying: Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dugout by the process known as quarrying.
8
Fig. 3.2: Extraction of Minerals
Distribution of Minerals:
Minerals are found almost in all types of rocks like igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
Metallic minerals:
These minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rock formations that forms large plateaus. For
example,
· Iron-ore in north Sweden,
· Copper and Nickel deposits in Ontario, Canada and
· Iron, Nickel, Chromites and Platinum in South Africa.
Non-metallic minerals:
These minerals do not contain metallic content. For example,
· Limestone deposits of Caucasus region of France,
· Manganese deposits of Georgia and Ukraine and

· Phosphate beds of Algeria.
Mineral deposits in Asia:

· Iron: India and China have large iron deposits.
· Tin: Countries like China, Malaysia, and Indonesia are among the world's leading tin producers.
· China also leads in the production of lead, antimony, and tungsten.
· Asia also has significant deposits of manganese, bauxite, nickel, zinc, and copper.
9
Fig. 3.3: World: Distribution of Iron, Copper and Bauxite
Mineral deposits in Europe:

· Europe is a leading producer of iron ore in the world. Countries with large deposits of iron ore are
Russia, Ukraine, Sweden, and France.
· Copper, lead, zinc, manganese, and nickel are found in eastern Europe and European Russia.
Mineral deposits in North America:
· Located in three zones: the Canadian region north of the Great Lakes, the Appalachian region and the
mountain ranges of the west.
Ø Canadian Shield Region: Iron ore, nickel, gold, uranium, and copper.
Ø Appalachians region: Coal
Ø Western Cordilleras: Deposits of copper, lead, zinc, gold, and silver.

Mineral deposits in South America:
· Iron: Brazil is the largest producer of high-grade iron ore in the world.
· Copper: Chile and Peru are leading producers of Copper.
· Tin: Brazil and Bolivia are among the world's largest producers of tin.
· South America has large deposits of gold, silver, zinc, chromium, manganese, bauxite, mica, platinum,
asbestos, and diamond.
· Mineral oil is found in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Columbia.
Mineral deposits in Africa:
· Africa is known for the world's largest producer of diamonds, gold, and platinum.
· Countries such as South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Zaire produce a large portion of the world's gold.
· The other minerals found in Africa are copper, iron ore, chromium, uranium, cobalt, and bauxite.
10
· Oil is found in Nigeria, Libya, and Angola.
Mineral deposits in Australia:
· Australia is the largest producer of bauxite in the world.
· It is a leading producer of gold, diamond, iron ore, tin, and nickel.
· It has rich deposits of copper, lead, zinc, and manganese.
· Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie areas of Western Australia have the largest deposits of gold.
Mineral deposits in Antarctica:
· Deposits of coal in the Transantarctic Mountains and iron near the Prince Charles Mountains of East
Antarctica is forecasted.
· Iron ore, gold, silver, and oil are also present in commercial quantities.
Uses of Minerals:
Minerals are used in various industries like,
· Gold, diamonds, silver and precious stones etc are used in gems and jewellery industry.
· Copper is used in everything from coins to pipes.
· Silicon, obtained from quartz, used in the computer industry.
· Aluminium obtained from bauxite, is used in various industries such as automobiles and airplanes,
bottling industry, buildings, and even in kitchen cookware.
Fig. 3.4: World: Distribution of Mineral Oil and Coal
Conservation of Minerals:
Minerals are a non-renewable resource. The rate of formation of these minerals is much smaller than the
rate at which the humans consume these minerals. Thus, it is necessary to reduce wastage in the process of
mining. Recycling of metals is another way in which the mineral resources can be conserved.
11
Fig. 3.5: Recycle, Reduce and Reuse
Powers Resources:
Power or energy plays a vital role in our lives; for example, we need power for industry, agriculture,
transport, communication, and defence etc. Power resources may be broadly categorised as
conventional and non-conventional resources.
Conventional Sources:
Conventional sources of energy are those which have been in common use for a long time. Firewood and
fossil fuels are the two main conventional energy sources.
· Firewood: It is widely used for cooking and heating. In India, more than fifty per cent of the energy
used by villagers comes from firewood.
· Fossil fuels: Remains of plants and animals which were buried under the Earth for millions of years got
converted by the heat and pressure into fossil fuels. For example, coal, petroleum and natural gas. The
reserves of these minerals are limited.
Ø Coal: This is most abundantly found fossil fuel. It is used as a domestic fuel, in industries such as iron
and steel, steam engines and to generate electricity (thermal power).
o The coal was formed millions of years ago when giant ferns and swamps got buried under the
layers of earth. Coal is therefore referred to as Buried Sunshine.
o Leading producers of coal in the world: China, USA, Germany, Russia, South Africa, and France.
o Coal producing areas in India: Raniganj, Jharia, Dhanbad, and Bokaro in Jharkhand.
Ø Petroleum: It is found between the layers of rocks and is drilled from oil fields located in off-shore
and coastal areas. Refineries process the crude oil and produce a variety of products like diesel,
petrol, kerosene, wax, plastics, and lubricants. Petroleum and its derivatives are called Black Gold
as they are very valuable.
o Oil-producing countries in the world: Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Qatar. The other major
12
producers are the USA, Russia, Venezuela, and Algeria.
o Leading oil-producing states in India: Digboi in Assam, Bombay High in Mumbai, and the deltas
of Krishna and Godavari rivers.
Ø Natural Gas: Natural gas is found with petroleum deposits and is released when crude oil is
brought to the surface.
o Major natural gas producing countries: Russia, Norway, UK, and the Netherlands are the major
producers of natural gas.
o Natural Gas producing areas in India: Jaisalmer, Krishna Godavari delta, Tripura and some areas
offshore in Mumbai.
Ø Hydel power: Rainwater or river water stored in dams is made to fall from heights. The falling water
flows through pipes inside the dam over turbine blades placed at the bottom of the dam. The
moving blades then turn the generator to produce electricity this is called hydro-electricity. The
water discharged after the generation of electricity is used for irrigation.
o Leading countries in hydel power production: Paraguay, Norway, Brazil, and China.
o Hydel power producing areas in India: Some important hydel power stations in India are Bhakra
Nangal, Gandhi Sagar, Nagarjunasagar, and Damodar valley projects.
Fig 3.6: Conventional Sources of Energy
13
Non-conventional Sources of Energy:
Non-conventional energy sources are mostly renewable as these energy resources are abundantly
available. E.g., solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy.
Solar energy:
The energy received by the Earth from the Sun is called as solar energy.
Uses of solar energy:
· It can be used in solar cells to produce electricity. Many of these cells are joined into solar panels to
generate power for heating and lighting purpose.
· It can also be used in solar heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers besides being used for community
lighting and traffic signals.
Wind Energy:
· Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy. Windmills have been used for grinding grain and lifting
water since the time immemorial.
· Wind is used to produce electricity using the kinetic energy created by air in motion. This is
transformed into electrical energy using wind turbines.
· Wind farms having clusters of such windmills are located in coastal regions and in mountain passes
where strong and steady winds blow.
· Wind farms found in Netherlands, Germany, Denmark, UK, USA, and Spain are noted for their wind
energy production.
Nuclear Power:
· It is obtained from energy stored in the nuclei of atoms of naturally occurring radioactive elements
like uranium and thorium. These fuels undergo nuclear fission in nuclear reactors and emit power.
· The greatest producers of nuclear power are the USA and Europe.
· In India, Rajasthan and Jharkhand have large deposits of Uranium.
· Thorium is found in large quantities in the Monazite sands of Kerala.
· Some Nuclear power stations of India:
Ø Kalpakkam in Tamilnadu
Ø Tarapur in Maharastra
Ø Ranapratap Sagar near Kota in Rajasthan
Ø Narora in Uttar Pradesh and
Ø Kaiga in Karnataka.
Geothermal Energy:
· Heat energy obtained from the Earth is called geothermal energy. Sometimes heat energy may surface
itself in the form of hot springs which can be used to generate power.
· The USA has the world's largest geothermal power plants followed by New Zealand, Iceland, the
Philippines, and Central America.
· In India, geothermal plants are located in Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh and Puga Valley in Ladakh.
14
Uses of geothermal energy:
· Geothermal energy in the form of hot springs can be used for cooking, heating, and bathing. Even
these areas have become tourist destinations especially in countries like Sweden.
Tidal Energy:
· The energy generated from tides is called tidal energy.
· Tidal energy can be harnessed by building dams at narrow openings of the sea. During high tide, the
energy of the tides is used to turn the turbine installed in the dam to produce electricity.
· Russia, France, and the Gulf of Kachchh in India have huge tidal mill farms.
Fig. 3.7: Tidal Energy

POWER RESOURCES
Biogas:
· Organic waste such as dead plant and animal material, animal dung, and kitchen waste can be
converted into a gaseous fuel called biogas.
· Biogas is essentially a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide.
CRAFTS
· It is an excellent fuel for cooking and lighting and produces a huge amount of organic manure each
year.
MINERAL AND
THEATRE
15
Interesting points
· Rock: It is an aggregate of one or more minerals but without definite composition of constituent of
mineral.
· Rocks from which minerals are mined are known as ores.
· When rock contains copper, it appears blue in colour.
· A green diamond is the rarest diamond.
· The oldest rocks in the world are in Western Australia. They are formed 4,300 million years ago,
that means 300 million years after the Earth was formed.
· Norway was the first country in the world to develop hydroelectricity.
· The site of the world's first solar and wind powered bus stop is in Scotland.
· Switzerland has no known mineral deposits in it.
· The first tidal energy station was built in France.
16
AGRICULTURE
4
The science and art of cultivation on the soil, raising crops and rearing livestock is called Agriculture. It is also
called farming.
· It is a primary activity.
Different types of economic activities:

The transformation of a plant to a finished product involves three types of economic activities.
These are primary, secondary, and tertiary activities.
Primary activities: These includes all those activities connected with the extraction and
production of natural resources. For example, Agriculture, fishing, and gathering etc.
Secondary activities: These are concerned with the processing of these resources. For example,
manufacturing of steel, baking of bread, and weaving of cloth etc.
Tertiary activities: These provides support to the primary and secondary sectors through
services. For example, transport, trade, banking, insurance, and advertising etc.
· In the world, 50 per cent of persons are engaged in agricultural activity. Two-thirds of India's
population is still dependent on agriculture.
Fig. 4.1: World Distribution of Arable Land

AGRICULTURE
Agriculture and Allied Activities:

· Sericulture: Commercial rearing of silk worms. It may supplement the income of the farmer.
· Pisciculture: Breeding of fish in specially constructed tanks and ponds.
17
· Viticulture: Cultivation of grapes.
· Horticulture: Growing vegetables, flowers and fruits for commercial use.
· Organic Farming: In this type of farming, organic manure and natural pesticides are used instead of
chemicals. No genetic modification is done to increase the yield of the crop.
Farm System:
Agriculture or farming can be looked at as a system as it includes all the important activities such as
· Inputs like seeds, fertilizers, machinery, and labour.
· Operations involved like ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting.
· Outputs like crops, wool, dairy, and poultry products.
Fig. 4.2: The farm system of an arable farm and Physical and human farm inputs
Types of Farming:
Depending upon the geographical conditions, the demand for produce, labour and level of technology,
farming can be classified into two main types: Subsistence farming and Commercial farming.
· Subsistence Farming: It is practiced meeting the needs of the farmer's family. Traditionally, low levels
of technology and household labour are used to produce small output. It can be further classified as
Intensive subsistence and Primitive subsistence farming.
Ø Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:
o The farmer cultivates a small plot of land using simple tools and more labour.
o Factors such as the climate with a large number of days of sunshine and fertile soils permit the
AGRICULTURE
growing of more than one crop annually on the same plot.

o Crops grown in intensive subsistence farming: Rice is the main crop. Other crops include
wheat, maize, pulses, and oilseeds.
o This type of agriculture practiced in thickly populated areas of monsoon regions of the south,
18
southeast, and East Asia.
Ø Primitive Subsistence Agriculture: It includes shifting cultivation and nomadic herding.
o Shifting cultivation:
4 It is practiced in the thickly forested areas of the Amazon basin, tropical Africa, parts of
Southeast Asia, and Northeast India.
4 These are the areas of heavy rainfall and quick regeneration of vegetation.
4 It is also known as Slash and burn agriculture as a plot of land is cleared by felling the trees and
burning them. The ashes are then mixed with the soil and crops like maize, yam, potatoes, and
cassava are grown.
4 After the soil loses its fertility, the land is abandoned, and the cultivator moves to a new plot.
o Nomadic Herding:
4 It is practiced in the semi-arid and arid regions of Sahara, Central Asia, and some parts of India,
like Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir.
4 In this type of farming, herdsmen move from place to place with their animals for fodder and
water, along defined routes.
4 Movement arises in response to climatic constraints and terrain. Sheep, camel, yak, and goats
are most commonly reared.
· Commercial Farming: In commercial farming, crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in
market. The area cultivated and the amount of capital used is large. Most of the work is done by
machines. Commercial farming includes commercial grain farming, mixed farming and plantation
agriculture.
Ø Commercial Grain Farming:
o In this farming, crops are grown for commercial purpose. Wheat and maize are common
commercially grown grains.
o Areas where commercial grain farming is practiced are temperate grasslands of North America,
Europe and Asia.
o These areas are sparsely populated with large farms spreading over hundreds of hectares.
Severe winters restrict the growing season and only a single crop can be grown.
Ø Mixed farming:
o In this farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
o It is practiced in Europe, eastern USA, Argentina, southeast Australia, New Zealand, and South
Africa.
Ø Plantation:
o In this farming, a single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana, or cotton are
grown.
o Large amount of labour and capital are required.
AGRICULTURE
o Major plantations are found in the tropical regions of the world. For example, Rubber in
Malaysia, coffee in Brazil, tea in India and Sri Lanka etc.
Major Crops:
A large variety of crops are grown to meet the requirement of the growing population. Crops also supply
19
raw materials for agro-based industries. Major food crops are wheat, rice, maize and millets. Jute and
cotton are fibre crops. Important beverage crops are tea and coffee.
Food Crops
Rice:
· Rice is the major food crop of the world. It is staple diet of the tropical and subtropical regions.
· Climatic conditions: High temperature, high humidity, and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial clayey soil,
which can retain water.
· Largest producers: China leads in the production of rice followed by India, Japan, Sri Lanka, and Egypt.
· It is produced 2 or 3 times in a year in West Bengal and Bangladesh because of the favourable climatic
conditions.
Wheat:
· It requires moderate temperature and rainfall during the growing season and bright sunshine at the
time of harvest.
· Necessary conditions: Well-drained loamy soil.
· Major wheat producing countries: USA, Canada, Argentina, Russia, Ukraine, Australia, and India.
Millets:
· They are also known as coarse grains. For example, Jowar, bajra, and ragi grown in India.
· Necessary Climatic conditions: Low rainfall and high to moderate temperature.
· It can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils.
· It is also grown in countries such as Nigeria, China, and Niger.
Maize:
· Maize is also known as corn.
· Necessary Conditions: Moderate temperature, rainfall, lots of sunshine, and well-drained fertile soil.
· Major maize producing countries: North America, Brazil, China, Russia, Canada, India, and Mexico.
Fibre Crops
Fibre crops are important raw material for textile industries and making jute bags and other products.
Cotton:
· Cotton is important raw material for cotton textile industries.
· Necessary Conditions: High temperature, light rainfall, 210 frost-free days, and bright sunshine for its
growth. It grows best on black and alluvial soils.
· Major Cotton producing countries: China, the USA, India, Pakistan, Brazil, and Egypt.
Jute:
· Jute was also known as the 'Golden Fibre'.
· Necessary Conditions: It grows well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature, heavy rainfall, and
AGRICULTURE
a humid climate. This crop is grown in tropical areas.

· India and Bangladesh are the leading producers of jute.
Beverage Crops
20
Coffee:
· Necessary conditions: It requires a warm and wet climate and well-drained loamy soil. Hill slopes are
more suitable for the growth of this crop.
· Major coffee producing countries: Brazil is the leading producer followed by Columbia and India.
· India is known for its best varieties of coffee, Arabica and Robusta.
Tea:
· It was originated in China and Britishers brought it to India. Tea is a beverage crop grown on
plantations.
· Necessary Conditions: It requires a cool climate and well-distributed high rainfall throughout the year
for the growth of its tender leaves. It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle slopes.
· Huge labour is required to pick the leaves.
· Major tea producing countries: Kenya, India, China and Sri Lanka.
Agriculture Development:
· It refers to efforts made to increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of the
increasing population.
· The ultimate aim of agricultural development is to increase food security.
Food security means when all people, at all times, have access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
Ways to achieve agricultural development and food security:

· Increasing the cropped area and the number of crops grown,
· Improving irrigation facilities,
· Use of fertilizers
· High yielding variety of seeds.
· Mechanization of agriculture.
Interesting points
· Arable land: The land on which the crops are grown is known as arable land.
· Shifting cultivation is known by different names in different parts of the world,
Ø Jhumming in North-East India.
Ø Milpa in Mexico.
Ø Roca in Brazil.
AGRICULTURE
Ø Ladang in Malaysia.
· Discovery of Coffee: In about AD 850, Kaldi, an Arab goat-herder, who was puzzled by the queer
antics of his flock, tasted the berries of the evergreen bush on which the goats were feeding. On
experiencing a sense of exhilaration, he proclaimed his discovery to the world.
21
INDUSTRIES
5
Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals
or the provision of services. For example, iron and steel industry (production of goods), coal mining industry
(extraction of coal) and tourism industry (service provider).
Classification of Industries:
Industries can be classified on the basis of raw materials, size, and ownership.
· Raw Materials:
Industries may be agro-based, mineral-based, marine-based, and forest-based depending on the type
of raw materials they use.
Ø Agro-based industries: They use plant and animal-based products as their raw materials. For
example, food processing, vegetable oil, cotton textile, dairy products, and leather industries.
Ø Mineral-based industries: These are primary industries that use mineral ores as their raw
materials. The products of these industries feed other industries, such as Iron made from iron ore is
the product of mineral based industry. This is used as raw material for the manufacture of a number
of other products, such as heavy machinery, building materials and railway coaches.
Ø Marine based industries: These industries use products from the sea and oceans as raw materials.
For example, seafood processing or fish oil manufacturing industries etc.
Ø Forest-based industries: These industries utilise forest produce as raw materials. For example,
pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, furniture, and buildings.
· Size:
It refers to the amount of capital invested, the number of people employed, and the volume of
production. Based on the size, industries can be classified into small scale and large-scale industries.
Ø Small Scale Industries:
o Cottage or household industries are a type of small-scale industry where the products are
manufactured by hand, by the artisans.
o These small-scale industries use lesser amount of capital and technology.
o For example, Basket weaving, pottery, and other handicrafts, silk weaving, food processing
industries etc.
Ø Large Scale Industries:
o These industries produce large volumes of products.
o Higher capital investment and superior technology is required in these industries.
o For example, automobiles and heavy machinery industries etc
· Ownership:
Industries can be classified into private sector, state owned or public sector, joint sector and
INDUSTRIES
cooperative sector.
Ø Private sector industries: These industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of
individuals.
22
Ø State-owned or public sector industries: These industries are owned and operated by the
government, such as Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel Authority of India Limited.
Ø Joint sector industries: These industries are owned and operated by the state and individuals or
a group of individuals. For example, Maruti Udyog Limited etc.
Ø Cooperative sector industries: These industries are owned and operated by the producers or
suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. For example, Anand Milk Union Limited and Sudha
Dairy.
Factors affecting the location of Industries:

The factors affecting the location of industries are as follows:
· Availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and market.
· The government incentives like subsidised power, lower transport cost and other infrastructure to
promote the development of backward areas.
Industries are often situated where some or all of these factors are easily available.
Fig. 5.1: Locational factors for Industries
Industrial System:
An industrial system consists of inputs, processes, and outputs.
· The inputs are the raw materials, labour, and costs of land, transport, power, and other infrastructure.
· The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw material into finished products.
· The outputs are the end product and the income earned from it.
INDUSTRIES
Industrial Regions:
Industrial regions are those regions where a large number of industries located close to each other and share
23
the benefits of their closeness. These regions tend to be located in the temperate areas, near seaports, and
especially near coalfields.
Major industrial regions of the world: Eastern North America, western and central Europe, Eastern Europe,
and eastern Asia.
Fig. 5.2: Major industrial regions of the World
Industrial regions in India: India has several industrial regions like

· The Mumbai-Pune Cluster.
· Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region
· Hugli Region.
· Ahmedabad-Baroda Region.
· Chottanagpur industrial Belt.
· Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Belt.
· Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region.
· The Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Cluster.
Distribution of Major Industries:

The world's major industries and their distribution is as follows:
Iron and Steel Industry: Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
INDUSTRIES
Textile Industry: India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan.
Information technology Industry: The Silicon Valley of Central California and the Bangalore region of India.
24
Iron and Steel Industry:
· It is a feeder industry whose products are used as raw material for other industries.
· Inputs for the Industry: It includes important raw materials such as iron ore, coal, and limestone, along
with labour, capital, site, and other infrastructure.
· The process of converting iron ore into steel involves many stages.
Ø The raw material is put in the blast furnace where it undergoes smelting and is then refined. The
output obtained is steel.
· Steel is often called the backbone of modern industry as almost everything is either made of iron or
steel or has been made with tools and machinery of these metals.
Ø Steel is tough, can easily be shaped, cut, or made into wire.
Ø Special alloys of steel can be made by adding small amounts of other metals such as aluminium,
nickel, and copper which gives steel an unusual hardness, toughness, or ability to resist rust.
· Location of Iron and Steel industry:
Ø Before 1800 A.D.: These were located where raw materials, power supply and running water
were easily available.
Ø Later the ideal location was near coal fields and close to canals and railways.
Ø After 1950: It began to be located on large areas of flat land near seaports because by this time
steel works had become very large and iron ore had to be imported from overseas.
Iron and Steel industry in India:
· Advantages: This industry has developed taking advantage of raw materials, cheap labour, transport
and market.
· Important Steel-producing centres: Bhilai, Durgapur, Burnpur, Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro are
situated in a region that spreads over four states — West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, and
Chhattisgarh.
· Bhadravati and Vijay Nagar in Karnataka, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and Salem in Tamil
Nadu are other important steel centres utilizing local resources.
The Iron and Steel plant of Jamshedpur:
· Before 1947, there was only one iron and steel plant in India – Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited
(TISCO) and It was privately owned.
· TISCO was started in 1907 at Sakchi, near the confluence of the rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai in
Jharkhand. Later, Sakchi was renamed as Jamshedpur.
· Favourable conditions in Sakchi to set up Steel plant:
INDUSTRIES
Ø This place was only 32 km away from Kalimati station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway line.
Ø It was close to the iron ore, coal and manganese deposits as well as to Kolkata, which provided a
large market.
25
Ø TISCO, gets coal from Jharia coalfields, and iron ore, limestone, dolomite and manganese from
Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
Ø The Kharkai and Subarnarekha rivers ensured sufficient water supply.
Ø Government initiatives provided adequate capital for its later development.
Pittsburgh - Important Steel city of the United States of America
It has some locational advantages:
· Coal is locally available while the iron ore comes from the iron mines at Minnesota, about 1500 km from
Pittsburgh.
· There is one of the world's best routes for shipping more cheaply – the famous Great Lakes waterway
between these mines and Pittsburgh.
· The Ohio, the Monogahela and Allegheny rivers provide adequate water supply.
Textile Industry:
· The textile industry can be divided on the basis of raw materials used in them.
· Fibres are the raw material of textile industry.
· Types of Fibres:
o Natural fibres: These are obtained from wool, silk, cotton, linen and jute.
o Man-made fibres: It include nylon, polyester, acrylic and rayon.
Cotton Textile Industry:
· Till the industrial revolution in the 18th century, cotton cloth was made using hand spinning
techniques (wheels) and looms.
· In 18th century power looms facilitated the development of cotton textile industry, first in Britain and
later in other parts of the world.
· Today India, China, Japan and the USA are important producers of cotton textiles.
· Before the British rule, Indian hand spun and hand-woven cloth already had a wide market. The
Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of Masulipatnam, Calicos of Calicut and Gold-wrought cotton of
Burhanpur, Surat and Vadodara were known worldwide for their quality and design.
Mechanized Industrial units:
· The first successful mechanized textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.
· The warm, moist climate, a port for importing machinery, availability of raw material and skilled labour
resulted in rapid expansion of the industry in the region.
· Initially this industry flourished in the states of Maharashtra and Gujarat because of favourable humid
climate.
INDUSTRIES
· But today, humidity can be created artificially, and raw cotton is a pure and not weight losing raw
material, so this industry has spread to other parts of India such as Coimbatore, Kanpur, Chennai,
Ahmedabad, Mumbai, etc.
26
Fig. 5.3: Major Cotton textile manufacturing regions in the World
Ahmedabad Textile Mills:

· It is located in Gujarat on the banks of the Sabarmati river.
· The first mill was established in 1859.
· After Mumbai, Ahmedabad soon became the second largest textile city of India and was therefore
often referred to as the 'Manchester of India'.
· Favourable locational factors in Ahmedabad:
Ø Availability of Raw material: It is situated very close to cotton growing area.
Ø Ideal Climate: The climate is ideal for spinning and weaving.
Ø Ideal terrain: The flat terrain and easy availability of land is suitable for the establishment of the
mills.
Ø Availability of Labour: The densely populated states of Gujarat and Maharashtra provide both
skilled and semi-skilled labour.
Ø Infrastructure: Well-developed road and railway network permits easy transportation of textiles
INDUSTRIES
to different parts of India, thus providing easy access to the market. Mumbai port nearby
facilitates import of machinery and export of cotton textiles.
Osaka Textile Mills: It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as the 'Manchester of Japan'. The
27
textile industry developed in Osaka due to several geographical factors:
· The extensive plain ensured that land was easily available for the growth of cotton mills.
· Climate: Warm humid climate is well suited to spinning and weaving.
· The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills.
· Availability of Labour: Labour is easily available.
· Infrastructure: Location of port facilitates import of raw cotton and for exporting textiles.
· The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials.
Interesting points
· The term 'textile' is derived from the Latin word 'texere' which means to weave.
· The first textile mill in India was established at Fort Gloster near Kolkata in 1818.
· About one-third of the Indian textile industry's total production is exported.
· Emerging industries: These are also known as 'Sunrise Industries' and include Information
technology, Wellness, Hospitality and Knowledge.
· Smelting: It is the process in which metals are extracted from their ores by heating beyond the
melting point.
· The names of Great Lakes are Superior, Huron, Ontario, Michigan and Erie. Lake Superior is the
largest of these five lakes.
· Bhopal Gas Tragedy: It was one of the worst industrial disasters of all time occurred in Bhopal on 3
December 1984. It was a technological accident in which highly poisonous Methyl Isocynate (MIC)
gas along with Hydrogen Cyanide and other reaction products leaked out of the pesticide factory of
Union Carbide.
INDUSTRIES
28
HUMAN RESOURCES
6
Human resource is the ultimate resource as nature's bounty becomes significant only when people find it
useful. It is people with their demands and abilities that turn them into 'resources'.
Distribution of Population:
· Pattern of Population Distribution: The way in which people are spread across the earth's surface.
· More than 90 per cent of the world's population lives in about 30 per cent of the land surface.
· Uneven Distribution: Some areas are very crowded such as south and south east Asia and some are
sparely populated such as in tropical deserts, high mountains etc. Almost three-quarters of the world's
people live in two continents Asia and Africa.
Population Density:
· Population density is the number of people living in a unit area of the Earth's surface. It is normally
expressed as per square km.
· The average density of population in the whole world is 45 persons per square km.
· South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed by East and South East Asia.
Factors affecting the Distribution of Population

· Geographical Factors:
Ø Topography: Humans prefer to live on plains than mountains as these areas are suitable for
farming, manufacturing, and service activities. The Ganga plains are the most densely populated
areas of the world.
Ø Climate: Human avoid living in extreme climates that are very hot or very cold.
Ø Soil: Fertile soils provide suitable land for agriculture. For example - Ganga and Brahmaputra in
India, Hwang-He, Chang Jiang in China, and the Nile in Egypt.
Ø Water: Humans prefer to live in the areas where fresh water is easily available.
Ø Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated. Diamond mines of South Africa and
discovery of oil in the Middle east lead to settling of people in these areas.
· Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors:
Ø Social: Areas of better housing, education and health facilities are more densely populated.
Ø Cultural: Places with religion or cultural significance. For example – Varanasi.
Ø Economic: Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people are
attracted to these areas.
HUMAN RESOURCES
Population Change:
Population change refers to a change in the number of people during a specific time. This is due to
changes in the number of births and deaths. Births and deaths are the natural causes of population
change.
29
· Natural Way:
Ø Birth Rate: The number of live births per 1,000 people.
Ø Death Rate: The number of deaths per 1,000 people.
Ø Natural Growth Rate: The difference between the birth rate and the death rate of a country.
Fig. 6.1: Balance of Population
· Migrations:
Ø It is the movement of people in and out of an area.
Ø People may move within a country or between countries.
Ø Emigrants are people who leave a country (loss in population) and Immigrants are those who
arrive in a country (gain in population).
Population Composition:
· Population composition refers to the structure of the population.
· People vary greatly in their age, sex, literacy level, health condition, occupation, and income level. It is
essential to understand these characteristics of the people.
· The composition of population helps us to know about the numbers of male and female, age group
composition, literacy level, occupation and income, Health conditions etc.
· An interesting way of studying the population composition of a country is by looking at the population
pyramid, also called an age-sex pyramid.
Ø It shows:
HUMAN RESOURCES
o The total population divided into various age groups like 5 to 9 years, 10 to 14 years.
o The percentage of the total population subdivided into males and females, in each of age groups.
The shape of the Population Pyramid:
It tells the story of the people living in that particular country.
· Numbers of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom and reflect the level of births.
· The size of the top shows the numbers of aged people (above 65 years) and reflects the number of
30
deaths.
· It tells about the dependent populations in a particular country— young dependents (aged below 15
years) and elderly dependents (aged over 65 years).
· There is a working population group between both the dependent population age groups, which is
also known as economically active group.
Some general patterns found in Population Pyramids:
· The population pyramid of a country in which birth and death rates are high, is broad at the base and
rapidly narrows towards the top. For Example - Kenya.
Fig. 6.2: Population Pyramid of Kenya
· In countries where death rates (especially amongst the very young) are decreasing, the pyramid is
broad in the younger age groups, because more infants survive to adulthood. For example – India.
HUMAN RESOURCES
Fig. 6.3: Population pyramid of India
31
· In countries like Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrows at the base. More old age population
due to decreased death rates.
Fig. 6.4: Population Pyramid of Japan
Interesting points
· The Ministry of Human Resource Development was created in 1985 with an aim to improve
people's skills.
· Life expectancy: It is the number of years that an average person can expect to live.
· Average density of population in India is 382 persons per square km.
· Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY):
Ø It was started in 2015 aiming to train one crore Indian youth from 2016 to 2020.
HUMAN RESOURCES
Ø The objective of this scheme is to encourage aptitude towards employable skills by giving
quality training to probable and existing wage earners.
32
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
9th Standard
CONTENTS
India - Size and Location .............................................................................................................. 1 - 3
Physical Features of India .......................................................................................................... 4 - 10
Drainage........................................................................................................................................ 11 - 16
Climate .......................................................................................................................................... 17 - 23
Natural Vegetation and Wildlife ........................................................................................... 24 - 28
Population .................................................................................................................................... 29 - 33
1 INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION
India has land mass area of 3.28 million square km and occupies 2.4 per cent of total geographical area of
the world. It has a land boundary of about 15,200 km. The total coastline length of mainland India,
including Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.
Location of India:
· It is lying entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
· The land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
· The Tropic of Cancer (23° 30'N) divides the country into almost two equal parts.
Features of India:
· India is bounded by the young fold mountains in the northwest, north and northeast.
· It begins to taper around south of about 22° North latitude and extends towards the Indian Ocean,
dividing it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the West and the Bay of Bengal on its East.
· The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the mainland is about 30°. Despite this fact, the east-west
extent appears to be smaller than the north-south extent.
· There is a time lag of two hours from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh.
· The Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E) passes through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh).
· The latitudinal extent influences the duration of day and night, as one move from South to North.
India and the World:

· The Indian landmass has a central location between the East and the West Asia.
· India is a southward extension of the Asian continent.
· Strategic location of India: The trans Indian Ocean routes connects the countries of Europe in the
West and the countries of East Asia.
· Close contact of India: The Deccan Peninsula protrudes into the Indian Ocean which helps India to
establish close contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast and with Southeast
and East Asia from the eastern coast.
· Eminent position of India in Indian Ocean: No other country has a long coastline on the Indian Ocean
INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION
like India. It also justifies the naming of an Ocean after it.

· India's contacts with the world have continued through ages but her relationships through the land
routes are much older than her maritime contacts.
· These routes have contributed to the exchange of ideas and commodities like the spices, muslin and
other merchandise.
· The influence of Greek sculpture, and the architectural styles of dome and minarets from West Asia can
be seen in different parts of India.
1
Fig. 1.1: India: Extent and Standard Meridian
India's Neighbours:
· India occupies an important strategic position in South Asia. India shares its land boundaries with:
Ø Pakistan and Afghanistan in the Northwest. INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION
Ø China (Tibet), Nepal and Bhutan in the North.
Ø Myanmar and Bangladesh in the East.
· Indian southern neighbours across the sea consist of the two island countries, namely Sri Lanka and
Maldives.
Ø Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by the Palk Strait and the
Gulf of Mannar.
Ø Maldives Islands are situated to the South of the Lakshadweep Islands.
2
Interesting points
· India is the seventh largest country of the world.

· As on 18 February 2021, India has 28 states and eight Union Territories.
· The opening of Suez Canal has reduced the distance of India from Europe by 7,000 km.
· Before 1947, there were two types of states in India:
Ø Provinces: These were ruled directly by British officials, who were appointed by the Viceroy.
Ø Princely states: These were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who acknowledged sovereignty
in return for local autonomy.
· The southernmost point of the Indian Union - 'Indira Point' got submerged under the sea water
during the 2004 Tsunami.
· School Bhuvan: It is a portal providing map-based learning to bring awareness among the
students about the country's natural resources, environment, and their role in sustainable
development.
INDIA - SIZE AND LOCATION
3
2 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
India's physical features consists of geographical features like vast stretches of plain land, hilly
region, the rugged terrain with mountains and valleys, deserts, plateaus etc.
Physical Variations of India:

· The Peninsular Plateau constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on the Earth's surface. It
is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks with gently rising hills and wide valleys.
· The Himalayas and the Northern Plains are the most recent landforms.
Ø Youthful topography of Himalaya: It can be seen with high peaks, deep valleys and fast
flowing rivers.
Ø Northern plains: These are formed of alluvial deposits.
Major Physiographic Divisions:
· The Himalayan Mountains.
· The Northern Plains.
· The Peninsular Plateau.
· The Indian Desert.
· The Coastal Plains.
· The Islands.
PHYSICAL FEATURES OF INDIA
Fig. 2.1: Relief
4
The Himalayan Mountains:
· These are geologically young and structurally fold mountains which stretch over the
Northern borders of India.
· These mountain ranges run in a West-East direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
· They form an arc which covers about 2,400 Km.
· Their width varies from 400 Km in Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
· Altitudinal variations are greater in the Eastern half than those in the Western half.
· These are the loftiest and one of the most rugged mountain barriers of the world.
Longitudinal division of Himalaya:

The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges in its longitudinal extent. Several valleys lie
between these ranges.
Fig. 2.2: Himalayas
· The Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri:

Ø This is Northern-most range.
Ø It is the most continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks with an average height of
6,000 metres. It contains all prominent Himalayan peaks.
Ø The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature.
Ø It is perennially snow bound and many glaciers descend from it.
5
Ø The core of this part of Himalayas is composed of granite.
· Himachal or Lesser Himalaya:
Ø The range lying to the South of the Himadri forms the most rugged mountain system of
Himalaya.
Ø This range is mainly composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
Ø The altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres and the average width is of 50 Km.
Ø Its most important and longest range is Pir Panjal range. Other prominent ones include -
the Dhaula Dhar and the Mahabharat ranges.
Ø It consists of the famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kullu Valley in Himachal
Pradesh. This region is well-known for its hill stations.
· Outermost Range Shiwalik:

Ø These extend over a width of 10-50 Km and its altitude vary between 900 and 1100
metres.
Ø These ranges are composed of unconsolidated sediments brought down by rivers from
the main Himalayan ranges located in farther north.
Ø These valleys are covered with thick gravel and alluvium.
Ø The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as
Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.
Division of Himalayas based on regions from West to East:

These divisions have been demarcated by river valleys.
· Punjab Himalayas: It lies between Indus and Satluj. It is regionally known as Kashmir and
Himachal Himalaya from west to east respectively.
· Kumaon Himalayas: It lies between Satluj and Kali rivers.
· Nepal Himalayas: It lies between the Kali and Teesta rivers.
· Assam Himalayas: It lies between Teesta and Dihang rivers. The Brahmaputra marks the
Eastern-most boundary of the Himalayas.
· Purvanchal or the Eastern hills and mountains:
Ø The Himalayas bend sharply to the South and spread along the eastern boundary of India
beyond the Dihang gorge.
Ø These hills mostly composed of strong sandstones, which are sedimentary rocks. They
mostly run as parallel ranges and valleys and covered with dense forests.
Ø The Purvachal comprises the Patkai Hills, the Naga Hills, the Manipur Hills and the Mizo
Hills.
The Northern Plain:

· The Northern Plain has been formed by the interplay of the three major river systems,
6
namely — the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their tributaries.
· It is formed of alluvial soil which makes it fertile and is a densely populated physiographic
division.
· It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km.
· It is about 2400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad.
· It is an agriculturally productive area due to rich soil cover combined with adequate water
supply and favourable climate.
· Various riverine islands are formed as the velocity of river decreases in the lower course due
to gentle slope.
· The rivers form various distributaries in the lower course as they split into numerous
channels due to the deposition of silt.
Divisions of the Northern Plain based on the Rivers:

· Punjab Plains:
Ø It is the western part of the Northern Plain and is dominated by the doabs.
Ø It is formed by the Indus and its tributaries and its larger part of this plain lies in Pakistan.
Ø The Indus and its tributaries — the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
originate in the Himalaya.
· Ganga Plains:
Ø It extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers.
Ø It spread over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, etc.
· Brahmaputra Plains:
Ø Assam lies in the Brahmaputra plain.
Ø Brahmaputra and its tributaries cover vast areas of north east region. Its flow is highest in
monsoon period which brings huge silt and fine soil particles in Assam and adjoining
regions. It forms famous Riverine Island called Majuli Island.
Division of the Northern Plain based on Variations in Relief Features:

· Bhabar:
Ø It is formed by the deposition of pebbles by rivers in narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in
width lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks.

Ø All the streams disappear in this bhabar belt.
· Terai:
Ø It is a wet, swampy and marshy region formed South of the Bhabar region where the
streams and rivers re-emerge.
Ø It is a thickly forested region full of wildlife. For example, Dudhwa National Park.
· Bhangar:
Ø It is the largest part of the northern plain and lies above the floodplains of the rivers and
7
presents a terrace like feature.
Ø The soil in this region contains calcareous deposits, locally known as kankar.
· Khadar:
Ø It is the newer and younger deposits of the floodplains.
Ø They are renewed almost every year and are ideal for intensive agriculture.
The Peninsular Plateau:

· It is tableland which is composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks.
· It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land.
· The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills.
· One of its distinct features is the black soil area known as Deccan Trap which is of volcanic
origin (Igneous Rocks).
· Aravali Hills lie on the western and north-western margins of the Peninsular Plateau.
Ø These are highly eroded hills and are found as broken hills.
Ø They extend from Gujarat to Delhi in a southwest-northeast direction.
· It has two broad divisions:
Ø The Central Highlands.
Ø The Deccan Plateau.
The Central Highlands:

· The Central Highlands is the part that lies to the North of the Narmada River which covers a
major area of the Malwa plateau.
· Vindhyan range:
Ø It is bounded by the Satpura range on the South and the Aravalis on the northwest.
Ø The further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and rocky desert of
Rajasthan.
· The rivers flowing in this region are the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the Ken from
southwest to northeast which indicates the slope.
· These are wider in the West but narrower in the East.
· Its eastward extensions are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand. The
Chotanagpur plateau marks the further eastward extension, drained by the Damodar River.
The Deccan Plateau:

· The Deccan Plateau is a triangular landmass that lies to the South of the river Narmada.
· The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the North, while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills
and the Maikal range forms its eastern extensions.
· It is higher in the West and slopes gently eastwards.
· Its extension is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong
8
Plateau and North Cachar Hills.
· Malda Gap: It is a fault separating the Deccan Plateau and the Chota Nagpur.
· Three prominent hill ranges from the West to the East are the Garo, the Khasi and the
Jaintia Hills.
· The western and Eastern Ghats makes its western and eastern edges, respectively.
· Western Ghats lie parallel to the western coast and can be crossed only through passes
such as Thal, Bhor and Pal Ghats.
Western Ghats:
· These are higher than the Eastern Ghats and its height progressively increases from North
to South. Its average elevation is 900-1600 metres.
· They act as a barrier and responsible for orographic rain in the region.
· The highest peaks include the Anai Mudi (2,695 metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637
metres).
Eastern Ghats:
· Its average elevation is 600 metres and stretch from the Mahanadi Valley to the Nigiris in
the South.
· These are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of
Bengal.
· Its highest peak is Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) and the Shevroy Hills and the Javadi Hills
are located to its southeast.
The Indian Desert:

· The Indian Desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravali Hills.
· It is an undulating sandy plain covered with sand dunes and receives very low rainfall below
150 mm per year.
· It has arid climate and streams appear during the rainy season.
· Luni is the only large river in this region.
Coastal Plains:
· The Peninsular plateau is flanked by stretch of narrow coastal strips, running along the
Arabian Sea on the West and the Bay of Bengal on the East.
· Western Coast:
Ø It is a narrow plain sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.
Ø It consists of three sections:
o Konkan (Mumbai – Goa): It is the northern part of the coast.
o Kannad Plain: It is the central stretch.
9
3
o Malabar Coast: It is the southern stretch.
· Eastern Coast:
Ø Their plains are wide and level. Its northern part is referred to as the Northern Circar and
the southern part is known as the Coromandel Coast.
Ø The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on
this coast.
Ø Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.
Islands:
India has two groups of islands:
Lakshadweep Islands Group:

· It lies close to the Malabar coast of Kerala and is composed of small coral islands.
· Earlier they were known as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive and these were named as
Lakshadweep in 1973. It covers small area of 32 sq km.
· Kavaratti island is the administrative headquarters of Lakshadweep.
· It has great diversity of flora and fauna.
· The Pitti island, which is uninhabited, has a bird sanctuary.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:

· These are elongated chain of islands located in the Bay of Bengal extending from North to
South. They are bigger in size and are more numerous and scattered.
· These are divided into two broad categories – The Andaman in the North and the Nicobar in
the South.
· It is believed that these islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.
· These islands have great diversity of flora and fauna and lie close to Equator and experience
equatorial climate.
Interesting points
· Doab': It is made up of two words - 'do' meaning two and 'ab' meaning water. Similarly,
'Punjab', is also made up two words - 'Punj' meaning five and 'ab' meaning water.
· Majuli, in the Brahmaputra River, is the largest inhabited riverine island in the world.
· Chilika Lake: It is the largest salt-water lake in India and lies in the Odisha, to the south
of the Mahanadi delta.
· India's only active volcano is found on Barren Island in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
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DRAINAGE
3
The term drainage describes the river system of an area. Small streams flowing from different
directions come together to form the main river which ultimately drains into a large water body
such as a lake or a sea or an ocean. The area drained by a single river system is called as Drainage
Basin.
Drainage Systems in India:

It is controlled by broad relief features of Indian subcontinent. Accordingly, the Indian rivers are
divided into two major groups - the Himalayan rivers and the Peninsular rivers.
The Himalayan Rivers:

· Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial and receive water from rain and melted snow from
lofted mountains.
· Its major rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. These rivers are long and are
joined by many large and important tributaries. A river along with its tributaries may be called
a river system.
· The two major Himalayan rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the north of
the mountain ranges. They make gorges and have long courses from their source to the sea.
· They perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt
and sand.
· In the middle and the lower courses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes, and many
other depositional features in their floodplains. They also have well-developed deltas.
DRAINAGE
Figure: 3.1: Some Features Made by Rivers
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Himalayan River System
The Indus River System:
· It rises in Tibet, near Lake Mansarowar and flowing west entering India in the Ladakh.
· Its total length is of 2900 km and a little over a third is in India.
· Left bank tributaries: The Zaskar, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj etc.
· Right bank tributaries: Shyok, Hunza, Gilgit, Khurram, Gomal etc.
· It flows through Baltistan and Gilgit and emerges from the mountains at Attock.
· The Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum join together to enter the Indus near
Mithankot in Pakistan.
The Ganga River System:
· The headwaters of the Ganga, called the 'Bhagirathi' is fed by the Gangotri Glacier and
joined by the Alaknanda at Devaprayag in Uttarakhand. At Haridwar, the Ganga emerges
from the mountains on to the plains.
· The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km. Ambala is located on the water divide between the
Indus and the Ganga river systems. The plains from Ambala to the Sunderban stretch over
nearly 1800 km.
· It develops large meanders during its middle course.
· Major Tributaries: The Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi, Chambal, the Betwa
and the Son.
Yamuna River:
· The river Yamuna rises from the Yamunotri Glacier in the Himalayas. It flows parallel to the
Ganga and as a right bank tributary meets the Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad).
· It flows eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal which is the northernmost point of the
Ganga delta. Here the river bifurcates into the Bhagirathi-Hooghly (a distributary) and flows
southwards through the deltaic plains to the Bay of Bengal.
· The mainstream flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra.
Further downstream, it is known as the Meghna.
· This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of
Bengal. The delta formed by these rivers is known as the Sundarban Delta.
The Brahmaputra River System:

· The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, east of Mansarowar lake and flows eastwards parallel to the
Himalayas. Most of its course lies outside India.
· It takes a 'U' turn at Namcha Barwa (7757 m) and enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through
DRAINAGE
a gorge. Here, it is called the Dihang. It is joined by the Dibang, the Lohit, and many other
tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
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· In India, it carries large volume of water and silt, as it flows from high rainfall region.
· It has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands.
· It shifts its channel frequently as huge deposit of silt causing the riverbed to rise and
responsible for large-scale flooding every year.
The Peninsular Rivers:

· Many Peninsular Rivers are seasonal as their flow is dependent on rainfall.
· These have shorter and shallower courses.
· Some of them originate in the central highlands and flow towards the West.
· The main water divide in Peninsular India is formed by the Western Ghats.
· Most of the peninsular rivers flows into Bay of Bengal and make delta on their mouth.
· The Narmada and the Tapi are the only long rivers, which flow West and make estuaries.
· The drainage basins of the peninsular rivers are comparatively smaller in size.
· The main West flowing rivers are Sabarmati, Mahi, Bharathpuzha and Periyar while the
East flowing rivers are Damodar, Brahmani, Baitarni and Subarnrekha.
The Narmada Basin:

· It rises in the Amarkantak Hills in Madhya Pradesh and flows towards the West in a rift
valley formed due to faulting.
· Picturesque locations:
Ø Marble rocks' (near Jabalpur): Here the river flows through deep gorge.
Ø Dhuadhar falls: Here the river plunges over steep rocks.
· All its tributaries are very short and most of these join the mainstream at right angles.
· Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
The Tapi Basin:

· The Tapi rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
· It flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada.
· Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
The Godavari Basin:

· It is largest peninsular river and rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik
district of Maharashtra.
· Its length is about 1500 km and drains into the Bay of Bengal.
· The basin covers parts of Maharashtra (about 50 per cent of the basin area lies in
Maharashtra), Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
DRAINAGE
· Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Manjira, Manair, Kinnerasani etc.

· Left Bank Tributaries: Purna, Pranahita, Indravati, Tliperu, Sabri etc.
13
· The Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga are large tributaries.
· It is also known as the Dakshin Ganga because of its length and the area it covers.
The Mahanadi Basin:

· It rises in the highlands of Chhattisgarh and flows through Odisha.
· The length of the river is about 860 km.
· Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Seonath, Mand, Ib, Hasdeo etc.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Ong, Parry, Jonk, Telen etc.
The Krishna Basin:

· It rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar and flows for about 1400 km.
· Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Musi, Paleru, Munneru etc.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Kudali, Venna, Koyana, Panchganga, Dudhganga, Ghtaprabha,
Malprabha, and Tungabhadra.
The Kaveri Basin:

· It rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and its total length is about 760 km.
· It reaches the Bay of Bengal in south of Cuddalore in Tamil Nadu.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathy.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Lakshamana, Tirtha, Kabini, Bhavani, Noyyal, Amravati, Moyar etc.
· Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
DRAINAGE
Fig. 3.2: Major Rivers and Lakes
14
4
Lakes:
· India has many lakes which differ from each other in size and other characteristics.
· A meandering river across a floodplain forms cut-off that later develops into ox-bow lakes.
· Spits and bars form lagoons in the coastal areas. For example - the Chilika lake, the Pulicat
lake and the Kolleru lake.
· The lakes in the region of inland drainage are sometimes seasonal. For example, the
Sambhar lake, a salt-water lake in Rajasthan.
· Most of the freshwater lakes are in the Himalayan region are of glacial origin. They formed
when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt.
· The Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir is the result of tectonic activity. It is the largest
freshwater lake in India.
· The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak and Barapani are some other important freshwater
lakes.
· Apart from natural lakes, the damming of the rivers for the generation of hydel power has also
led to the formation of lakes, such as Guru Gobind Sagar (Bhakra Nangal Project).
Significance of Lakes:
· It helps to regulate the flow of a river.
· It prevents flooding during heavy rains and helps to maintain an even flow of water during
the dry season.
· It can also be used for developing hydel power.
· They moderate the climate of the surroundings; maintain the aquatic ecosystem, enhance
natural beauty, help develop tourism and provide recreation.
Role of Rivers in the Economy:

· Water from rivers is a basic natural resource which is essential for various human activities.
· These are used for irrigation, navigation, hydro-power generation which helps to a country
like India where agriculture is the major source of livelihood of the majority of its population.
River Pollution:
· River's water quality is naturally affected by the growing domestic, municipal, industrial and
agricultural demand.
DRAINAGECRAFTS
· The volume of rivers is reducing as more and more water is being drained out of it.
· Untreated sewage and industrial effluents affect not only the quality of water but also the
THEATRE
self-cleansing capacity of the river.
15
Interesting points
· The world's largest drainage basin is of the Amazon River.

· An elevated area, such as a mountain or upland, which separates two drainage basins is
known as a water divide.
· Indus Water Treaty (1960): India can use only 20 per cent of the total water carried by
the Indus river system.
· Sunderbans Delta:
Ø It derived its name from the Sundari tree, which grows well in marshland.
Ø It is the world's largest and fastest growing delta and is the home of Royal Bengal
tiger.
· Namami Gange Programme: It is an Integrated Conservation Mission approved as a
'flagship programme' by the Union Government in June 2014 to accomplish the twin
objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and rejuvenation of the
national river, Ganga.
· Brahmaputra is known as the Tsang Po in Tibet and Jamuna in Bangladesh.
· The Narmada River Conservation mission has been undertaken by the government of
Madhya Pradesh by a scheme named Namami Devi Narmade.
· Seas: They are lakes of large extent such as the Caspian, the Dead and the Aral seas.
· The river Kaveri makes the second biggest waterfall in India known as Shivasamudram
Falls. The hydroelectric power generated from the falls is supplied to Mysuru, Bengaluru
and the Kolar Gold Field.
· Coastal plains between Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea are very narrow.
DRAINAGE
16
4 CLIMATE
Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and variations over a large area for a long period of
time (more than thirty years). While weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at any point
of time. Their elements are temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation.
Regional Variations in Climatic conditions of India

Temperature:
· In Summer, the mercury occasionally touches 50°C in some parts of the Rajasthan desert whereas it
may be around 20°C in Pahalgam in Jammu and Kashmir.
· In general, coastal areas experience less contrasts in temperature conditions.
· Seasonal contrasts are more in the interior of the country.
Precipitation:
· It is mostly in the form of snowfall in the upper parts of Himalayas whereas it rains over the rest of the
country.
· The annual precipitation varies from over 400 cm in Meghalaya to less than 10 cm in Ladakh and
western Rajasthan.
· Most parts of the country receive rainfall from June to September.
· But some parts like the Tamil Nadu Coast gets a large portion of its rain during October and
November.
· There is decrease in rainfall generally from East to West in the Northern Plains.
Climatic Controls:
There are six major controls of the climate - latitude, altitude, pressure and wind system, distance from
the sea (continentally), ocean currents and relief features.
· Due to curvature of the Earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude and
altitude which generally decreases the air pressure from Equator to Poles.
· As one goes from the surface of the Earth to higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense and
temperature decreases. The hills are therefore cooler during summers.
· Pressure and wind system depends on altitude and latitude of the area which influences the
temperature and rainfall pattern.
· As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases and the people experience
extreme weather conditions which is known as continentally (very hot during summers and very cold
during winters).
· Ocean currents along with onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal areas.
· Relief also affects the climate of a place. For example - High mountains act as barriers for cold or hot
winds; they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing
winds.
CLIMATE
Factors affecting India's Climate:

Latitude:
17
· The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country from the Rann of Kuchchh in the West
to Mizoram in the East.
· India's climate has characteristics of tropical as well as subtropical climates.
Altitude:
· India has high Himalayan ranges (average height of about 6,000 metres) in North, which protect India
from cold winds of central Asia. It is because of these mountains that this subcontinent experiences
comparatively milder winters as compared to central Asia.
Pressure and Winds:
· The climate and associated weather conditions in India are governed by following atmospheric
conditions:
Ø Pressure and surface winds.
Ø Upper air circulation.
Ø Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones.
· India lies in the region of north easterly winds.
North Easterly Winds:

· These winds originate from the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern hemisphere.
· They originate and blow over land as they blow southwards, get deflected to the right due to the
Coriolis force, and move towards the equatorial low-pressure area.
Unique Pressure and Wind Conditions over India:

· During Winter: There is a high-pressure area North of the Himalayas and cold dry winds blow from
this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the South.
· During Summer: A low-pressure area develops over interior Asia and North-Western India which
causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during Summer.
· Southwest Monsoon winds: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean,
in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over
the Indian subcontinent. These winds blow over the warm oceans, gather moisture and bring
widespread rainfall over the mainland of India.
· Upper air circulation: It is dominated by a westerly flow. An important component of this flow is the jet
stream.
Jet Stream:
· These are a narrow belt of high altitude (above 12,000 m) westerly winds in the troposphere.
· Their speed varies from about 110 km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter.
· A number of separate jet streams have been identified. The most constant are the mid-latitude
and the sub-tropical jet streams.
CLIMATE
18
Ø These are located approximately over 27°-30° north latitude, therefore, they are known as sub-
tropical westerly jet streams. Over India, these jet streams blow south of the Himalayas, all
through the year except in summer. The Western cyclonic disturbances experienced in the
north and north-western parts of the country brought in by these westerly winds.
Ø In summer, the subtropical westerly jet stream moves north of the Himalayas with the
apparent movement of the Sun.
Ø An easterly jet stream, called the sub-tropical easterly jet stream blows over peninsular India,
approximately over 14°N during the summer months.
Climate of India:
· The Climate of India is described as the 'Monsoon' type which refers to the seasonal reversal in the
wind direction during a year.
· In Asia, this type of climate is found mainly in the south and the southeast.
The Indian Monsoon:

· This phenomenon was first noticed by the sailors who came to India in historic times and were
benefited from the reversal of the wind system as they came by sailing ships at the mercy of winds.
· It was named 'monsoon' by the Arabs traders.
· It is experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.
· Its duration is between 100- 120 days from early June to mid-September.
Factors affecting the Mechanism of Monsoon:

· Differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on land in India and relatively
high pressure on seas.
· The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in Summer, over the Ganga plain
(this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the Equator. It is also known as the
Monsoon trough during the Monsoon season).
· The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at 20°S over the Indian
Ocean. Its intensity and position affect the Indian Monsoon.
· During Summer, the Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated which results in strong vertical air currents
and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
· The movement of the westerly jet stream to the North of the Himalayas and the presence of the
tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during Summer.
· Other conditions:
Ø The monsoon is also affected by the pressure conditions over the southern oceans.
Ø Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical
eastern Indian Ocean experiences low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the
CLIMATE
pressure conditions and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern
Indian Ocean. This is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO.
19
Ø The difference in pressure over Tahiti (Pacific Ocean) and Darwin in northern Australia
(Indian Ocean) is computed to predict the intensity of the monsoons.
El Nino Southern Oscillations (ENSO):

· It relates to the SO in which a warm ocean current that flows past the Peruvian Coast, in place
of the cold Peruvian current, every 2 to 5 years.
· The changes in pressure conditions are connected to the El Nino.
· The phenomenon is known as ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillations).
Mechanism of Monsoon
Onset of Monsoon:
· The Monsoon, unlike the trades, are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature which is affected by
different atmospheric conditions on its way over the warm tropical seas.
· The duration of the monsoon is between 100- 120 days from early June to mid-September.
· Burst of Monsoon: Around the time of its arrival, the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues
constantly for several days.
· The islands receive the very first monsoon showers, progressively from South to North.
· It arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula and proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch
and the Bay of Bengal branch. Both branches merge over the north-western part of the Ganga plains.
· Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal branch.
· Different regions or states welcome monsoon on different dates. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches
Himachal Pradesh and the rest of India.
Withdrawal of Monsoon:
· It is a more gradual process which begins in North-Western part of India by early September and
withdraws completely from the northern half of the Peninsula by mid-October.
· The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early December, the monsoon
generally withdraws from rest of India.
The Seasons:
· The monsoon type of climate is characterised by a distinct seasonal pattern. The changes are
particularly noticeable in the interior parts of the country.
· The coastal areas do not experience much variation in temperature though there is variation in
rainfall pattern.
· There are four main seasons in India – the cold weather season, the hot weather season, the
advancing monsoon and the retreating monsoon with some regional variations.
The Cold Weather Season (Winter):

CLIMATE
· Period: It begins from mid-November in northern India and stays till February. December and January
are the coldest months in the northern part of India.
20
· The temperature decreases from South to the North and days are warm, and nights are cold.
· Frost is common in the North and the higher slopes of the Himalayas experience snowfall.
· During this season, the Northeast trade winds prevail over India. They blow from land to sea and
hence, for most part of the country, it is a dry season.
· Some amount of rainfall occurs on the Tamil Nadu coast as here these winds blow from sea to land.
· The weather is normally marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity and feeble,
variable winds.
· There is the inflow of low-pressure systems called cyclonic disturbances from the west and the
northwest which originate over the Mediterranean Sea and western Asia and move into India with the
westerly flow.
· The total amount of winter rainfall is locally known as 'mahawat' which is of immense importance for
the cultivation of 'rabi' crops.
· The Peninsular region does not have a well-defined cold season due to the moderating influence of
the sea.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer):

· Due to the apparent northward movement of the Sun, the global heat belt shifts northwards and from
March to May, it is hot weather season in India.
· The summer months experience rising temperature and falling air pressure in the northern part of
India.
· Temperatures remain lower in Peninsular India due to the moderating influence of the oceans.
· A striking feature of the hot weather season is the 'loo' which are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds blowing
during the day over the north and north-western India.
· Dust storms are very common during the month of May in northern India. Towards the close of the
summer season, pre-monsoon showers are common.
· This is also the season for localised thunderstorms, associated with violent winds, torrential
downpours, often accompanied by hail.
Different names of Thunderstorms:

· In West Bengal, dust storms are known as the 'Kaal Baisakhi'.
· 'Mango showers': These are Pre-monsoon showers common in Kerala and Karnataka which
help in the early ripening of mangoes.
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season):

· South-West Monsoon:
Ø By early June, the low-pressure condition over the northern plains intensifies which attracts the
CLIMATE
trade winds of the Southern hemisphere.

Ø These south-east trade winds originate over the warm sub-tropical areas of the southern oceans
21
and cross the Equator and blow in a south-westerly direction and enter in India. They bring
abundant moisture to the sub-continent as these winds blow over warm oceans.
· The monsoon winds cover the country in about a month except the extreme north-west.
· The maximum rainfall of this season is received in the north-eastern part of India. Mawsynram in the
southern ranges of the Khasi Hills receives the highest average rainfall in the world.
· Rainfall in the Ganga valley decreases from the East to the West.
· Break in Monsoon: These are wet and dry spells of monsoon and are related to movement of the
monsoon trough. When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over the plains, rainfall is good in these
parts whereas when the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells in the plains and
widespread rain occurs in the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan Rivers.
· The Monsoon rains are also affected by the frequency and intensity of tropical depressions. These
depressions form at the head of Bay of Bengal. The depressions follow the axis of the “monsoon trough
of low pressure”.
Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season):

· It is a period of transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions in the months of October-
November.
· During October-November, with the apparent movement of the Sun towards the South, the monsoon
trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker.
· The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature.
· October Heat: Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather
oppressive during the day. This is commonly known as 'October heat'.
· The low-pressure conditions, over north-western India, get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early
November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over
the Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India cause heavy and
widespread rain.
· The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri are frequently struck by
cyclones, which cause great damage to life and property.
· The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from depressions and cyclones.
Distribution of Rainfall:
· Western coast and north-eastern India receive over about 400 cm of rainfall annually whereas
Rajasthan and some parts of Gujarat has less than 60 cm.
· Rainfall is equally low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and east of the Sahyadris.
· Variability of rainfall is high in the regions of low rainfall such as parts of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the
leeward side of the Western Ghats.
CLIMATE
22
Interesting points
· The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word 'mausim' which literally means season.
· Coriolis Force: It is an apparent force caused by the Earth's rotation and is responsible for
deflecting winds towards the right in the northern hemisphere and towards the left in the
southern hemisphere. This is also known as 'Ferrell's Law'.
· Western Cyclonic Disturbances:
Ø These are weather phenomena of the winter months brought in by the westerly flow from
the Mediterranean region.
Ø They usually influence the weather of the north and north-western regions of India.
Ø Tropical cyclones occur during the monsoon, as well as, in October – November, and are part of
the easterly flow and affect the coastal regions of the country.
· El Nino:
Ø This is a name given to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along the coast of
Peru as a temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current.
Ø The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase in sea-surface temperatures and weakening
of the trade winds in the region.
· Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
Ø It is a broad trough of low pressure in equatorial latitudes where the northeast and the
southeast trade winds converge.
Ø It lies more or less parallel to the Equator but moves North or South with the apparent
movement of the Sun.
· Mawsynram, the wettest place on the Earth is reputed for its stalagmite and stalactite caves.
CLIMATE
23
NATURAL VEGETATION
5 AND WILDLIFE
India is one of the 12 mega bio-diversity countries of the world. With about 47,000 plant species, India
occupies tenth place in the world and fourth in Asia in plant diversity. There are about 15,000 flowering
plants in India, which account for 6 per cent in the world's total number of flowering plants. India also has
approximately 90,000 species of animals, as well as a rich variety of fish in its fresh and marine waters.
Natural Vegetation:
· It refers to a plant community, which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left
undisturbed by humans for a long time. This is termed as a virgin vegetation.
· Cultivated crops and fruits, orchards form part of vegetation but not natural vegetation.
Important Terms:
· The virgin vegetation, which are purely Indian are known as endemic or indigenous species but
those which have come from outside India are termed as exotic plants.
· Flora: It is used to denote plants of a particular region or period.
· Fauna: It is to denote the species of animals.
Factors Affecting Distribution of Flora and Fauna

Relief
· Land:
The nature of land influences type of vegetation. The undulating and rough terrains are areas where
grassland and woodlands develop, which gives shelter to varieties of wildlife.
· Soil:
Different types of soil provide different types of vegetation. For example, the sandy soils of the desert
support cactus and thorny bushes while wet, marshy, deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic
vegetation.
Climate

· Temperature:
The character and extent of vegetation are mainly determined by temperature along with humidity
in the air, precipitation and soil. For example, on the slopes of the Himalayas and the hills of the
Peninsula above the height of 915 metres, the fall in the temperature affects the types of vegetation.
· Photoperiod (Sunlight):
The variation in duration of sunlight is due to differences in latitude, altitude, season and duration of the
day. Due to longer duration of sunlight, trees grow faster in Summer.
· Precipitation:
Areas of heavy rainfall have more dense vegetation as compared to areas of less rainfall.
Importance of Forests:
· Forests are renewable resources and play a major role in enhancing the quality of environment.
24
· They modify local climate, control soil erosion, regulate stream flow, support a variety of industries,
provide livelihood for many communities.
· They control wind force and temperature and cause rains.
· They provide humus to the soil and shelter to the wildlife.
Vegetation Cover of India:

· It is no more natural in real sense in large parts except in some inaccessible regions, like the Himalayas,
the hilly region of central India and the marusthali.
· The vegetation in most of the areas has been modified at some places or replaced or degraded by
human occupancy.
Types of Vegetation:
· Tropical Evergreen Forests
· Tropical Deciduous Forests
· Tropical Thorn Forests and Scrubs
· Montane Forests
· Mangrove Forests
Fig. 5.1: Natural Vegetation
25
Tropical Evergreen Forests:
· Areas: It is restricted to heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats and the island groups of
Lakshadweep, Andaman and Nicobar, upper parts of Assam and Tamil Nadu coast.
· They are at their best in areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall with a short dry season.
· The trees reach great heights up to 60 metres or even above.
· This region is warm and wet throughout the year and so it has a luxuriant vegetation of all kinds —
trees, shrubs and creepers giving it a multi-layered structure.
· Appear green throughout the year as there is no definite time for shedding of leaves by trees.
· Commercially important trees: Ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber and cinchona.
· Common animals found: Elephant, monkey, lemur and deer.
Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests):

· These are the most widespread forests of India and spread over the region receiving rainfall between
200 cm and 70 cm.
· Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
· Based on the availability of water, these forests are further divided into:
Ø Moist Deciduous Forest:
o It receives rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
o Areas: Mostly in the eastern part of the country - north-eastern states, along the foothills of the
Himalayas, Jharkhand, West Odisha and Chhattisgarh, and on the eastern slopes of the Western
Ghats.
o Tree species: Teak is the most dominant species of this forest. Bamboos, sal, shisham,
sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun and mulberry are other commercially important species.
Ø Dry Deciduous Forest:
o They are found in areas having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
o Regions: Rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
o Species: Teak, sal, peepal and neem.
The Thorn Forests and Scrubs:

· Rainfall: They are found in areas with less than 70 cm of rainfall.
· Regions: In the north-western part of the country, including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana.
· Species: Acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti are the main plant species.
· Trees are scattered and have long roots penetrating deep into the soil to get moisture. The stems are
succulent to conserve water. Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimise evaporation. These forests
give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.
· Common Animals: Rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and camels.
Montane Forests:
· In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to the corresponding
26
change in natural vegetation. There is a succession of natural vegetation belts from the tropical to the
tundra region.
· The Wet Temperate: They are found between a height of 1000 and 2000 metres. Evergreen broad-
leaf trees, such as oaks and chestnuts predominate.
· Temperate Forests: They are found between 1500 and 3000 metres which contains coniferous trees,
like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar. These forests cover mostly the southern slopes of the
Himalayas, places with high altitude in southern and north-east India.
· Temperate Grasslands: They are common at higher elevations.
· Alpine Vegetation: Temperate forests and grasslands give way to the Alpine vegetation at high
altitudes, generally, more than 3,600 metres. Silver fir, junipers, pines and birches are the common
trees of these forests.
· However, they get progressively stunted as they approach the snowline. Ultimately, through shrubs
and scrubs, they merge into the Alpine grasslands which are used extensively for grazing by nomadic
tribes, like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals.
· Tundra Vegetation: Mosses and lichens form part of tundra vegetation at higher altitudes.
· Common Fauna: Kashmir Stag, spotted dear, wild sheep, jack rabbit, Tibetan antelope, yak, snow
leopard, squirrels, Shaggy horn wild ibex, bear and rare red panda, sheep and goats with thick hair.
Mangrove Forests:
· The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides. Mud and silt get
accumulated on such coasts.
· Dense mangroves are the common varieties with roots of the plants submerged under water.
· Such vegetation is found in the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc.
· In the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta, Sundari trees are found, which provide durable hard timber. Palm,
coconut, keora, agar, etc., also grow in some parts of the delta.
· Common Fauna: Royal Bengal Tiger, Turtles, crocodiles, gharials and snakes.
Source: Medicinal Plants by Dr. S.K. Jain, 5th edition 1994, National Book Trust of India
Fig. 5.2: Medicinal Plants
27
Wildlife in India:
· India is rich in its fauna with approximately 90,000 animal species.
· The country has about 2,000 species of birds which constitute 13% of the world's total.
· There are 2,546 species of fish, which account for nearly 12% of the world's stock.
· It also shares between 5 and 8 per cent of the world's amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
· Elephants: They are the most majestic animals among the mammals and are found in the hot wet
forests of Assam, Karnataka and Kerala.
· One-horned rhinoceroses: They live in swampy and marshy lands of Assam and West Bengal.
· Arid areas of the Rann of Kachchh and the Thar Desert are the habitat for wild ass and camels
respectively.
· India is the only country in the world that has both tigers and lions.
· The natural habitat of the Indian lion is the Gir Forest in Gujarat.
· Ladakh's freezing high altitudes are home to yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing around one
tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang (Tibetan wild ass).
Interesting points
· According to India State of Forest Report 2019, the total forest and tree cover in India is 24.56
per cent.
· Wildlife Protection Act was implemented in 1972 in India.
· Biosphere Reserves in India:
· The Gir Forest is the last remaining habitat of the Asiatic lion.
1. Nilgiri 7. Simplipal 13. Cold Desert

2. Nanda Devi 8. Panchmari 14. Panna
3. Nokrek 9. Khangchendzonga 15. Kachchh
4. Great Nicobar 10. Agasthyamalai 16. Manas
5. Gulf of Mannar 11. Achanakamar- 17. Dibru-Saikhowa

Amarkantak
6. Sunderbans 12. Seshachalam 18. Dehang-Dibang
28
POPULATION
6
Population is the pivotal element in social studies and is the point of reference from which all other elements
are observed and from which they derive significance and meaning. 'Resources', 'calamities' and 'disasters'
are all meaningful only in relation to human beings.
Population Size and Distribution

India's Population Size and Distribution by numbers:
· India's population account for about 17.5 per cent of the world's population which lives over India's
area of 3.28 million square km, which accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world's area.
· Population of India as per 2011 Census Data:
Ø The Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state of India and accounts for about 16 per cent of the
country's population.
Ø The Sikkim has a population of just about 0.6 million.
Ø Lakshadweep has only 64,429 people.
· Almost half of India's population lives in just five states - Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West
Bengal and Andhra Pradesh.
· Rajasthan is the biggest state in terms of area and has only 5.5 per cent of the total population of
India.
India's Population Distribution by Density:
· Population density is calculated as the number of persons per unit area. It provides a better picture of
the uneven distribution. India is one of the most densely populated countries of the world.
· The population density of India in the year 2011 was 382 persons per sq km.
· Densities vary from 1,102 persons per sq km in Bihar to only 17 persons per sq km in Arunachal
Pradesh.
· The Northern plains and Kerala have high to very high population densities because of the flat plains
with fertile soils and abundant rainfall.
Population Growth and Processes of Population Change:

Population is a dynamic phenomenon. The numbers, distribution and composition of the population are
constantly changing.
Population Growth:
· Growth of population refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during a
specific period of time.
· This change can be expressed in two ways: in terms of absolute numbers and in terms of percentage
POPULATION
change per year.

· Annual Growth Rate: It is the rate or the pace of population increase. It is studied in per cent per
annum.
29
· It is essential to realise that India has a very large population. When a low annual rate is applied to a
very large population, it yields a large absolute increase.
Processes of Population Change/Growth:
There are three main processes of change of population: birth rates, death rates and migration. Natural
increase of Population: It is the difference between birth rates and death rates.
· Birth Rate: It is the number of live births per thousand persons in a year. It is a major component of
growth as in India, birth rates have always been higher than death rates.
· Death Rate: It is the number of deaths per thousand persons in a year. The main cause of the rate of
growth of the Indian population has been the rapid decline in death rates.
Trend in Population change:

· Till 1980, high birth rates and declining death rates led to a large difference between birth rates
and death rates resulting in higher rates of population growth.
· Since 1981, birth rates have also started declining gradually, resulting in a gradual decline in the
rate of population growth.
· Migration:
Ø It is the movement of people across regions and territories. Migration can be internal (within the
country) or international (between the countries). Internal migration influences the distribution of
population within the nation.
Ø In India, most migrations have been from rural to urban areas because of the “push” factor in rural
areas.
Ø It changes not only the population size but also the population composition of urban and rural
populations in terms of age and sex composition.
Ø The rural-urban migration has resulted in a steady increase in the percentage of population in
cities and towns.
Age Composition:
· The age composition of a population refers to the number of people in different age groups in a
country.
· The number and percentage of a population found within the children, working age and aged groups
are notable determinants of the population's social and economic structure.
POPULATION
Three broad categories to classify population:

· Children (below 15 years): They are economically unproductive.
· Working Age (15–59 years): They comprise the working population.
30
· Aged (Above 59 years): They may be working voluntarily but they are not available for employment
through recruitment.
The percentage of children and the aged affect the dependency ratio as these groups are not
producers.
Fig. 6.1: India's Age Composition
Sex Ratio:
· Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population. This information is an
important social indicator to measure the extent of equality between males and females.
Literacy Rate:
· Literacy is a very important quality of a population. According to the Census 2011, a person aged 7
years and above, who can read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate.
· The literacy rate in the country as per the Census of 2011 is 73 per cent; 80.9 per cent for males and
64.6 per cent for females.
Occupational Structure:
· The percentage of population that is economically active is an important index of development.
· Occupational Structure: It is the distribution of the population according to different types of
occupation.
POPULATION
· Occupations are, generally, classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Ø Primary activities: It include agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining and quarrying,
etc.
31
Ø Secondary activities: It include manufacturing industry, building and construction work, etc.
Ø Tertiary activities It include transport, communications, commerce, administration and other
services.
· Developing countries tend to have a higher proportion of their workforce engaged in primary activities.
· In India, about 64 per cent of the population is engaged only in agriculture. The proportion of
population dependent on secondary and tertiary sectors is about 13 and 20 per cent respectively.
Health:
· Health is an important component of population composition, which affects the process of
development.
· Improvements in the Health conditions: In India, Death rates have declined from 25 per 1000
population in 1951 to 7.2 per 1000 in 2011 and life expectancy at birth has increased from 36.7 years
in 1951 to 67.9 years in 2012.
Adolescent Population:
· Adolescents are, generally, grouped in the age group of 10 to 19 years. It constitutes one-fifth of the
total population of India. They are the most important resource for the future.
· Their nutrition requirements are higher than those of a normal child or adult. Poor nutrition can lead to
deficiency and stunted growth.
National Population Policy (NPP):

· The Government of India initiated a comprehensive Family Planning Programme in 1952 by
recognising that the planning of families would improve individual health and welfare.
· The Family Welfare Programme has sought to promote responsible and planned parenthood on a
voluntary basis.
· The NPP 2000 provides a policy framework for imparting free and compulsory school education up to
14 years of age, reducing infant mortality rate to below 30 per 1000 live births, achieving universal
immunisation of children against all vaccine preventable diseases, promoting delayed marriage for
girls, and making family welfare a people-centred programme.
NPP 2000 on Adolescents:
· NPP 2000 identified adolescents as one of the major sections of the population that need greater
attention.
· Besides nutritional requirements, the policy puts greater emphasis on other important needs of
adolescent including protection from unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs).
POPULATION
· It called for programmes that aim towards encouraging delayed marriage and child-bearing, education
of adolescents about the risks of unprotected sex, making contraceptive services accessible and
affordable, providing food supplements, nutritional services, and strengthening legal measures to
prevent child marriage.
32
Interesting points
· Census:
Ø A census is an official enumeration of population done periodically.
Ø In India, the first census was held in the year 1872.
Ø The first complete census was taken in the year 1881. Since then, censuses have been held
regularly every tenth year.
· Sex Ratios in India:
Ø Kerala has a sex ratio of 1084 females per 1000 males.
Ø Puducherry has 1038 females for every 1000 males.
Ø Delhi has only 866 females per 1000 males
Ø Haryana has 877.
POPULATION
33
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
10th Standard
CONTENTS
Resources and Development ...................................................................................................... 1 - 9
Forest and Wildlife Resources ............................................................................................. 10 - 12
Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 13 - 15
Aggriculture ................................................................................................................................. 16 - 23
Mierals and Energy Resources .............................................................................................. 24 - 35
Manufacturing Industries ........................................................................................................ 36 - 47
Lifelines of National Economy ............................................................................................... 48 - 55

RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENT
1
Resources are everything available in the environment which can be used to satisfy human needs provided,
it is technologically accessible, economically feasible and culturally acceptable. Human beings interact with
nature through technology and create institutions to accelerate their economic development.
Fig. 1.1: Interdependent Relationship between Nature, Technology and Institutions
Resources are a function of human activities. Human beings themselves are essential components of
resources. They transform material available in our environment into resources and use them.
Classification of Resources:
· On the basis of Origin – biotic and abiotic.
· On the basis of Exhaustibility – renewable and non-renewable.
· On the basis of Ownership – individual, community, national and international.
· On the basis of Status of Development – potential, developed stock and reserves.
Fig. 1.2: Classification of Resources
1
Types of Resources
On the basis of Origin:
· Biotic Resources: These resources are obtained from biosphere and have life such as human beings,
flora and fauna, fisheries, livestock etc.
· Abiotic resources: These are things which are composed of non-living things such as rocks and
metals.
On the basis of Exhaustibility:
· Renewable (or Replenishable) Resources: These are resources which can be renewed or reproduced
by physical, chemical or mechanical processes. For example – solar, wind energy, water, etc. They may
further be divided into continuous or flow.
· Non-Renewable Resources: These occur over a very long geological time. For example – Minerals,
fossil fuels etc. Some of them like metals are recyclable and some like fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
On the basis of Ownership:

· Individual Resources: These are also owned privately by individual. Such as Plantation, pasture lands,
ponds, water in wells etc.
· Community Owned Resources: These are resources that are accessible to all the members of the
community. For example - Village commons (grazing grounds, village ponds etc.).
· National Resources: Technically, all the resources belong to the nation. All the minerals, water
resources, forests, land within the political boundaries and oceanic area up to 12 nautical miles (22.2
km) from the coast termed as territorial water and resources therein belong to the nation.
· International Resources: The oceanic resources beyond 200 nautical miles of the Exclusive Economic
Zone belong to open ocean and no individual country can utilise these without the concurrence of
international institutions. (ISBA, UNCLOS).
On the basis of the Status of Development:

· Potential Resources: These are those resources which are found in a region but they have not been
utilised. For example - The Western parts of India have not developed the wind and solar energy
properly despite having enormous potential.

· Developed Resources: These are resources which are surveyed and their quality and quantity have
been determined for utilisation. Their development depends on technology and level of their
feasibility.
· Stock: They are the materials in the environment which have the potential to satisfy human needs but
human beings do not have the appropriate technology to access these. For example, Human beings do
not the advanced technology to utilize hydrogen from water as a source of energy.
Ø Reserves: They are the subset of the stock which can be put into use with the help of existing
technical 'know-how' but their use has not been started. For example, River water can be used for
generating hydroelectric power but it is being utilised only to a limited extent.
2
Development of Resource:
Resources are vital for human survival as well as for maintaining the quality of life. Human beings considered
resources are free gift which resulted into indiscriminate use of the resources.
· Depletion of resources for satisfying the greed of a few individuals.
· Accumulation of resources in few hands which divided the society into two segments i.e. haves and
have nots or rich and poor.
· Indiscriminate exploitation of resources has led to global ecological crises such as, global warming,
ozone layer depletion, environmental pollution and land degradation.
Resource Planning:
Resource planning is essential for sustainable existence of all forms of life. Sustainable existence is a
component of sustainable development.
· Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. It has importance in a country
like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources.
· There are some regions which can be considered self sufficient in terms of the availability of resources
and there are some regions which have acute shortage of some vital resources.
· For example - The state of Rajasthan is very well endowed with solar and wind energy but lacks in
water resources.
· A balanced resource planning at national, state, regional and local level is necessary.
Resource Planning in India:
· Resource Planning is a complex process which involves:
Ø Identification and Inventory of resources: Across the regions of the country. It involves surveying,
mapping and qualitative and quantitative estimation and measurement of the resources.
Ø Evolving a Planning Structure: It is endowed with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set
up for implementing resource development plans.
Ø Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.
· India has been working for resources planning since first five year plan.
· Resources can contribute to development only when they are accompanied by appropriate
technological development and institutional changes.
· In India, development, in general, and resource development in particular does not only involve the
availability of resources, but also the technology, quality of human resources and the historical
experiences of the people.

Conservation of Resources:
Then irrational consumption and over-utilisation of resources may lead to socio-economic and
environmental problems. To overcome this problems resource conservation at various level is important.
Land Resources:
· Land is natural resource of utmost importance and supports natural vegetation, wild life, human life,
economic activities, and transport and communication systems.
· In India 43 per cent of the land area is plain, 30 per cent Mountains and about 27 per cent of the area of
the country is the plateau region.
3
Land Use Pattern:
It is determined by:
· Physical factors: Physical factors like topography, climate, soil types.
· Human factors: It includes population density, technological capability and culture and traditions etc.
Categories of Land use pattern:
· Forests
· Land not available for Cultivation:
Ø Barren and waste land.
Ø Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g. buildings, roads, factories, etc.
· Other Uncultivated land (excluding fallow land):
Ø Permanent pastures and grazing land.
Ø Land under miscellaneous tree crops groves (not included in net sown area).
Ø Cultural waste land (left uncultivated for more than 5 agricultural years).
· Fallow Lands: Fallow land includes,
Ø Current fallow-(left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural year).
Ø Other than current fallow-(left uncultivated for the past 1 to 5 agricultural years).
· Net Sown area: The area sown more than once in an agricultural year is called net sown area and it is
also known as gross cropped area.
Land Use Pattern in India:

· Variation of Net Sown Area in states: It is over 80 per cent of the total area in Punjab and Haryana and
less than 10 per cent in Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Andaman Nicobar Islands.
· Forest Area: It is far lower than the desired 33 per cent of geographical area as outlined in the National
Forest Policy (1952).
· Waste Land: It includes rocky, arid and desert areas and land put to other non-agricultural uses
includes settlements, roads, railways, industry etc.
· Land Conservation: Continuous use of land over a long period of time without taking appropriate
measures to conserve and manage it has resulted in land degradation.
Fig. 1.3: Land use pattern in India
4
Land Degradation and Conservation Measures:
· Land Degradation: It is caused by the Mining, over grazing, over irrigation, water logging, formation of
dust which prevents infiltration of water, etc.
· Conservation of Land Degradation: Some of the ways are - Afforestation and proper management of
grazing, Planting of shelter belts of plants, control on over grazing and stabilisation of sand dunes by
growing thorny bushes etc.
Soil as a Resource:
Soil is the most important renewable natural resource and is a living system. The important factors in its
formation are Relief, parent rock or bed rock, climate, vegetation and other forms of life and time. It also
consists of organic (humus) and inorganic materials.
Fig. 1.4: Soil Profile
5
Classification of Soils:
The soils in India are classified into different types on the basis of the factors responsible for soil formation,
colour, thickness, texture, age, chemical and physical properties.
Alluvial Soils:
· Source: These have been deposited by three important Himalayan river systems – the Indus, the
Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
· Regions: It covers entire northern plains, extended through narrow corridor into Gujarat and
Rajasthan, eastern coastal plain particular in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, etc.
· It consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay. The inland soil near the river valley appears
bigger in size and in upper reaches of the river valley, near the place of break of slope, soil are coarse as
found in in piedmont plains such as Duars, Chos and Terai
· Classification based on age: These can be classified as old alluvial (Bangar) and new alluvial
(Khadar). The bangar soil has higher concentration of kanker nodules than the Khadar. The khadar
has more fine particles and is more fertile than the bangar.
· Chemical components: Potash, phosphoric acid and lime.
· Important crops: Sugarcane, paddy, wheat and other cereal and pulse crops.
· Soils in the drier areas are more alkaline.
Black Soil:
· These soils are black in colour and are also known as regur soils. It is ideal for growing cotton and is
also known as black cotton soil. It is made up of lava flows.
· The most important factors for its development are climatic conditions and parent rocks.
· It is made up of extremely fine i.e. clayey material. They are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium
carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime and poor in phosphoric contents.
· Regions: It cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh etc. and extend in
the south east direction along the Godavari and the Krishna valleys.
· They are well-known for capacity to hold water. It is sticky when wet and difficult to work on unless
tilled immediately after the first shower or during the pre-monsoon period.
Red and Yellow Soils:
· Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern parts

of the Deccan plateau.
· These soils develop a reddish colour due to diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks. It
looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
· Regions: They are found in parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, southern parts of the middle Ganga plain
and along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghats.
Laterite Soil:
· Laterite has been derived from the Latin word 'later' which means brick.
· It develops under tropical and subtropical climate with alternate wet and dry season and result of
intense leaching due to heavy rain. It is mostly deep to very deep acidic.
· They are lacking in plant nutrients.
6
· Presence of Humus: It is humus rich where it support deciduous and evergreen forests whereas it
humus poor when under sparse vegetation and in semi-arid environment.
· Areas: They are found in southern states, Western Ghats region of Maharashtra, Odisha, some parts of
West Bengal and North-east regions.
· This soil is very useful for growing tea and coffee. Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala are more suitable for crops like cashew nut.
Arid Soils:
· Arid soils range from red to brown in colour and are generally sandy in texture and saline in nature and
sometime salts can be obtained from it. Soil lacks in humus and moisture.
· Lacks humus and moisture: Due to the dry climate, high temperature, evaporation is faster.
· The lower horizons of the soil are occupied by Kankar because of the increasing calcium content
downwards. Kankar formation prevents water infiltration.
· With proper irrigation this soil can be used for cultivation.
Forest Soil:
· These soils are found in the hilly and mountainous areas where sufficient rain forests are available.
· They are loamy and silty in valley sides and coarse grained in the upper slopes.
· In the snow covered areas of Himalayas, these soils experience denudation and are acidic with low
humus content.
· The soils found in the lower parts of the valleys particularly on the river terraces and alluvial fans are
fertile.
Fig. 1.5: India - Major Soil Types
7
Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation:
Soil Erosion: It is the denudation of the soil cover and subsequent washing down. The processes of soil
formation and erosion go on simultaneously and generally there is a balance between the two.
Reasons for Soil Erosion:
· Natural Reasons: It includes natural forces like wind, glacier and water. The running water cuts
through the clayey soils and makes deep channels called as gullies, due to gullies the land becomes
unfit for cultivation and is known as bad land. In the Chambal basin such lands are called ravines.
· Human Reasons: Deforestation, over-grazing, construction and mining etc.
Various Types of Soil Erosion:
· Sheet Erosion: Sometimes water flows as a sheet over large areas down a slope which wash away the
top soil.
· Wind Erosion: Wind blows loose soil off flat or sloping land.
· Soil erosion is also caused due to defective methods of farming. Like- Wrong ploughing.
Measures to Reduce Soil Erosion:
· Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the contour lines which decelerate the flow of water down the
slopes.
· Terrace Cultivation: Steps can be cut out on the slopes making terraces.
· Strip Cropping: Strips of grass are left to grow between the crops which breaks up the force of the
wind.
· Shelter Belt: Rows of trees planted in lines to create shelter.
Interesting points
· “There is enough for everybody's need and not for any body's greed.” – Gandhiji.
· In India, Land use data is available only for 93 per cent of the total geographical area because:
Ø The land use reporting for most of the north-east states except Assam has not been done fully.
Ø Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir occupied by Pakistan and China have also not

been surveyed.
· India has got the right to mine manganese nodules from the bed of the Indian Ocean from that
area which lies beyond the exclusive economic zone (EEZ).
· Sustainable development: Sustainable economic development means 'development should take
place without damaging the environment, and development in the present should not
compromise with the needs of the future generations.'
· At the international level, the Club of Rome advocated resource conservation for the first time in a
more systematic way in 1968. Gandhian philosophy was presented by Schumacher in his book
Small is Beautiful.
8
· Brundtland Commission Report, 1987: This report introduced the concept of 'Sustainable
Development' and advocated it as a means for resource conservation, which was subsequently
published in a book entitled Our Common Future.
· Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992:
Ø It was the first International Earth Summit which was convened for addressing urgent problems
of environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global level.
Ø The assembled leaders signed the Declaration on Global Climatic Change and Biological
Diversity.
Ø The Rio Convention endorsed the global Forest Principles and adopted Agenda 21 for
achieving Sustainable Development in the 21st century.
· Agenda 21: It is the declaration signed by world leaders in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED), which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It aims at
achieving global sustainable development.
9
FOREST AND WILDLIFE
2 RESOURCES
Humans along with all living organisms form a complex web of ecological system. Forests play a key role in
the ecological system as these are also the primary producers on which all other living beings depend. India
is one of the world's richest countries in terms of its biological diversity.
Flora and Fauna in India:

· It is estimated that at least 10 per cent of India's recorded wild flora and 20 per cent of its mammals are
on the threatened list.
· Many of these have been categorised as 'critical' and are on the verge of extinction, such as:
Ø Animals: Cheetah, pink-headed duck, mountain quail, forest spotted owlet, and
Ø Plants: madhuca insignis (a wild variety of mahua) and hubbardia heptaneuron,(a species of grass).
Different categories of plants and animal species:

The following classification is done based on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN):
· Normal Species: Species whose population levels are considered to be normal for their survival, such
as cattle, sal, pine, rodents, etc.
· Endangered Species: These are species which are in danger of extinction. For example - Asian lion,
Bengal tiger etc.
· Vulnerable Species: These are species whose population has declined to levels from where it is likely
to move into the endangered category in the near future.
· Rare Species: Species with small population may move into the endangered or vulnerable category if
the negative factors affecting them continue to operate. For example - Himalayan brown bear, wild
Asiatic buffalo, desert fox and hornbill, etc.
· Endemic Species: These are species which are only found in some particular areas usually isolated by
natural or geographical barriers. For examples - the Andaman teal, Nicobar pigeon, Andaman wild pig,
mithun in Arunachal Pradesh.
· Extinct Species: These species are not found after searches of known or likely areas where they may
occur. A species may be extinct from a local area, region, country, continent or the entire earth.
FOREST AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES

Examples of such species are the Asiatic cheetah, pink head duck.
Reasons for Depletion of Flora and Fauna:

· Habitat destruction, hunting, poaching, over-exploitation, environmental pollution, poisoning and
forest fires are factors.
· Other causes of environmental destruction are unequal access, inequitable consumption of resources
and differential sharing of responsibility for environmental well-being.
Socio-Cultural Impact of Loss of Forest:
The biological loss is strongly correlated with the loss of cultural diversity.
· Such losses have increasingly marginalised and impoverished many indigenous and other forest-
dependent communities.
10
· Forest communities directly depend on various components of the forest and wildlife for food, drink,
medicine, culture, spirituality, etc.
· Conservation of Forest and Wildlife in India

Conservation preserves the ecological diversity and our life support systems – water, air and soil. It also
preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals for better growth of species and breeding.
Steps Taken to Protect and Conserve Wildlife
· Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: It has various provisions for protecting habitats. An all India list of
protected species was also published. The thrust of the programme was towards protecting the
remaining population of certain endangered species by banning hunting, giving legal protection to
their habitats, and restricting trade in wildlife.
· The central government also announced several projects for protecting specific animals, which were
gravely threatened, including the tiger, the one-horned rhinoceros, etc.
· The plants were also added to the list for the first time in 1991.
Types and Distribution of Forest and Wildlife Resources

In India, much of its forest and wildlife resources are either owned or managed by the government
through the Forest Department or other government departments. These are classified under the
following categories:
· Reserved Forest: These are regarded as the most valuable as far as the conservation of forest and
wildlife resources are concerned. It covers more than half of the total forest land.
· Protected Forests: It covers almost one-third of the total forest area and as declared by the Forest
Department. This forest land are protected from any further depletion.
· Unclassed Forests: These are other forests and wastelands belonging to both government and private
individuals and communities.
Reserved and Protected Forests are also referred to as permanent forest estates maintained for the
purpose of producing timber and other forest produce, and for protective reasons.The largest area under
permanent forests is in Madhya Pradesh.
Community and Conservation

Conservation strategies are not new in India and forests are also home to some of the traditional
communities. In some areas of India, local communities are struggling to conserve these habitats along
with government officials, recognising that only this will secure their own long-term livelihood.
· The famous Chipko movement in the Himalayas has not only successfully resisted deforestation in
several areas but has also shown that community afforestation with indigenous species can be
enormously successful.
· Farmers and citizen's groups like the Beej Bachao Andolan in Tehri and Navdanya have shown that
adequate levels of diversified crop production without the use of synthetic chemicals are possible and
economically viable.
11
· Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme: It furnishes a good example for involving local
communities in the management and restoration of degraded forests. (Odisha passed the first
resolution for joint forest management). It depends on local institutions which took forestation drive
on degraded land, mostly controlled by forest department.
· Sacred Grooves: Nature worship is an age old tribal belief based on the premise that all creations of
nature have to be protected. Such beliefs have preserved several virgin forests in pristine form called
Sacred Groves (the forests of God and Goddesses).
Interesting points
· Biodiversity or Biological Diversity: It is immensely rich in wildlife and cultivated species, diverse
in form and function but closely integrated in a system through multiple network of
interdependencies.
· Asian cheetah: It is world's fastest land mammal and is nearly extinct due to a decline of available
habitat and prey. The species was declared extinct in India long back in 1952.
· The Buxa Tiger Reserve is in West Bengal.
· Enrichment Plantation: In this single commercially valuable species is extensively planted and
other species are eliminated. For instance, teak monoculture has damaged the natural forest in
South India and Chir Pine plantations in the Himalayas have replaced the Himalayan oak and
Rhododendron forests.
· The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana): This is a medicinal plant found in various parts of
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh. A chemical compound called 'taxol' is extracted from
the bark, needles, twigs and roots of this tree, and it has been successfully used to treat some
cancers – the drug is now the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the world.
· “Project Tiger”: It is one of the well-publicised wildlife campaigns for saving tigers and was
launched in 1973.
12
WATER RESOURCES
3
The three fourth surface of the earth is covered with water but only small proportion of it accounts for fresh
water that can be put to use. This freshwater is mainly obtained from surface run off and ground water that is
continually being renewed and recharged through hydrological cycle.
Water Scarcity:
Water scarcity refers to less availability of water for fulfilling human and environment needs.
Quantitative Aspects of Water Scarcity:
· The water availability varies over space and time due to the variations in seasonal and annual
precipitation. For example - drought are common in Rajasthan.
· Mostly water scarcity is caused by over-exploitation, excessive use and unequal access to water
among different social groups.
· Growing Population: It leads to greater domestic demands for food grains. Irrigation requires lot of
water and infact agriculture is biggest consumer of water.
· Falling Groundwater Level: Irrigation is one of the main reason behind it. Falling groundwater levels
may adversely affect water availability and food security of the people.
· Increasing Urbanisation and Industrialisation: It increased water demand manifold as multiplying
urban centres with large and dense populations and urban lifestyles have not only added to water and
energy requirements but have further aggravated the problem.
Qualitative Aspects of Water Scarcity:
· The quality of the water is decreasing due to the pollution by domestic waste, industrial wastes,
chemicals, fertilisers used in agriculture which makes it hazardous for human use.
· India's major rivers are highly polluted like Yamuna and Ganga which makes them unfit for human
consumption.
Water Conservation and Management

Multi-Purpose River Projects and Rainwater harvesting are some major techniques of Water
Conservation and Management.
Multi-Purpose River Projects:

· In ancient times construction of structures like dams built of stone rubble, reservoirs or lakes,
embankments and canals for irrigation were built.
· Considered Vehicle of Development: They has been constructed since independence for
conservation and integrated water management.
WATER RESOURCES
· They are meant for irrigation, electricity generation, water supply for domestic and industrial uses,
flood control, recreation, inland navigation and fish breeding.
· Example of Multi-Purpose Rivers: The Bhakra – Nangal in the Sutluj-Beas river basin and the
Hirakud project in the Mahanadi basin.
Issues with Large Dams and Multi-Purpose Projects:
· The regulating and damming of rivers affect their natural flow causing poor sediment flow and
13
excessive sedimentation at the bottom of the reservoir, resulting in rockier stream beds and poorer
habitats for the rivers' aquatic life.
· Sedimentation also meant that the flood plains were deprived of silt, a natural fertiliser which adds to
the problem of land degradation.
· Dams fragment rivers which makes it difficult for aquatic fauna to migrate.
· The reservoirs that are created on the floodplains also submerge the existing vegetation and soil
leading to its decomposition over a period of time.
· Large-Scale Displacement of Local Communities: It led to various environment movements like
'Narmada Bachao andolan', Tehhri dam Andolan.
· Irrigation has also changed the cropping pattern of many regions with farmers shifting to water
intensive and commercial crops. It led to ecological consequences like salinisation of the soil.
· Increased Social Inequality: Irrigation has also increased the social gap between the richer
landowners and the landless poor.
· Inter-State Water Disputes: They are also becoming common with regard to sharing the costs and
benefits of the multi-purpose project.
· The dams that have triggered floods due to sedimentation in the reservoir. Also, the big dams have
mostly been unsuccessful in controlling floods at the time of excessive rainfall.
· They also induced earthquakes, caused water-borne diseases and pests and pollution resulting from
excessive use of water.
WATER RESOURCES
Fig. 3.1: India- Major Rivers and Dams
14
Rainwater Harvesting:
It is a viable alternative, both socio-economically and environmentally.
· In ancient India people had developed wide ranging techniques to harvest rainwater, groundwater,
river water and flood water in keeping with the local ecological conditions and water needs.
· In Hill and Mountainous Regions: People built diversion channels like the 'guls' or 'kuls' of the
Western Himalayas for agriculture.
· Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting': It was commonly practised to store drinking water, particularly in
Rajasthan.
· In the Flood Plains of Bengal: People developed inundation channels to irrigate their fields.
· In Arid and Semi-Arid Regions: Agricultural fields were converted into rain fed storage structures that
allowed the water to stand and moisten the soil like the 'khadins' in Jaisalmer and 'Johads' and
traditional underground water storage like tankas in Rajsthan. Rainwater, or palar pani, as commonly
known in these parts is considered the purest form of natural water.
Interesting points
· Some Important Water Conservation Techniques in Ancient India:

Ø In the first century B.C., Sringaverapura near Allahabad had sophisticated water harvesting
system channelling the flood water of the river Ganga.
Ø In the 14th Century, the tank in Hauz Khas, Delhi was constructed by Iltutmish for supplying
water to Siri Fort area.
· Sardar Sarovar Dam: It has been built over the Narmada River in Gujarat. It covers four
states—Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan.
· Narmada Bachao Andolan or Save Narmada Movement: It is a Non Governmental Organisation
(NGO) that mobilised tribal people, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against
the Sardar Sarovar Dam.
· Krishna-Godavari Dispute: It is due to the objections raised by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh
governments. It is regarding the diversion of more water at Koyna by the Maharashtra government
for a multipurpose project.
· Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the dams as the 'temples of modern India'.
WATER RESOURCES
15
AGRICULTURE
4
Agriculture is a primary activity which produces food grains, raw material for various industries etc. Two-
thirds of India's population is engaged in agricultural activities.
Types of Farming:
Over the years, cultivation methods have changed significantly depending upon the characteristics of
physical environment, technological know-how and socio-cultural practices. At present, in different parts
of India, the following farming systems are practised:
Primitive Subsistence Farming:
· Primitive subsistence agriculture is practised on small patches of land with the help of primitive tools
like hoe, dao and digging sticks, and family or community labour.
· It depends upon monsoon, natural fertility of the soil and suitability of other environmental conditions
to the crops grown.
· Slash and Burn' Agriculture: Farmers clear a patch of land and produce cereals and other food crops to
sustain their family. The shifting allows nature to replenish the fertility of the soil through natural
processes. Here the land productivity is low as the farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern
inputs.
· Different Names of Primitive Subsistence Farming
In India In World
· Bewar or Dahiya: Madhya Pradesh · Milpa: Mexico and Central America

· Podu or Penda: Andhra Pradesh
· Conuco: Venzuela
· Pama Dabi or Koman or Bringa: Odisha
· Kumari: Western Ghats · Roca: Brazil
· Valre or Waltre: South-eastern Rajasthan · Masole: Central Africa
· Khil: Himalayan belt
· Ladang: Indonesia
· Kuruwa: Jharkhand
· Jhumming: North-eastern states namely Assam, · Ray: Vietnam
Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
· Pamlou: Manipur
· Dipa: Bastar (Chhattishgarh), Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
Intensive Subsistence Farming:

AGRICULTURE
· This type of farming is practised in areas of high population pressure on land.

· It is labour-intensive farming where high doses of biochemical inputs and irrigation are used for
obtaining higher production.
16
Issues in Indian Farming: Right to inheritance leads to division of land among successive
generations has rendered land-holding size uneconomical. Farmers are continuously taking
increased output from limited land resources which is leading to increased pressure on land.
Commercial Farming:
· The main characteristic of this type of farming is the use of higher doses of modern inputs, e.g., high
yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides in order to obtain higher
productivity.
· The degree of commercialisation of agriculture varies from one region to another. For example – Rice is
a commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab whereas it is a subsistence crop in Odisha.
· Plantation: It is one type of commercial agriculture, in this type of farming, a single crop is grown on a
large area. The plantation has an interface of agriculture and industry. Some of the features of
Plantation are:
Ø Plantations cover large tracts of land, using capital intensive inputs, with the help of migrant
labourers. All the produce is used as raw material in respective industries.
Ø In India, tea, coffee, rubber, sugarcane, banana, etc., are important plantation crops. Tea in Assam
and North Bengal and coffee in Karnataka and Bamboo in north eastern states.
Ø Production is mainly for market: A well-developed network of transport and communication
connecting the plantation areas, processing industries and markets plays an important role in the
development of plantations.
Cropping Pattern
· The physical diversities and plurality of cultures in India are reflected in agricultural practices and
cropping patterns in India.
· Various types of food and fibre crops, vegetables and fruits, spices and condiments, etc. constitute
some of the important crops grown in India.
· India has three Cropping Seasons — Rabi, Kharif and Zaid.
Rabi Season:
· Rabi crops are sown in winter from October to December and harvested in summer from April to June.
· Important Crops:
Ø Cereals: Wheat and barley.
Ø Pulses: Peas and gram.
Ø Oil seeds: Mustard.
· Major producing states: States from the north and north-western parts such as Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh.
· The western temperate cyclone, also called western disturbances, helps in to grow these crops in
AGRICULTURE
these states as it brings rainfall.

· The Green revolution in Punjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan has also been
an important factor in the growth of the abovementioned rabi crops.
17
Kharif Crops:
· kharif crops are grown with the onset of monsoon in different parts of the country and these are
harvested in September-October.
· Important Crops:
Ø Cereals: Paddy, maize, jowar, bajra.
Ø Pulses: Tur (arhar), moong, urad.
Ø Fibre crops: Cotton and jute.
Ø Oil seeds: Groundnut and soyabean.
· Important Rice Growing Regions: Assam, West Bengal, coastal regions of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Maharashtra.
· In staes like Assam, West Bengal and Odisha, three crops of paddy are grown in a year and varities are
called Aus, Aman and Boro.
Zaid Season:
· Zaid season is the short season during the summer season between the rabi and the kharif seasons.
· Important Crops: Watermelon, muskmelon, cucumber, vegetables and fodder crops. Sugarcane takes
almost a year to grow.
Major Crops
· A variety of food and non food crops are grown in India which depends upon the variations in soil,
climate and cultivation practices.
· Major crops grown in India are rice, wheat, millets, pulses, tea, coffee, sugarcane, oil seeds, cotton and
jute, etc.
Rice:
· It is the staple food crop of a majority of the people in India. India is the second largest producer of rice
in the world after China.
· Necessary Conditions: It is a kharif crop which requires high temperature, (above 25°C) and high
humidity with annual rainfall above 100 cm.
· Major Producing States: It is grown in the plains of north and north-eastern India, coastal areas and
the deltaic regions.
· Development of dense network of canal irrigation and tubewells have made it possible to grow rice in
areas of less rainfall such as Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh and parts of Rajasthan.
Wheat:
· Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in north and north-western part of India.
· Conditions: It is a rabi crop which requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of
ripening. It requires 50 to 75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing season.
AGRICULTURE
· Major Producing States: Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Rajasthan.
There are two important wheat-growing zones in India – The Ganga-Satluj plains in the North-West
and black soil region of the Deccan.
18
Millets:
These are known as coarse grains and have very high nutritional value. Jowar, bajra and ragi are the
important millets grown in India.
Ragi:
· High Nutritional Value: This is very rich in iron, calcium, other micro-nutrients and roughage.
· It is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils.
· Major Producing States: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Jharkhand
and Arunachal Pradesh.
Jowar:
· It is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly needs irrigation. It is the third most
important food crop with respect to area and production.
· Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
Bajra:
· It grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil.
· Major Producing States: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana.
Maize:
· It is a kharif crop which requires temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil.
In some states like Bihar maize is grown in rabi season also.
· It is a crop which is used both as food and fodder.
· Its production has increased due to the use of modern inputs such as HYV seeds, fertilisers and
irrigation.
· Major Producing States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh and
Telangana.
Pulses:
· Pulses need less moisture and they survive even in dry conditions. Being leguminous crops, all these
crops except arhar help in restoring soil fertility by fixing nitrogen from the air. These are mostly
grown in rotation with other crops.
· These are the major source of protein. Major pulses that are grown in India are tur (arhar), urad,
moong, masur, peas and gram. India is the largest producer as well as the consumer of pulses in the
world.
· Major Producing States: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.
Food Crops other than Grains

AGRICULTURE
Sugarcane:
· It is a tropical as well as a subtropical crop.
· Conditions:
Ø It grows well in hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual rainfall
19
between 75cm. and 100cm. Irrigation is required in the regions of low rainfall.
Ø It can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting.
· India is the second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil and is the main source of sugar, gur
( jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
· Major Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana.
Oil Seeds:
· Different oil seeds are grown covering approximately 12 per cent of the total cropped area of India.
· Most of these are edible and used as cooking mediums but some of these are also used as raw material
in the production of soap, cosmetics and ointments.
· Main oil-seeds produced in India are groundnut, mustard, coconut, sesamum (til), soyabean, castor
seeds, cotton seeds, linseed and sunflower.
Ø Groundnut:
o It is a kharif crop and accounts for about half of the major oilseeds produced in India.
o In 2016 India was the second largest producer of groundnut in the world after china.
o Major groundnut producing states: Gujarat was the largest producer followed by Rajasthan
and Andhra Pradesh.
Ø Other Oil Seeds:
o Linseed and Mustard are rabi crops.
o Sesamum is a kharif crop in north and rabi crop in south India.
o Castor seed is grown both as rabi and kharif crop.
o In rapeseed production India was third largest producer in the world after Canada and China in
2016.
Plantation Crops:
Tea:
· It is an important beverage crop introduced in India initially by the British.
· Conditions:
Ø The tea plant grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile
well-drained soil and rich in humus and organic matter.
Ø Tea bushes require warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year. Frequent showers
evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves.
· Labour-intensive industry: It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
· Tea is processed within the tea garden to restore its freshness.
AGRICULTURE
· Major Producing States: Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu
and Kerala. They are also produced in Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh
and Tripura.
20
Coffee:
· Indian coffee is known in the world for its good quality.
· The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country and Initially its cultivation
was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to the Nilgiri in
Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Horticulture Crops:
· In 2016, India was the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world after China. India is
a producer of tropical as well as temperate fruits.
· India is an important producer of pea, cauliflower, onion, cabbage, tomato, brinjal and potato.
· There is great demands of:
Ø Mangoes of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
Ø Oranges of Nagpur and Cherrapunjee (Meghalaya).
Ø Bananas of Kerala, Mizoram, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Ø Lichi and guava of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Ø Pineapples of Meghalaya.
Ø Grapes of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra.
Ø Apples, Pears, Apricots and Walnuts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.
Non-Food Crops
Rubber:
· It is an equatorial crop, but under special conditions, it is also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
It is an important industrial raw material.
· Conditions: It requires moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and temperature
above 25°C.
· Major Producing States: It is mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya.
Fibre Crops:
· Cotton, jute, hemp and natural silk are the four major fibre crops grown in India. The first three are
derived from the crops grown in the soil and the silk is obtained from cocoons of the silkworms fed on
green leaves specially mulberry.
· Rearing of silk worms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
Cotton:
AGRICULTURE
· It is a kharif crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature.

· India is believed to be the original home of the cotton plant. India was second largest producer of
cotton after China.
· Conditions: Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan plateau. It requires
21
high temperature, light rainfall or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth.
· Major Producing States: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
Jute:
· Jute is known as the golden fibre.
· Conditions: It grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed
every year and high temperature is required during the time of growth.
· Major Producing States: West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya.
· It is used in making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets and other artefacts.
· It is losing market due to high cost to synthetic fibres and packing materials such as the nylon.
Issues with Indian Agriculture:

· Technological Issues: Sustained uses of land without compatible techno-institutional changes have
hindered the pace of agricultural development.
· Monsoon Dependent: Most of the farmers in large parts of the country still depend upon monsoon and
natural fertility in order to carry on their agriculture.
· Land Fragmentation: The inheritance right had lead to fragmentation of land holdings.
· Small and Marginal Farmers: Indian agriculture is dominated by small and marginal land holding
which impact the overall agricultural development.
· Investments and Other Issues: Farmers are withdrawing their investment from agriculture causing a
downfall in the employment in agriculture. The growth rate in agriculture has been decelerating.
Reduction in import duties on agricultural products have proved detrimental to agriculture in the
country.
Institutional and Technological Reforms:
· The collectivisation, consolidation of holdings, cooperation and abolition of zamindari, etc. were given
priority to bring about institutional reforms in the country after Independence. Land reform was the
main focus of our First Five Year Plan.
· The Green Revolution based on the use of package technology and the White Revolution (Operation
Flood) were some of the strategies initiated to improve the situation.
· Important Policy Inititiatives: In the 1980s and 1990s, a comprehensive land development
programme was initiated. It includes the provision for crop insurance against drought, flood, cyclone,
fire and disease, establishment of Grameen banks, cooperative societies and banks for providing loan
facilities to the farmers at lower rates of interest.
· Institutional Credit Facilities: Kissan Credit Card (KCC), Personal Accident Insurance Scheme (PAIS)
AGRICULTURE
were introduced. The government also announces minimum support price, remunerative and
procurement prices for important crops to check the exploitation of farmers by speculators and
middlemen.
22
Other Ways to Improve Agriculture:
· Efforts to Modernise Agriculture: Establishment of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR),
agricultural universities, veterinary services and animal breeding centres, horticulture development,
research and development in the field of meteorology and weather forecast.
· To make Agriculture Successful and Profitable: Proper thrust should be given to the improvement of
the condition of marginal and small farmers.
· Indian farmers should diversify their cropping pattern from cereals to high-value crops. This will
increase incomes and reduce environmental degradation. India's diverse climate can be harnessed to
grow a wide range of high-value crops.
Impact of Globalisation on Agriculture:

· In the nineteenth century when European traders came to India, Indian spices were exported to
different countries of the world and farmers of south India were encouraged to grow these crops.
· During the British period cotton belts of India attracted the British and ultimately cotton was exported
to Britain as a raw material for their textile industries.
· Cotton textile industry in Manchester and Liverpool flourished due to the availability of good quality
cotton from India.
· Under globalisation, particularly after 1990, the farmers in India have been exposed to new challenges.
Despite being an important producer of rice, cotton, rubber, tea, coffee, jute and spices our agricultural
products are not able to compete with the developed countries because of the highly subsidised
agriculture in those countries.
Interesting points
· Vinobha Bhave: Mahatma Gandhi declared Vinoba Bhave as his spiritual heir. He was one of the
votaries of Gandhi's concept of gram swarajya.
· Bhoodan: Once, when Vinoba Bhave was delivering a lecture at Pochampalli in Andhra Pradesh,
some poor landless villagers demanded some land for their economic well-being. Suddenly, Shri
Ram Chandra Reddy stood up and offered 80 acres of land to be distributed among 80 land-less
villagers. This act was known as 'Bhoodan'.
· Gramdan: Some zamindars, owners of many villages offered to distribute some villages among
the landless. It was known as Gramdan.
· The Bhoodan-Gramdan movement initiated by Vinoba Bhave is also known as the Blood-less
AGRICULTURE
Revolution.
· Genetic engineering is recognised as a powerful supplement in inventing new hybrid varieties of
seeds.
23
MINERALS AND ENERGY RESOURCES
5
The earth's crust is made up of different minerals embedded in the rocks. Various metals are extracted from
these minerals after proper refinement. They are an indispensable part of the lives of human.
Mineral:
· Geologists define mineral as a “homogenous, naturally occurring substance with a definable
internal structure.” They are found in varied forms in nature ranging from the hardest diamond to the
softest talc.
· Rocks: They are combinations of homogenous substances called minerals. Some rocks such as
limestone consist of a single mineral only but majority of the rock consist of several minerals in varying
proportions.
· A particular mineral that will be formed from a certain combination of elements depends upon the
physical and chemical conditions under which the material forms. This results in a wide range of
colours, hardness, crystal forms, lustre and density of particular minerals.

Mode of Occurrence of Minerals:
· Minerals are usually found in “ores” (ore is used to describe an accumulation of any mineral mixed with
other elements).
· The mineral content of the ore must be in sufficient concentration to make its extraction commercially
viable.
· The type of formation or structure determines the relative ease with which mineral ores may be mined.
Forms of Minerals
Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:
· In igneous and metamorphic rocks, minerals may occur in the cracks, crevices, faults or joints. The
smaller occurrences are called veins and the larger are called lodes.
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· Mostly they are formed when minerals in liquid/ molten and gaseous forms are forced upward through
cavities towards the earth's surface. They cool and solidify as they rise.
· Major metallic minerals like tin, copper, zinc and lead etc. are obtained from veins and lodes.
Sedimentary Rocks:
· In sedimentary rocks, a number of minerals occur in beds or layers and they have been formed as a
result of deposition, accumulation and concentration in horizontal strata.
· Coal and some forms of iron ore have been concentrated as a result of long periods under great heat
and pressure.
· Another group of sedimentary minerals include gypsum, potash salt and sodium salt. These are
formed as a result of evaporation especially in arid regions.
Decomposition of Surface Rocks and the Removal of Soluble Constituents:
It leave a residual mass of weathered material containing ores. This way is used to produce Bauxite.
Placer Deposits:
· Certain minerals may occur as alluvial deposits in sands of valley floors and the base of hills.
· Generally it contain minerals which are not corroded by water.
· Gold, silver, tin and platinum are most important among such minerals.
Minerals in Ocean:
· The ocean waters contain vast quantities of minerals but most of these are too widely diffused to be of
economic significance.
· The common salt, magnesium and bromine are largely derived from ocean waters.
· The ocean beds, too, are rich in manganese nodules.
Minerals in India:
Fig. 5.2: India: Distribution of Iron Ore, Manganese, Bauxite and Mica
25
India is fortunate to have fairly rich and varied mineral resources which are are unevenly distributed.
· The Peninsular rocks contain most of the reserves of coal, metallic minerals, mica and many other non-
metallic minerals. Rajasthan with the rock systems of the peninsula, has reserves of many non-ferrous
minerals.
· Sedimentary rocks on the western and eastern flanks of the peninsula, in Gujarat and Assam have
most of the petroleum deposits.
· The vast alluvial plains of north India are almost devoid of economic minerals.
These variations exist largely because of the differences in the geological structure, processes and time
involved in the formation of minerals.
Factors Affecting Economic Viability of Minerals:

· The concentration of mineral in the ore.
· The ease of extraction.
· The closeness to the market.
When this is done a mineral 'deposit' or 'reserve' turns into a mine.
Major Minerals in India

Ferrous Minerals:
· It accounts three-fourth of total metallic minerals and provide a strong base for the development of
metallurgical industries.
· India exports substantial quantities of ferrous minerals after meeting her internal demands.
Iron Ore:
· Its is basic mineral and considered as backbone of the modern industrial development.
· India is rich in good quality iron ores.
· Types of Iron Ore:
Ø Magnetite: It is the finest iron ore with a very high content of iron up to 70 per cent. It has excellent
magnetic qualities, especially valuable in the electrical industry.

Ø Hematite: It is the most important industrial iron ore in terms of the quantity used but has a slightly
lower iron content than magnetite. (50-60 per cent).
Major Iron Ore Belts in India:

· Odisha-Jharkhand Belt: In Odisha high grade hematite ore is found in Badampahar mines in the
Mayurbhanj and Kendujhar districts. In the adjoining Singbhum district of Jharkhand haematite iron ore
is mined in Gua and Noamundi.
· Durg-Bastar -Chandrapur belt: It lies in Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. Very high grade hematites
are found in the Bailadila range of hills in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh. The range of hills super
high grade hematite iron ore. It has the best physical properties needed for steel making. Iron ore from
26
these mines is exported to Japan and South Korea via Vishakhapatnam port.
· Ballari-Chitradurga-ChikkamagaluruTumakuru belt: It lies in Karnataka and has large reserves of
iron ore. The Kudremukh mines located in the Western Ghats of Karnataka are a 100 per cent export
unit. Kudremukh deposits are known to be one of the largest. The ore is transported as slurry through a
pipeline to a port near Mangaluru.
· Maharashtra-Goa belt: it includes the state of Goa and Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra. Though, the
ores are not of very high quality, yet they are efficiently exploited. Iron ore is exported through
Marmagao port.
Fig. 5.3: Production of iron ore

Fig. 5.4: Production of Manganese
27
Manganese:
· Manganese is mainly used in the manufacturing of steel and ferro-manganese alloy. Nearly 10 kg of
manganese is required to manufacture one tonne of steel.
· It is also used in manufacturing bleaching powder, insecticides and paints.
Non-Ferrous Minerals:
· India's reserves and production of non- ferrous minerals is not very satisfactory.
· These minerals, which include coppe bauxite, lead, zinc and gold play a vital role in a number of
metallurgical, engineering and electrical industries.
Copper:
· India is critically deficient in the reserve and production of copper.
· It is mainly used in electrical cables, electronics and chemical industries as copper is malleable, ductile
and a good conductor.
· Leading Producers: The Balaghat mines in Madhya Pradesh, Khetri mines in Rajasthan and
Singhbhum district of Jharkhand.
Bauxite:
· Though, several ores contain aluminium, it is from bauxite, a clay-like substance that alumina and later
aluminium is obtained.
· Bauxite deposits are formed by the decomposition of a wide variety of rocks rich in aluminium
silicates.
· Aluminium is an important metal because it combines the strength of metals such as iron, with extreme
lightness and also with good conductivity and great malleability.
· Major bauxite Deposits: They are mainly found in the Amarkantak plateau, Maikal hills and the plateau
region of Bilaspur-Katni. Odisha was the largest bauxite producing state where the Panchpatmali
deposits in Koraput district are the most important.
Fig. 5.5: Production of Bauxite
28
Non-Metallic Minerals
Mica:
· Mica is a mineral made up of a series of plates or leaves and it splits easily into thin sheets.
· Properties: Excellent di-electric strength, low power loss factor, insulating properties and resistance
to high voltage.
· Due to such properties mica is one of the most indispensable minerals used in electric and electronic
industries.
· Important Mica Deposits:
Ø They are are found in the northern edge of the Chota Nagpur plateau and Koderma Gaya –
Hazaribagh belt of Jharkhand is the leading producer.
Ø In Rajasthan, the major mica producing area is around Ajmer.
Ø Nellore mica belt of Andhra Pradesh.
Rock Minerals
Limestone:
· It is found in association with rocks composed of calcium carbonates or calcium and magnesium
carbonates.
· It is found in sedimentary rocks of most geological formations.
· It is the basic raw material for the cement industry and essential for smelting iron ore in the blast
furnace.
Fig. 5.6: Production of Limestone
29
Hazards of Mining:
· The dust and noxious fumes inhaled by miners make them vulnerable to pulmonary diseases.
· The risk of collapsing mine roofs, inundation and fires in coalmines are a constant threat to miners.
· The water sources in the region get contaminated due to mining.
· Dumping of waste and slurry leads to degradation of land, soil, and increase in stream and river
pollution.
Conservation of Minerals:
· Need for Conservation:
Ø Slow Rate of Replenishment: As the geological processes of mineral formation are slow. Mineral
resources are finite and non-renewable.
Ø Continued extraction of ores leads to increasing costs as mineral extraction comes from greater
depths along with decrease in quality.
· Steps to Conserve Minerals:
Ø Planned and sustainable use of resources.
Ø Improved technologies need to be constantly evolved to allow use of low grade ores at low costs.
Ø Recycling of metals and using scrap metals and other substitutes.
Energy Resources:
· Energy can be generated from fuel minerals like coal, petroleum, natural gas, uranium and from
electricity.
· Classification of Energy Resources:.
Ø Conventional Sources: It includes firewood, cattle dung cake, coal, petroleum, natural gas and
electricity (both hydel and thermal).
Ø Non-Conventional Sources: It includes solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, biogas and atomic energy.
Firewood and cattle dung cake are most common in rural India.
Conventional Energy Resources

Coal:
· In India, coal is the most abundantly available fossil fuel.
· It is used for power generation, fulfil energy needs to industry as well as for domestic needs.
· The coal is a bulky material which loses weight on use as it is reduced to ash. Hence, heavy industries
and thermal power stations are located on or near the coalfields.
· In India coal occurs in rock series of two main geological ages:
Ø Gondwana: They are a little over 200 million years in age. They are metallurgical coal and are
located in Damodar valley (West Bengal and Jharkhand). The important coalfields are Jharia,
Raniganj and Bokaro. The Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valleys also contain coal deposits.
Ø Tertiary deposits: These are only about 55 million years old and occur in the north eastern states of
Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland.
· It is formed due the compression of plant material over millions of years and hence it is found in a
30
variety of forms depending on the degrees of compression and the depth and time of burial.
Ø Peat: It is produced by the decaying plants and has a low carbon, high moisture contents and low
heating capacity.
Ø Lignite: It is a low grade brown coal which is soft with high moisture content. The principal lignite
reserves are in Neyveli in Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of electricity.
Ø Bituminous: This coal has been buried deep and subjected to increased temperatures. It is the most
popular coal in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high grade bituminous coal which has a special
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces.
Ø Anthracite: It is the highest quality hard coal.
Petroleum:
· The Petroleum or mineral oil is the next major energy source in India after coal.
· It provides fuel for heat and lighting, lubricants for machinery and raw materials for a number of
manufacturing industries.
· Petroleum refineries act as a “nodal industry” for synthetic textile, fertiliser and numerous chemical
industries.
· Occurrence of Petroleum:
Ø In India, most of them are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the rock formations of the
tertiary age. In regions of folding, anticlines or domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the crest of
the upfold.
Ø The oil bearing layer is a porous limestone or sandstone through which oil may flow.
Ø The oil is prevented from rising or sinking by intervening non-porous layers.
Ø Petroleum is also found in fault traps between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas, being lighter
usually occurs above the oil.
· Major Petroleum Production Areas: Mumbai High, Gujarat and Assam. Ankeleshwar is the most
important field of Gujarat and Assam is the oldest oil producing state of India. Digboi, Naharkatiya and
Moran-Hugrijan are the important oil fields in the Assam.
Natural Gas:
· It is an important clean energy resource found in association with or without petroleum. It is used as
industrial raw material in the petrochemical industry.
· Environment Friendly: As it has low carbon dioxide emissions.
· Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered in the Krishna-Godavari basin.
· Along the west coast the reserves of the Mumbai High and allied fields are supplemented by finds in
the Gulf of Cambay. Andaman and Nicobar islands also has large reserves of natural gas.
· The 1700 km long Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur cross country gas pipeline links Mumbai High and
Bassien with the fertilizer, power and industrial complexes in Western and Northern India.
31
Fig. 5.7: India: Distribution of Coal, Oil and Natural Gas
Electricity:
· It has such a wide range of applications in today's world that, its per capita consumption is considered

as an index of development.
· Electricity is generated mainly in two ways:
Ø Hydro Electricity: It is is generated by fast flowing water, which is a renewable resource. India has a
number of multi-purpose projects like the Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley corporation, the Kopili
Hydel Project etc. producing hydroelectric power.
Ø Thermal Electricity: It is generated by using coal, petroleum and natural gas. The thermal power
stations use non-renewable fossil fuels for generating electricity.
Non-Conventional Sources of Energy

Need of Non-Conventional Sources of Energy:
· Dependence on Fossil Fuels: As there is growing consumption of energy in the country.
· Uncertainties about the Security of Energy: Due to rising prices of oil and gas and their potential
32
shortages.
· The usage of fossil fuels also causes serious environmental problems.
There is a pressing need to use renewable energy sources like solar energy, wind, tide, biomass and
energy from waste material. These are called nonconventional energy sources.
Nuclear or Atomic Energy:
· It is obtained by altering the structure of atoms. When such an alteration is made, much energy is
released in the form of heat and this is used to generate electric power.
· Uranium and Thorium are available in Jharkhand and the Aravalli ranges of Rajasthan and are used
for generating atomic or nuclear power. The Monazite sands of Kerala is also rich in Thorium.
Solar Energy:
· Photovoltaic technology converts sunlight directly into electricity.
· India is a tropical country and has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy.
· Some big solar power plants are being established in different parts of India which will minimise the
dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes, which in turn will contribute to
environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture.
Wind Power:
· India has great potential of wind power.
· The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and Lakshadweep have also important wind farms.
Biogas:
· It is produced by shrubs, farm waste, animal and human waste for domestic consumption in rural
areas.
· Decomposition of organic matter yields gas, which has higher thermal efficiency as compared to
kerosene, dung cake and charcoal.
· Gobar Gas Plants: The plants which use cattle dung in rural India. It provide twin benefits to the farmer
in the form of energy and improved quality of manure.
· It prevents the loss of trees and manure due to burning of fuel wood and cow dung cakes.
Tidal Energy:
· Use of Oceanic Tides: Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water flows into the inlet
and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the water retained
by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating turbine.
· In India the Gulf of Khambhat, the Gulf of Kuchchh in Gujarat on the western coast and Gangetic delta
in Sunderban regions of West Bengal provide ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy.
Geo Thermal Energy:
· It refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
· Where the geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater
in such areas absorbs heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earth's
surface, it turns into steam. This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity.
· Two Experimental Projets in India: Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the Puga
33
Valley, Ladakh.

Fig. 5.8: India: Distribution of Nuclear and Thermal Power Plants
Conservation of Energy Resources:

· There is an urgent need to develop a sustainable path of energy development.
· Promotion of energy conservation and increased use of renewable energy sources are the twin planks
of sustainable energy.
· There is a need to adopt a cautious approach for the judicious use of limited energy resources.
34
Interesting points
· Abrasive minerals like silica, limestone, aluminium oxide and various phosphate minerals do the
cleaning in toothpaste. The sparkle in some toothpastes comes from mica.
· Fluoride is used to reduce cavities comes from a mineral fluorite.
· Titanium Oxide: It is used to made toothpaste and comes from minerals called rutile, ilmenite and
anatase.
· The mineral intake represents only about 0.3 per cent of our total intake of nutrients.
· In Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron ore, limestone and dolomite etc.
· Rat-Hole Mining:
Ø Coal mining in Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member in the form of a long narrow
tunnel, known as 'Rat hole' mining.
Ø The National Green Tribunal has declared such activities illegal.
· Kudre in Kannada means horse. The highest peak in the western ghats of Karnataka resembles
the face of a horse. The Bailadila hills look like the hump of an ox, and hence its name is Bailadila.
35
6 MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Manufacturing is the Production of goods in large quantities after processing from raw materials to more
valuable products. People employed in the secondary activities manufacture the primary materials into
finished goods such as the workers employed in steel factories, car, breweries, etc. The economic strength of
a country is measured by the development of manufacturing industries.
Importance of Manufacturing:
Manufacturing sector is considered the backbone of development in general and economic development
in particular mainly because:
· Manufacturing industries help in modernising agriculture and reduce the heavy dependence of
people on agricultural income by providing them jobs in secondary and tertiary sectors.
· Industrial development is a precondition for eradication of unemployment and poverty from India.
This was the main philosophy behind public sector industries and joint sector ventures in India. It was
aimed at bringing down regional disparities by establishing industries in tribal and backward areas.
· Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce, and brings in much needed foreign
exchange.
· Countries that transform their raw materials into a wide variety of finished goods of higher value are
prosperous. India's prosperity lies in increasing and diversifying its manufacturing industries as
quickly as possible.
Relation between Agriculture and Industry:

· Agriculture and industry are not exclusive of each other and move hand in hand. For example - The
agro-industries in India have given a major boost to agriculture by raising its productivity.
· The industries depends on agriculture for raw materials and sell their products such as irrigation
pumps, fertilisers, insecticides, pesticides, plastic and PVC pipes, tools, etc.
· Development and competitiveness of manufacturing industry has assisted agriculturists in increasing
their production and made the production processes very efficient.
Contribution of Industry to National Economy:

· In last two decades, the share of manufacturing sector has stagnated at 17 per cent of GDP – out of a MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
total of 27 per cent for the industry which includes 10 per cent for mining, quarrying, electricity and
gas.
· This is much lower in comparison to some East Asian economies, where it is 25 to 35 per cent.
· Since 2003, manufacturing is growing at the rate of 9 to 10 per cent per annum.
Industrial Location:
· Industrial locations are complex in nature and are influenced by availability of raw material, labour,
36
capital, power and market, etc.
Fig: 6.1: Industry – Market Linkage
· It is rarely possible to find all these factors available at one place. Consequently, manufacturing activity
tends to locate at the most appropriate place where all the factors of industrial location are either
available or can be arranged at lower cost.
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· The industrialisation and urbanisation go hand in hand. Cities provide markets and also provide
services such as banking, insurance, transport, labour, consultants and financial advice, etc to the
industry.
· Many industries tend to come together to make use of the advantages offered by the urban centres
known as agglomeration economies. Gradually, a large industrial agglomeration takes place.
· The key to decision of the factory location is the least cost. Government policies and specialised labour
also influence the location of industry.
37
Fig: 6.2: Ideal Location for industries
· In the Pre-Independence period, most manufacturing units were located in places from the point of
view of overseas trade such as Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, etc. Consequently, there emerged certain
pockets of industrially developed urban centres surrounded by a huge agricultural rural hinterland.
Classification of Industries
On the Basis of Source of Raw Materials Used:
· Agro Based: Cotton, woollen, jute, silk textile, rubber and sugar, tea, coffee, edible oil.
· Mineral Based: Iron and steel, cement, aluminium, machine tools, petrochemicals.
According to their main role:
· Basic or key Industries: These are those which supply their products as raw materials to manufacture
other goods e.g. iron and steel and copper smelting, aluminum smelting.
· Consumer Industries: They produce goods for direct use by consumers – sugar, toothpaste, paper,
sewing machines, fans etc.
On the Basis of Capital Investment: MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· A Small Scale industry: It is defined with reference to the maximum investment allowed on the assets
of a unit. At present the maximum investment allowed is rupees one crore.
On the Basis of Ownership:
· Public Sector: They are owned and operated by government agencies such as BHEL, SAIL etc.
· Private Sector Industries: They are owned and operated by individuals or a group of individuals such
as TISCO, Bajaj Auto Ltd., Dabur Industries.
· Joint Sector Industries: They are jointly run by the state and individuals or a group of individuals such
38
as Oil India Ltd. (OIL).
· Cooperative Sector industries: They are owned and operated by the producers or suppliers of raw
materials, workers or both. They pool in the resources and share the profits or losses proportionately.
For example - The sugar industry in Maharashtra, the coir industry in Kerala.
Based on the Bulk and Weight of Raw Material and Finished Goods:
· Heavy industries such as iron and steel.
· Light industries that use light raw materials and produce light goods such as electrical goods
industries.
Agro-Based Industries:
Cotton, jute, silk, woollen textiles, sugar and edible oil, etc. industries are based on agricultural raw materials.
Textile Industry:
· It contributes significantly to industrial production, employment generation and foreign exchange
earnings.
· It is the only industry in India which is self-reliant and complete in the value chain i.e., from raw
material to the highest value added products.
Fig. 6.3: Value addition in the textile industry

Cotton Textiles:
· In ancient India, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and handloom weaving techniques.
· After the 18th century, power-looms came into use and our traditional industries suffered a setback
during the colonial period because they could not compete with the mill-made cloth from England.
· In the early years, the cotton textile industry was concentrated in the cotton growing belt of
Maharashtra and Gujarat due to availability of raw cotton, market, transport including accessible port
facilities, labour, moist climate, etc.
· This industry has close links with agriculture and provides a living to farmers, cotton boll pluckers and
39
workers engaged in ginning, spinning, weaving, dyeing, designing, packaging, tailoring and sewing.
· The industry by creating demands supports many other industries, such as, chemicals and dyes,
packaging materials and engineering works.
· Exporting areas: India exports yarn to Japan and other cotton goods to U.S.A., U.K., Russia, etc.
Issues with Cotton Textile Industry:
· Mismatch between demand and supply: Most of the production is in fragmented small units which
cater to the local market. As a result, many of spinners export cotton yarn while apparel/garment
manufactures have to import fabric.
· Power supply is erratic and machinery is outdated in the weaving and processing sectors.
· There is low output of labour.
· It has stiff competition with the synthetic fibre industry.
Fig. 6.4: Distribution of cotton, woollen and silk industries in India
40
Jute Textiles:
· India is the largest producer of raw jute and jute goods and stands at second place as an exporter after
Bangladesh.
· Most of the mills are located in West Bengal mainly along the banks of the Hugli river in a narrow belt.
The main factors responsible for their location in the Hugli basin are:
Ø Availability of Inputs: Proximity of the jute producing areas and abundant water for processing raw
jute.
Ø Transportation: There is inexpensive water transport which is supported by a good network of
railways, roadways and waterways to facilitate movement of raw material to the mills.
Ø Availability of Labour: There is cheap labour from West Bengal and adjoining states of Bihar,
Odisha and Uttar Pradesh.
Ø Infrastructure: Kolkata as a large urban centre provides banking, insurance and port facilities for
export of jute goods.
Challenges faced by the Industry: It Includes stiff competition in the international market from synthetic
substitutes and from other competitors like Bangladesh, Brazil, Philippines, Egypt and Thailand. To
stimulate demand, the products need to be diversified.
Opportunities: The growing global concern for environment friendly, biodegradable materials, has
opened the opportunity for jute products.
The internal demand has been on the increase due to the Government policy of mandatory use of jute
packaging.
Sugar Industry:
· India is the second largest producer of sugar and occupies the first place in the production of gur and
khandsari.
· The raw material used in this industry is bulky and its sucrose content reduces in haulage.
· This industry is seasonal in nature and it is ideally suited to the cooperative sector.
· In recent years, there is a tendency for the mills to shift and concentrate in the southern and western
states, especially in Maharashtra because:
Ø The cane produced has a higher sucrose content.

Ø The cooler climate ensures a longer crushing season.
Ø The cooperatives are more successful in these states.
· Location of Mills: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,
Punjab, Haryana and Madhya Pradesh. Sixty per cent mills are located in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
· Major Challenges: The challenges include: the seasonal nature of the industry, old and inefficient
methods of production, transport delay in reaching cane to factories and the need to maximise the use
of baggase.
41
Mineral-based Industries:
These are the industries that use minerals and metals as raw materials.
· The iron and steel industry is the basic industry since all the other industries (heavy, medium and light)
depend on it for their machinery.
· It is a heavy industry because all the raw materials as well as finished goods are heavy and bulky
entailing heavy transportation costs.
· Production and consumption of steel is often regarded as the index of a country's development.
Fig. 6.5: Process of Manufacture of Steel
· Iron ore, coking coal and lime stone are required in the ratio of approximately 4 : 2 : 1 to manufacture
steel. Some quantities of manganese, are also required to harden the steel.
· Steel is needed to manufacture a variety of engineering goods, construction material, defence,
medical, telephonic, scientific equipment and a variety of consumer goods. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· The per capita consumption of steel is low in India as compared to the world.
· In 2018, India ranked 2nd among the world crude steel producers and is the largest producer of
sponge iron.
· China is the largest producer as well as largest consumer of steel.
· Maximum concentration of Iron and Steel industries: It is found in Chhotanagpur plateau because
low cost of iron ore, high grade raw materials in proximity, cheap labour and vast growth potential in
the home market.
42
Fig. 6.6: Iron and Steel Plants in India
Unrealised Potential of India:

India is not able to perform to its full potential due to:
· High costs and limited availability of coking coal.

· Lower productivity of labour.
· Irregular supply of energy.
· Poor infrastructure.
Aluminium Smelting:
· Aluminium smelting is the second most important metallurgical industry in India.
· Properties: It is light, resistant to corrosion, a good conductor of heat, malleable and becomes strong
43
when it is mixed with other metals.
· Regular supply of electricity and an assured source of raw material at minimum cost are the two prime
factors for location of the industry.
· Bauxite, the raw material used in the smelters is a very bulky, dark reddish coloured rock.
Fig. 6.7: Process of Manufacturing in Aluminium Industry
· It is used to manufacture aircraft, utensils and wires.

· It has gained popularity as a substitute of steel, copper, zinc and lead in a number of industries.
· Location of Aluminium Smelting Plants: Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Chemical Industries:
· The Chemical industry in India is fast growing and diversifying. It comprises both large and small scale
manufacturing units.
· The chemical industry is its own largest consumer. Basic chemicals undergo processing to further
produce other chemicals that are used for industrial application, agriculture or directly for consumer
markets. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
· Classification of Chemicals:
Ø Inorganic Chemicals: It includes sulphuric acid (used to manufacture fertilizers, synthetic fibres,
plastics, adhesives, paints, dyes stuffs), nitric acid, alkalies, soda ash (used to make glass, soaps and
detergents, paper) and caustic soda. These industries are widely spread over the country.
Ø Organic Chemicals: It includes petrochemicals, which are used for manufacturing of synthetic
fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, dye-stuffs, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Organic chemical plants
are located near oil refineries or petrochemical plants.
44
Fertilizer Industry:
· The fertilizer industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers (mainly urea),
phosphatic fertilizers and ammonium phosphate (DAP) and complex fertilizers which have a
combination of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P), and potash (K).
· The potash is entirely imported as India does not have any reserves of commercially usable potash or
potassium compounds in any form.
· Fetilizer Producting States: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Kerala contribute half of
India's fertilizer production.
Cement Industry:
· Cement is essential for construction activity such as building houses, factories, bridges, roads, airports,
dams and for other commercial establishments.
· This industry requires bulky and heavy raw materials like limestone, silica and gypsum.
· Coal, electric power and rail transportation are crucial for cement industry.
· The cement industry has strategically located plants in Gujarat that have suitable access to the
market in the Gulf countries.
Automobile Industry:
· Automobiles provide vehicle for quick transport of good services and passengers.
· Trucks, buses, cars, motor cycles, scooters, three-wheelers and multi-utility vehicles are manufactured
in India at various centres.
· The liberalisation has led to the healthy growth of the industry.
· Location of Industries: Delhi, Gurugram, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, Lucknow, Indore,
Hyderabad, Jamshedpur and Bengaluru.
Information Technology and Electronics Industry:

· The electronics industry covers a wide range of products such as transistor sets, television, cellular
telecom, telephone exchange, radars, computers etc.
· Bengaluru has emerged as the electronic capital of India.

· Important Centres for Electronic Goods: Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow and Coimbatore.
· A major impact of this industry has been on employment generation. The continuing growth in the
hardware and software is the key to the success of IT industry in India.
Industrial Pollution and Environmental Degradation

Air Pollution:
45
· It is caused by the presence of high proportion of undesirable gases and unwanted particles such as
sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide.
· Airborne particulate materials contain both solid and liquid particles like dust, sprays mist and smoke.
· Toxic gas leaks can be very hazardous with long-term effects.
Water Pollution:
· It is caused by organic and inorganic industrial wastes and affluents discharged into rivers.
· Major Polluting Industries: Paper, pulp, chemical, textile and dyeing, petroleum refineries, tanneries
and electroplating industries.
· The polluting industries let out dyes, detergents, acids, salts and heavy metals like lead and mercury
pesticides, fertilisers, synthetic chemicals with carbon, plastics and rubber, etc. into the water bodies.
· Fly ash, phospo- gypsum and iron and steel slags are the major solid wastes in India.
Thermal Pollution:
Thermal pollution of water occurs when hot water from factories and thermal plants is drained into rivers
and ponds before cooling.
Noise Pollution:
· It causes irritation, anger, hearing impairment, increased heart rate and blood pressure among other
physiological effects.
· Unwanted sound is an irritant and a source of stress.
· It is also created by the Industrial and construction activities, machinery, generators, etc.
Control of Environmental Degradation

Ways to Reduce the Industrial Pollution of Fresh Water:
· Minimising use of water for processing by reusing and recycling it in two or more successive stages.
· Harvesting of rainwater to meet water requirements.
· Treating hot water and effluents before releasing them in rivers and ponds. Treatment of industrial
effluents can be done in three phases: MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
Ø Primary Treatment: It is done by mechanical means and involves screening, grinding, flocculation
and sedimentation.
Ø Secondary Treatment: It is done by biological process.
Ø Tertiary Treatment: It is done by biological, chemical and physical processes and involves recycling
of wastewater.
· There is a need to regulate overdrawing of ground water reserves by industry.
46
Other ways of Reducing Pollution:
· To reduce Air Pollution:
Ø Particulate matter in the air can be reduced by fitting smoke stacks to factories with electrostatic
precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers and inertial separators.
Ø Smoke can be reduced by using oil or gas instead of coal in factories.
· To reduce Noise Pollution:
Ø Machinery and equipment can be used and generators should be fitted with silencers. Almost all
machinery can be redesigned to increase energy efficiency and reduce noise.
Ø Noise absorbing material may be used.
Interesting points
· The first successful textile mill was established in Mumbai in 1854.

· The first jute mill was set up near Kolkata in 1855 at Rishra. After Partition in 1947, the jute mills
remained in India but three-fourth of the jute producing area went to Bangladesh (erstwhile East
Pakistan).
· The first cement plant was set up in Chennai in 1904.
· Mini Steel Plants: They are smaller, have electric furnaces, use steel scrap and sponge iron. They
have re-rollers that use steel ingots as well. They produce mild and alloy steel of given
specifications.
· An integrated steel plant is large, handles everything in one complex – from putting together raw
material to steel making, rolling and shaping.
· Every litre of waste water discharged by our industry pollutes eight times the quantity of
freshwater.
· NTPC is a major power providing corporation in India. It has ISO certification for EMS
(Environment Management System) 14001.
· The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of economic development with

environmental concerns.
47
7 LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
The pace of development of a country depends upon the production of goods and services as well as their
movement over space. Therefore, efficient means of transport are prerequisites for fast development.
Means of Transport:
Movement of goods and services can be over three important domains of earth i.e. land, water and air.
Based on these, transport can also be classified into land, water and air transport.
Fig. 7.1: Means of Transportation
Relation between Transport and Trade:

· Transport has been able to connect global village with the help of equally developed communication
system. Therefore, transport, communication and trade are complementary to each other.
· A dense and efficient network of transport and communication is a prerequisite for local, national and
global trade.
The modern means of transport and communication serve as lifelines of India.
Roadways:
India has one of the largest road networks in the world, aggregating to about 56 lakh km. In India,
LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
roadways have preceded railways.
Importance of Road transport vis-à-vis Rail transport:
· Low Construction cost: The Construction cost of roads is much lower than that of railway lines.
· Ease of Movement:
Ø Roads can traverse comparatively more dissected and undulating topography.
Ø Roads can negotiate higher gradients of slopes and can traverse mountains such as the Himalayas.
· Economicial for short distance: Road transport is economical in transportation of few persons and
relatively smaller amount of goods over short distances.
48
· Low Handling Cost: It provides door-to-door service, thus the cost of loading and unloading is much
lower.
· Feeder to other modes of Transport: Road transport provides a link between railway stations, air and
sea ports.
Classification of Roads according to their Capacity:

In India, roads are classified in the following six classes.
Golden Quadrilateral Super Highways:
· The government has launched a major road development project linking Delhi-Kolkata-Chennai-
Mumbai and Delhi by six-lane Super Highways.
· It includes:
Ø The North-South corridors linking Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir) and Kanniyakumari (Tamil Nadu).
Ø The East-West Corridor connecting Silchar (Assam) and Porbander (Gujarat).
· Major Objective: To reduce the time and distance between the mega cities of India.
· Implementing Agency: The National Highway Authority of India (NHAI).
Fig. 7.2: National Highways
49
National Highways:
· It links extreme parts of India and are the primary road systems.
· These are laid and maintained by the Central Public Works Department (CPWD).
· A number of major National Highways run in North-South and East-West directions.
· The historical Sher-Shah Suri Marg is called National Highway No.1, between Delhi and Amritsar.
State Highways:
· These are roads linking a state capital with different district headquarters.
· These roads are constructed and maintained by the State Public Works Department (PWD) in State
and Union Territories.
District Roads:
· These roads connect the district headquarters with other places of the district.
· These roads are maintained by the Zila Parishad.
Other Roads:
· These includes rural roads, which link rural areas and villages with towns.
· These roads received special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri Grameen Sadak Yojana.
Ø Under this scheme special provisions are made so that every village in the country is linked to a
major town in the country by an all season motorable road.
Border Roads:
· The Border Roads Organisation (Government of India undertaking) constructs and maintains roads in
the bordering areas of India.
Ø This organisation was established in 1960 for the development of the roads of strategic importance
in the Northern and North-Eastern border areas.
· These roads have improved accessibility in areas of difficult terrain and have helped in the economic
development of these area.
Railways:
· Railways are the principal mode of transportation for freight and passengers in India.
· It make it possible for people to conduct multifarious activities like business, sightseeing, pilgrimage
along with transportation of goods over longer distances.
· Railway has been considered great integrating force for more than 150 years.
· Railways in India bind the economic life of India as well as accelerate the development of the industry
and agriculture.
· The Indian Railway is now reorganised into 16 zones. (According to NCERT).
Distribution Pattern of the Railway Network in India:
It has been largely influenced by physiographic, economic and administrative factors.
· The Northern Plains: It has vast level land, high population density and rich agricultural resources
which provides the most favourable condition for their growth. However, a large number of rivers
requiring construction of bridges across their wide beds posed some obstacles.
· The Hilly Terrains of the Peninsular Region: The railway tracts are laid through low hills, gaps or
50
tunnels.
· The Himalayan Mountainous Regions: It is unfavourable for the construction of railway lines due to
high relief, sparse population and lack of economic opportunities.
· Konkan Railway: It lies along the west coast and has facilitated the movement of passengers and
goods in this most important economic region of India. It has also faced a number of problem such as
sinking of track in some stretches and landslides.
· Other areas with difficulty to lay Railway Lines: On the sandy plain of western Rajasthan, swamps of
Gujarat, forested tracks of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Jharkhand.
Challenges for Railways:
· Many passengers travel without tickets.
· Thefts and damaging of railway property.
· People stop the trains and pull the chain unnecessarily which cause heavy damage to the railway.
Pipelines:
· Pipeline transport network is a new arrival on the transportation map of India.
· Apart from water transportation it has been now used for transporting crude oil, petroleum products
and natural gas from oil and natural gas fields to refineries, fertilizer factories and big thermal power
plants.
· Solids can also be transported through a pipeline when converted into slurry.
· The far inland locations of refineries like Barauni, Mathura, Panipat and gas based fertilizer plants
could be thought of only because of pipelines.
· Initial cost of lying pipelines is very high but but subsequent running costs are minimal. It rules out
trans-shipment losses or delays.
Three important Networks of Pipeline Transportation in India:
· From oil field in Upper Assam to Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh): It passes through Guwahati, Barauni and
Allahabad. It has branches from Barauni to Haldia, via Rajbandh, Rajbandh to Maurigram and
Guwahati to Siliguri.
· From Salaya in Gujarat to Jalandhar in Punjab: It passes through Viramgam, Mathura, Delhi and
Sonipat. It has branches to connect Koyali (near Vadodara, Gujarat) Chakshu and other places.
· Gas pipeline from Hazira in Gujarat connects Jagdishpur in Uttar Pradesh: It passes through Vijaipur
in Madhya Pradesh. It has branches to Kota in Rajasthan, Shahajahanpur, Babrala and other places in
Uttar Pradesh.
Waterways:
· Advantages:
Ø Waterways are the cheapest means of transport.
Ø They are most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky goods.
Ø It is a fuel-efficient and environment friendly mode of transport.
· India has inland navigation waterways of 14,500 km in length. Out of these only 5685 km are
51
navigable by mechanised vessels.
National Waterways (NW) of India:
· NW No 1: The Ganga river between Allahabad and Haldia (1620 km).
· NW No 2: The Brahmaputra river between Sadiya and Dhubri (891 km).
· NW No 3: The West-Coast Canal in Kerala (Kottapurma-Kollam, Udyogamandal and Champakkara
canals-205 km).
· NW No 4: Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada Puducherry stretch
of canals (1078 km).
· NW No 5: Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of Mahanadi
and Brahmani rivers and East Coast Canal (588 km).
· Some other inland water ways on which substantial transportation takes place are Mandavi, Zuari and
Cumberjua, Sunderbans, Barak and backwaters of Kerala.
Major Ports:
· With a long coastline of 7,516.6 km, India is dotted with 13 major and 200 notified non-majors
(minor/intermediate) ports.
· These major ports handle 95 per cent of India's foreign trade.
Ports on Western Coast:
· Kandla in Kuchchh:
Ø It was the first port developed soon after Independence to ease the volume of trade on the Mumbai
port , in the wake of loss of Karachi port to Pakistan after the Partition.
Ø It is also known as the Deendayal Port and is a tidal port.
Ø It caters to the convenient handling of exports and imports of highly productive granary and
industrial belt stretching across the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.
· Mumbai: It is the biggest port with a spacious natural and well-sheltered harbour.
· The Jawaharlal Nehru Port: It was planned with a view to decongest the Mumbai port and serve as a
hub port for this region.
· Marmagao Port (Goa): It is the premier iron ore exporting port of India and accounts for about fifty per
cent of India's iron ore export.
· New Mangalore Port (Karnataka): It caters to the export of iron ore concentrates from Kudremukh
mines.
· Kochchi: It is the extreme south-western port, located at the entrance of a lagoon with a natural
harbour.
Ports on Eastern Coast:
· Tuticorin (Tamil Nadu):
Ø It is extreme south-eastern port and has a natural harbour and rich hinterland.
Ø It has a flourishing trade handling of a large variety of cargoes to even neighbouring countries like
Sri Lanka, Maldives, etc. and the coastal regions of India.
· Chennai: It is one of the oldest artificial ports of India and is ranked next to Mumbai in terms of the
52
volume of trade and cargo.
· Vishakhapatnam: It is the deepest landlocked and well-protected port. It was originally conceived as
an outlet for iron ore exports.
· Paradwip Port (Odisha): It specialises in the export of iron ore.
· Kolkata: It is an inland riverine port and serves a very large and rich hinterland of Ganga-Brahmaputra
basin. It is a tidal port and requires constant dredging of Hoogly.
· Haldia Port: It was developed as a subsidiary port in order to relieve growing pressure on the Kolkata
port.
Airways:
· The air travel is the fastest, most comfortable and prestigious mode of transport.
· It can cover very difficult terrains like high mountains, dreary deserts, dense forests and also long
oceanic stretches with great ease.
· The air transport was nationalised in 1953.
· Air India: It provides domestic and international air services.
· Pawanhans Helicopters Ltd: It provides helicopter services to Oil and Natural Gas Corporation in its
off-shore operations, to inaccessible areas and difficult terrains like the north-eastern states and the
interior parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
· Issues: Air travel is not within the reach of the common people.
Communication:
· There are different means of communication and the pace of change has been rapid in modern times.
· Long distance communication is far easier without physical movement of the communicator or
receiver.
· Personal communication and mass communication including television, radio, press, films, etc. are the
major means of communication in the country.
· The Indian postal network is the largest in the world.
Ø It handles parcels as well as personal written communications.
Ø First-class Mail: These are cards and envelopes and are airlifted between stations covering both
land and air.
Ø Second-class Mail: It includes book packets, registered newspapers and periodicals. They are
carried by surface mail, covering land and water transport.

Ø To facilitate quick delivery of mails in large towns and cities, six mail channels have been introduced
recently. They are called Rajdhani Channel, Metro Channel, Green Channel, Business Channel, Bulk
Mail Channel and Periodical Channel.
Telecom:
· India has one of the largest telecom networks in Asia. Excluding urban places more than two-thirds of
the villages in India have already been covered with Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD) telephone
facility.
53
· The government has made special provision to extend twenty-four hours STD facility to every village
in the country to strengthen flow of information from grassroot level to higher level.
· There is a uniform rate of STD facilities all over India.
· It has been made possible by integrating the development in space technology with communication
technology.
Mass Communication:
· It provides entertainment and creates awareness among people about various national programmes
and policies.
· It includes radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books and films.
· All India Radio (Akashwani): It broadcasts a variety of programmes in national, regional and local
languages for various categories of people.
· Doordarshan, the national television channel of India, is one of the largest terrestrial networks in the
world.
· India publishes a large number of newspapers and periodicals annually. Newspapers are published in
about 100 languages and dialects.
· India is the largest producer of feature films in the world. The Central Board of Film Certification is the
authority to certify both Indian and foreign films.
International Trade:
· International Trade: It is the exchange of goods between two countries which may take place through
sea, air or land routes.
· Advancement of international trade of a country is an index to its economic prosperity. It is, therefore,
considered the economic barometer for a country.
· Export and import are the components of trade.
Ø Balance of Trade of a country: It is the difference between its export and import.
Ø Favourable Balance of Trade: When the value of export exceeds the value of imports.
Ø Unfavourable Balance of Trade: If the value of imports exceeds the value of exports.
· Commodities exported from India: Gems and jewellery, chemicals and related products, agriculture
and allied products, etc. LIFELINES OF NATIONAL ECONOMY
· Commodities imported to India: Petroleum crude and products, gems and jewellery, chemicals and
related products, base metals, electronic items, machinery, agriculture and allied products.
Tourism as a Trade:
· More than 15 million people are directly engaged in the tourism industry.
· Tourism promotes national integration, provides support to local handicrafts and cultural pursuits.
· Foreign tourists visit India for heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure tourism, cultural tourism,
medical tourism and business tourism.
54
Interesting points
· The Indian Railways is the largest public sector undertaking in the country.
· The first train steamed off from Mumbai to Thane in 1853, covering a distance of 34 km.
· Digital India Programme:
Ø It is an umbrella programme to prepare India for a knowledge based transformation.
Ø Its focus is on being transformative to realise – IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information
Technology)=IT (India Tomorrow) and is on making technology central to enabling change.
55
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
11th Standard
Fundamentals of Physical Geography
CONTENTS
Geography as a Discipline ........................................................................................................... 1 - 3
The Origin and the Evolution of the Earth .............................................................................. 4 - 9
Interior of the Earth ................................................................................................................... 10 - 18
Distribution of Oceans and Continents .............................................................................. 19 - 27
Minerals and rocks .................................................................................................................... 28 - 31
Geomorphic Processes ............................................................................................................ 32 - 41
Landforms and their Evolution .............................................................................................. 42 - 56
Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere ............................................................... 57 - 59
Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temperature ............................................................ 60 - 66
Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems .............................................................. 67 - 77
Water in the Atmosphere ...................................................................................................... 78 - 82
World Climate and Climate Change .................................................................................... 83 - 90
Water (Oceans) .......................................................................................................................... 91 - 98
Movements of Ocean Water ............................................................................................... 99 - 105
Life on the Earth ................................................................................................................... 106 - 118

GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
1
Geography is described as description of the earth. Geography as an independent subject learn about
the physical environment of the earth, human activities, and their interactive relationships. It derives its
data base from all the natural and social sciences and attempts their synthesis.
Geography as a discipline is concerned with three sets of questions:

· Distributional and Locational aspect:
Ø Some questions are related to the identification of the patterns of natural and cultural features
as found over the surface of the earth. These are the questions about what?
Ø Some questions are related to the distribution of the natural and human/ cultural features over
the surface of the earth. These are the questions about where?
· Scientific discipline:
Ø It is related to the explanation or the causal relationships between features and the processes
and phenomena. This aspect of geography is related to the question, why?
Geography as an Integrating Discipline:

· Geography is a discipline of synthesis and attempts spatial synthesis.
· Its approach is holistic in nature and recognises the fact that the world is a system of
interdependencies.
· Geography as an integrating discipline has interface with numerous natural and social sciences.
· It attempts to comprehend the associations of phenomena as related in sections of reality.
· All the branches of physical geography have interface with natural sciences.
· All the social science disciplines, viz. sociology, political science, economics, and demography study
different aspects of social reality.
· The branches of geography, viz. social, political, economic and population and settlements are
closely linked with these disciplines as each one of them has spatial attributes.
Fig. 1.1: Geography and its relations with other disciplines
1
Major approaches to study Geography:
· Systematic Geography approach:

Ø It was introduced by Alexander Von Humboldt, a German geographer (1769-1859).
Ø The phenomenon is studied world over as a whole, and then the identification of typologies or
spatial patterns is done.
· Regional Geography approach:

Ø It was developed by another German geographer Karl Ritter (1779-1859).
Ø The world is divided into regions at different hierarchical levels and then all the geographical
phenomena in a particular region are studied.
Branches of the Geography (Based of Schematic Approach)

Physical Geography:
· Geomorphology: It is devoted to the study of landforms, their evolution, and related processes.
· Climatology: It encompasses the study of structure of atmosphere and elements of weather and
climates and climatic types and regions.
· Hydrology: It studies the realm of water over the surface of the earth including oceans, lakes, rivers
and other water bodies and its effect on different life forms including human life and their activities.
· Soil Geography: It is devoted to study the processes of soil formation, soil types, their fertility
status, distribution, and use.
Human Geography:
· Social/Cultural Geography: It encompasses the study of society and its spatial dynamics as well as
the cultural elements contributed by the society.
· Population and Settlement Geography (Rural and Urban): Its studies population growth,
distribution, density, sex ratio, migration, and occupational structure etc. Settlement geography
studies the characteristics of rural and urban settlements.
· Economic Geography: It studies economic activities of the people including agriculture, industry,
tourism, trade, and transport, infrastructure, and services, etc.
· Historical Geography: It studies the historical processes through which the space gets organised.
Every region has undergone some historical experiences before attaining the present-day status.
The geographical features also experience temporal changes, and these form the concerns of
historical geography.
· Political Geography: It looks at the space from the angle of political events and studies boundaries,
space relations between neighbouring political units, delimitation of constituencies, election
scenario and develops theoretical framework to understand the political behaviour of the
population.
2
Fig. 1.2: Branches of geography based on Systematic Approach
Biogeography:
The interface between physical geography and human geography has leads to the development of
Biogeography which includes:
· Plant Geography: It studies the spatial pattern of natural vegetation in their habitats.
· Zoo Geography: It studies the spatial patterns and geographic characteristics of animals and their
habitats.
· Ecology /Ecosystem: It deals with the scientific study of the habitat's characteristic of species.
· Environmental Geography: It concerns world over leading to the realisation of environmental
problems such as land gradation, pollution and concerns for conservation has resulted in the
introduction of this new branch in geography.
Interesting points
· The term geography was first coined by Eratosthenese, a Greek scholar (276-194 BC.). The word
has been derived from two roots from Greek language geo (earth) and graphos (description). Put
together, they mean description of the earth.
· Soils are formed through the process known as pedogenesis.
3
THE ORIGIN AND THE
2 EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH
The world which is present today has not been same from time immemorial. It has continuously changed as a
result of evolution of the earth.
Early Theories of Evolution

Origin of The Earth: A large number of hypothesis were put forth by different philosophers and scientists
regarding the origin of the earth.
· One of the earlier and popular arguments was given by German philosopher Immanuel Kant which
was revised by the mathematician Laplace in 1796. It is known as Nebular Hypothesis.
Ø The hypothesis considered that the planets were formed out of a cloud of material associated with
a youthful sun, which was slowly rotating.
· In 1900, Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a wandering star approached the sun. As a result,
a cigar-shaped extension of material was separated from the solar surface.
Ø As the passing star moved away, the material separated from the solar surface continued to revolve
around the sun and it slowly condensed into planets.
Ø Sir James Jeans and later Sir Harold Jeffrey supported this argument.
· Binary theories: The arguments considered of a companion to the sun to have been coexisting.
· In 1950, Otto Schmidt and Carl Weizascar revised the 'nebular hypothesis' and considered that:
Ø The sun was surrounded by solar nebula containing mostly the hydrogen and helium along with
what may be termed as dust.
Ø The friction and collision of particles led to formation of a disk-shaped cloud and the planets were
formed through the process of accretion.
Modern Theories of Evolution
Origin of the Universe:
The scientists in later period took up the problems of origin of universe rather than that of just the earth or
the planets.
Big Bang Theory:
· It is most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe and is also called expanding universe
THE ORIGIN AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

hypothesis.
· Edwin Hubble, in 1920, provided evidence that the universe is expanding.
· The distance between the galaxies is found to be increasing and thereby, the universe is considered to
be expanding.
Development of the Universe as per Big Bang Theory:
· In the beginning: All matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball”
(singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature, and infinite density.
Fig. 2.1: The Big Bang
4
· At the Big Bang:
Ø The “tiny ball” exploded violently which led to a huge expansion.
Ø It is generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present.
Ø The expansion continues even to the present day and as it grew, some energy was converted into
matter.
Ø There was particularly rapid expansion within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the
expansion has slowed down.
Ø Within first three minutes from the Big Bang event, the first atom began to form.
· Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang: The temperature dropped to 4,500 K (Kelvin) and gave rise
to atomic matter. The universe became transparent.
Hoyle's concept of steady state:
It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time. However, with greater evidence
becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific community at present favours argument of
expanding universe.
Formation of Star:
· Formation of Stars: A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form of a very
large cloud called nebula. Eventually, growing nebula develops localised clumps of gas which continue
to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to formation of stars. The formation of stars is
believed to have taken place some 5-6 billion years ago.
· Basis of development of Galaxies: The distribution of matter and energy was not even in the early
universe which gave rise to differences in gravitational forces, and it caused the matter to get drawn
together.
Galaxy: It contains a large number of stars and spread over vast distances that are measured in
thousands of light-years. Its diameter ranges from 80,000-150,000 light years.
Formation of Planets:
· First Stage: The gravitational force within the gas lumps leads to the formation of a core to the gas
cloud and a huge rotating disc of gas and dust develops around the gas core.
· Second Stage:
Ø The gas cloud starts getting condensed and the matter around the core develops into small-
rounded objects which further developed into planetesimals by cohesion.
Ø Larger bodies start forming by collision, and gravitational attraction causes the material to stick
together. Planetesimals are a large number of smaller bodies.
· Third Stage: The planetesimals accrete to form a fewer large body in the form of planets.
The Solar System:

· It consists of the Sun (the star), 8 Planets, 63 Moons, millions of smaller bodies like asteroids and
comets and huge quantity of dust-grains and gases.
5
· It is supposed to be formed from the nebula which started its collapse and core formation around 5-
5.6 billion years ago and the planets were formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
Table 2.1: The Solar System
· Types of Planets:
Inner Planets Outer Planets
They include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and They include other four planets, and all lie outside the
Mars as they lie between the Sun and belt of Asteroids
the belt of Asteroids
They are Terrestrial (earth-like) as they They are called Jovian (Jupiter-like) or gas giant

are made up of rock and metals and have planets.
relatively high densities.
They are smaller in size. Most of them are much larger than the terrestrial
planets and have thick atmosphere, mostly of helium
and hydrogen.
Reasons for the Differences in Terrestrial and Jovian Planets:

· Location: The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too
warm for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at quite a distant location.
· Solar Winds: It was most intense nearer the sun. So, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the
terrestrial planets whereas it was not that intense to cause similar removal of gases from the Jovian
planets.
· Size: The terrestrial planets are smaller, and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping gases.
The Moon: The moon is the only natural satellite of the earth.
6
Theories Related to Origin of the Moon:
· In 1838, Sir George Darwin suggested that initially, the earth and the moon formed a single rapidly
rotating body. The whole mass became a dumb-bell-shaped body and eventually it broke. It was also
suggested that the material forming the moon was separated from the depression occupied by the
Pacific Ocean.
· The Big Splat (the giant impact): A one to three times size of mars, body collided into the earth shortly
after the earth was formed and blasted a large part of the earth into space. This portion of blasted
material then continued to orbit the earth and eventually formed into the present moon about 4.44
billion years ago.
Evolution of the Earth:

Initially the earth was a barren, rocky and hot object with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. The life
evolved on the surface of the earth between the 4,600 million years and the present. The earth has a
layered structure. The material is not uniform from the outermost end of the atmosphere to the centre of the
earth.
Evolution of the Lithosphere:
· In primordial stage, the earth was volatile. Due to gradual increase in density the temperature inside it
has increased. As a result, the material inside the earth started getting separated depending on their
densities which allowed heavier materials (like iron) to sink towards the centre of the earth and the
lighter ones to move towards the surface.
· With passage of time, material get cooled further and solidified and condensed into a smaller size
which led to the development of the outer surface in the form of a crust.
· The earth was further heated up during the formation of the moon. Due to differentiation, the earth
forming material got separated into different layers.

· The earth has layers like crust, mantle, outer core, and inner core from the surface to the central parts.
The density of the material increases from the crust to the core.
Evolution of Atmosphere and Hydrosphere:

The present earth's atmosphere composition is chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen. There are three
stages in the evolution of the present atmosphere.
· First Stage: It is marked by the loss of primordial atmosphere.
Ø The primordial atmosphere, consisted of hydrogen and helium, is supposed to have been stripped
off as a result of the solar winds.
· Second Stage: The hot interior of the earth contributed to the evolution of the atmosphere.
Ø During the cooling of the earth, gases and water vapour were released from the interior solid earth.
Ø The early atmosphere largely contained water vapour, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane,
ammonia and very little of free oxygen.
Ø Degassing is the process through which the gases were outpoured from the interior.
Ø Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed water vapour and gases to the atmosphere.
7
Ø The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved in rainwater and the temperature further
decreased causing more condensation and more rains.
Ø The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected in the depressions to give rise to oceans. The
oceans were formed within 500 million years from the formation of earth.
· Third Stage: The atmosphere composition was modified by the living world through photosynthesis.
Ø The process of photosynthesis got evolved around 2,500-3,000 million years before the present.
Ø Oceans began to have the contribution of oxygen through photosynthesis.
Ø Eventually, oceans were saturated with oxygen, and 2,000 million years ago, oxygen began to
flood the atmosphere.
Origin of Life:
The last phase in the evolution of the earth relates to the origin and evolution of life.
· Modern scientists refer to the origin of life as a kind of chemical reaction which first generated
complex organic molecules and assembled them in such way that they could duplicate themselves
converting inanimate matter into living substance.
· The record of life that existed on this planet in different periods is found in rocks in the form of fossils.
· The microscopic structures closely related to the present form of blue algae have been found in
geological formations much older than some 3,000 million years.
· It can be assumed that life began to evolve sometime 3,800 million years ago.
8
Table 2.2: Geological Time Scale
Interesting points
· Light year: It is a measure of distance and not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,000
km/second. The distances the light will travel in one year is taken to be one light year. This equals to
9.461×1012 km.
· The mean distance between the sun and the earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light years, it is
8.311 minutes.
· Till recently (August 2006), Pluto was also considered a planet. However, in a meeting of the
International Astronomical Union, a decision was taken that Pluto like other celestial objects (2003
UB313) discovered in recent past may be called 'dwarf planet'.
9
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
3
The interior of the earth can be understood only by indirect evidence as no one can reach the earth's
interior. The configuration of the surface of the earth is largely a product of the processes operating in the
interior of the earth. Human life is largely influenced by the physiography of the region.
Sources of Information about the Interior
Direct Sources:
· Surface rock or rocks from mining: These are most easily available solid earth material. Gold mines in
South Africa are as deep as 3 - 4 km.
· Projects to penetrate deeper depths: Scientists are working on two major projects such as “Deep
Ocean Drilling Project” and “Integrated Ocean Drilling Project”. The deepest drill at Kola, in Arctic
Ocean, has so far reached a depth of 12 km.
· Volcanic eruption: It forms another source of obtaining direct information.
Indirect Sources:
· Analysis of properties of matter: It indirectly provides information about the interior such as
temperature and pressure increase with the increasing distance from the surface towards the interior
in deeper depths.
· Meteors: These reach the earth, and their material and structure are similar to earth.
· Gravitation force (g):
Ø It is different at different latitudes on the surface. It is greater near the poles and less at the
equator because distance from the centre at the equator is greater than poles.
Ø The reading of the gravity at different places is influenced by many factors such as the mass of the
material, uneven distribution of mass of the material etc.
Ø The difference between these readings and the expected value is called gravity anomaly which
give information about the distribution of mass of the material in the earth's crust.
· Magnetic surveys: It provide information about the distribution of magnetic materials in the crustal
portion.
· Seismic activity: The study of seismic waves provides a complete picture of the layered interior.
Earthquake:
It is shaking of the earth. It is a natural event and is caused due to release of energy which generates
waves that travel in all directions. The reasons for shaking of the earth:
· The release of energy occurs along a fault which is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
· Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite directions and as the overlying rock strata press them,
the friction locks them together.
· Their tendency to move apart at some point of time overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get
deformed and eventually, they slide past one another abruptly. This causes a release directly of
energy, and the energy waves travel in all directions.
· Focus of an earthquake (hypocentre): It is the point where the energy is released.
10
· Epicentre: It is the point on the surface, nearest to the focus. It is the first one to experience the waves.
It is a point above the focus.
Earthquake Waves:
All-natural Earthquakes take place in the lithosphere.
· The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The denser
the material, the higher is the velocity.
· Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas refraction makes waves move in different directions.
Earthquake waves are basically of two types:

· Body Waves: These waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all
directions travelling through the body of the earth. There are two types of body waves.
Ø P-waves: These move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. These are also called
'primary waves. They are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid, and solid
materials.
Ø S-waves: These arrive at the surface with some time lag. These are called secondary waves. They
can travel only through solid materials and this characteristic has helped scientists to understand
the structure of the interior of the earth.
· Surface Waves: The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate new set of waves
called surface waves. These waves move along the surface. They are the last to report on
seismograph. They are more destructive as they cause displacement of rocks, and hence, the collapse
of structures occurs.
Propagation of the Earthquake Waves:

Different types of earthquake waves travel in different manners. As they move or propagate, they cause
vibration in the body of the rocks through which they pass.
· P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave which exerts pressure on the material in the
direction of the propagation. Hence, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching
and squeezing of the material.
· The direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane.
Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass.
Emergence of Shadow Waves:

Shadow Zone: They are zones where the waves are not reported. The study of different events reveals
that for each earthquake, there exists an altogether different shadow zone.
· It was observed that seismographs located at any distance within 105° from the epicentre, recorded
the arrival of both P and S-waves.
· The seismographs located beyond 145° from epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of
S-waves. Thus, a zone between 105° and 145° from epicentre was identified as the shadow zone for
11
both the types of waves.
Fig. 3.1: (a) and (b) Earthquake Shadow Zones
· The entire zone beyond 105° does not receive S-waves. The shadow zone of S-wave is much larger
than that of the P-waves. The shadow zone of S-waves is not only larger in extent, but it is also a little
over 40 per cent of the earth surface.
· The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth between 105° and 145° away from
the epicentre.
Types of Earthquake:
· Tectonic Earthquake: They are most common ones and are generated due to sliding of rocks along a
fault plane.
· Volcanic Earthquake: They are a special class of tectonic earthquake and these are confined to areas
of active volcanoes.
· Collapse Earthquake: The roofs of underground mines collapse in the areas of intense mining activity
which cause minor tremors.
· Explosion Earthquake: Ground shaking occur due to the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices.
· Reservoir induced Earthquake: These earthquakes occur in the areas of large reservoirs.
Measuring Earthquake:
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
· Richter Scale (Magnitude Scale): The magnitude relates to the energy released during the quake.
The magnitude is expressed in numbers, 0-10.
· Mercalli Scale (Intensity Scale): It is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. It takes into account
the visible damage caused by the event and range of intensity scale is from 1-12.
12
Effects of earthquake waves:
Earthquake is a natural hazard therefore following effects can be seen:
1. Ground Shaking 5. Ground lurching 9. Structural collapse
2. Differential ground 6. Avalanches 10. Ground displacement

settlement
3. Land and mud slides 7. Floods from dam and levee failures 11. Fires
4. Soil liquefaction 8. Falling objects 12. Tsunami
· The first six listed above have some bearings upon landforms, while others may be considered the
effects causing immediate concern to the life and properties of people in the region.
· The effect of tsunami would occur only if the epicentre of the tremor is below oceanic waters and the
magnitude is sufficiently high. Tsunamis are waves generated by the tremors and not an earthquake
in itself.
Structure of the Earth
The Crust:
· It is the outermost solid part of the earth and is brittle in nature.

· Its thickness varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
· Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust. The mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5
km whereas that of the continental is around 30 km.
· The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems. It is as much as 70 km thick in
the Himalayan region.
The Mantle:
· It is the portion of the interior beyond the crust and extends from Moho's discontinuity to a depth of
2,900 km.
· Asthenosphere: It is the upper portion of the mantle. The word astheno means weak. It is considered
to be extending up to 400 km. It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during
volcanic eruptions.
· Lithosphere: It is the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle and its thickness ranges from 10-
200 km.
· The lower mantle extends beyond the asthenosphere and is in solid state.
13
Fig. 3.2: The interior of the Earth
The Core:
· The core mantle boundary is located at the depth of 2,900 km.
· The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state.
· Nife layer: The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel and iron.
Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms:

A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material (lava) escape to the ground.
· Active Volcano: It is a volcano if the materials mentioned are being released or have been released out
in the recent past.
· From asthenosphere the molten rock materials find their way to the surface. The material in the upper
mantle portion is called magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is
referred to as lava.
· The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and
dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorine,
hydrogen and argon.
Classification of Volcanos:
Volcanoes are classified based on nature of eruption and the form developed at the surface.
Shield Volcanoes:
· Barring the basalt flows, they are the largest of all the volcanoes on the earth. For example - The
Hawaiian volcanoes.
· These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very fluid when erupted. For this
reason, these volcanoes are not steep.
· They become explosive if somehow water gets into the vent; otherwise, they are characterised by low-
explosivity.
14
· The upcoming lava moves in the form of a fountain and throws out the cone at the top of the vent and
develops into cinder cone.
Fig. 3.3: Shield Volcano
Composite Volcanoes:
· These volcanoes are characterised by eruptions of cooler and more viscous lavas than basalt.
· These volcanoes often result in explosive eruptions.
· Along with lava, large quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes find their way to the ground which
accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings leading to formation of layers, and this makes the
mounts appear as composite volcanoes.
OF THE EARTH
INTERIOR CRAFTS
Fig. 3.4: Composite volcano

THEATRE
Caldera:
· These are the most explosive of the earth's volcanoes. They are usually so explosive that when they
erupt, they tend to collapse on themselves rather than building any tall structure.
15
· The collapsed depressions are called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates that the magma
chamber supplying the lava is not only huge but is also in close vicinity.
Flood Basalt Province:

· These volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that flows for long distances.
· There can be a series of flows with some flows attaining thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows
may extend for hundreds of km.
· Deccan Traps covering most of the Maharashtra plateau are a larger flood basalt province.
Mid Oceanic Ridge Volcanoes:

· These volcanoes occur in the oceanic areas.
· There is a system of mid-ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that stretches through all the ocean
basins. The central portion of this ridge experiences frequent eruptions.
Volcanic Landforms:
Intrusive landforms:
· The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous rocks.
· The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or within the crustal portion.
· Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks
(cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).
· The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called
intrusive forms.
Batholiths:
· A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of
large domes.
· They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials.
· They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km.
· These are granitic bodies.
· Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.
Lacoliths:
· These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit
from below.
· It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these are located at deeper depths.
· The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are
examples of lacoliths or batholiths.
16
Fig. 3.5: Volcanic landforms
Lapolith:
· Lava moves upwards and a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it
finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms.
· In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
Phacolith:
· A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in
folded igneous country.
· Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the phacoliths.
Sills or Sheets:
· The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the
thickness of the material.
· The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
Dykes:
· When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost
perpendicular to the ground.
· It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure called dykes.
17
· These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area. These are
considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
Interesting points
· The Earth's radius is approximately 6,370 km.

· Lithosphere refers to the portion of depth up to 200 km from the surface of the Earth.
· The 'seismograph' is an instrument which records the seismic waves reaching the surface.
18
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
4 AND CONTINENTS
Continents cover 29 per cent of the surface of the earth and the remainder is under oceanic waters. The
positions of the continents and the ocean bodies have not been the same in the past and will not continue to
enjoy their present positions in times to come.
Continental Drift Theory:

The shape of the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean on either side of the ocean is symmetrical. The scientists
considered the possibility of the two Americas, Europe, and Africa, to be once joined together.
· Abraham Ortelius: The Dutch map maker first proposed such a possibility in 1596.
· Antonio Pellegrini: He drew a map showing the three continents together.
· Alfred Wegener: A German meteorologist put forth a comprehensive argument in the form of “the
continental drift theory” in 1912. It was regarding the distribution of the oceans and the continents.
Ø According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass and mega ocean
surrounded the same.
Ø The super continent was named Pangea and the mega-ocean was called Panthalasa.
Ø He argued that, around 200 million years ago, the Pangaea began to split and first broke into two
large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern
components, respectively.
Ø Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various smaller continents that
exist today.
Evidence in Support of the Continental Drift:

· The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): The shorelines of Africa and South America have a
remarkable and unmistakable match.
DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS AND CONTINENTS
· Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans:

Ø The radiometric dating methods have facilitated correlating the rock formation from different
continents across the vast ocean.
Ø The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from western
Africa.
Ø The earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic age.
This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior to that time.
· Tillite:
Ø It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers.
Ø The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere. At the base, the system has thick tillite indicating
extensive and prolonged glaciation.
Ø Counterparts of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia.
Ø The glacial tillite provides unambiguous evidence of paleoclimates and also drifting of continents.
19
· Placer Deposits:
Ø The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast and the absolute absence of
source rock in the region is an amazing fact.
Ø The gold bearing veins are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived
from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.
· Distribution of Fossils:
Ø The Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass
'Lemuria' linking these three landmasses.
Ø Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The skeletons of these are
found only in two localities: Southern Cape province of South Africa and Iraver formations of Brazil.
Force for Drifting:

Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was caused by:
· The Polar-fleeing force: It relates to the rotation of the earth.
· The Tidal force: It is due to the attraction of the moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic
waters. Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when applied over many million
years.
Post Drift Studies:

A number of discoveries during the post–World War II period added new information to geological
literature. The information collected from the ocean floor mapping provided new dimensions for the
study of distribution of oceans and continents.
Convectional Current Theory:

· Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents operating in the mantle
portion. These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the
mantle portion.
· He argued that there exists a system of such currents in the entire mantle portion.
· This was an attempt to provide an explanation to the issue of force, on the basis of which contemporary
scientists discarded the continental drift theory.
Mapping of the Ocean Floor:

· Expeditions to map the oceanic floor in the post–World War II period provided a detailed picture of the
ocean relief and indicated the existence of submerged mountain ranges as well as deep trenches,
mostly located closer to the continent margins.
Ocean Floor Configuration:

The ocean floor may be segmented into three major divisions based on the depth as well as the forms of
relief.
20
Fig. 4.1: Ocean Floor
· Continental Margins:
Ø These form the transition between continental shores and deep-sea basins.
Ø They include continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise and deep-oceanic trenches.
· Abyssal Plains:
Ø These are extensive plains that lie between the continental margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
Ø These are the areas where the continental sediments that move beyond the margins get deposited.
· Mid-Oceanic Ridges:
Ø This forms an interconnected chain of mountain system within the ocean. It is the longest
mountain-chain on the surface of the earth.
Ø It is characterised by a central rift system at the crest, a fractionated plateau and flank zone all along
its length.
Ø The rift system at the crest is the zone of intense volcanic activity.
21
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes:
· In general, the foci of the earthquake in the areas of mid-oceanic ridges are at shallow depths
whereas along the Alpine-Himalayan belt as well as the rim of the Pacific, the earthquakes are
deep-seated ones.
· The map of volcanoes also shows a similar pattern. The rim of the Pacific is also called 'rim of
fire' due to the existence of active volcanoes in this area.
Fig. 4.2: Distribution of the earthquakes and volcanoes

Concept of Sea Floor Spreading:
The mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic regions revealed the
following facts:
· It was realised that all along the mid-oceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are common, and they bring
huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
· The rocks equidistant on either side of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable similarities in
terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and magnetic properties.
· The age of the rocks increases as one moves away from the crest. Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic
ridges have normal polarity and are the youngest.
· The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in the oceanic
crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old. Some of the continental rock formations are as old as
3,200 million years.
· The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Nowhere was the sediment column
found to be older than 200 million years.
22
· The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid-oceanic ridge areas,
the quake focus have shallow depths.
These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either side of the mid-oceanic
ridge led Hess (1961) to propose his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor spreading”.
· Hess argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic
crust and the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side.
Fig. 4.3: Sea Floor Spreading
· The younger age of the oceanic crust and the spreading of one ocean does not cause the shrinking of
the other, made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust.
· He further said that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest, sinks down
at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.
Plate Tectonics:
It was in 1967, McKenzie, Parker and Morgan, independently collected the available ideas and came out
with concept of Plate Tectonics.
· A tectonic plate (lithospheric plate): It is a massive, irregularly shaped slab of solid rock, generally
composed of both continental and oceanic lithosphere.
· Plates move horizontally over the asthenosphere as rigid units.
· The lithosphere includes the crust and top mantle with its thickness range varying between 5 and 100
km in oceanic parts and about 200 km in the continental areas.
· A plate may be referred to as the continental plate or oceanic plate depending on which of the two
occupy a larger portion of the plate.
· The theory of plate tectonics proposes that the earth's lithosphere is divided into seven major and
some minor plates.
23
· Young Fold Mountain ridges, trenches, and/or faults surround these major plates.
· It is not the continent that moves as believed by Wegener. Continents are part of a plate and it is the
plate that moves.
· Later discoveries reveal that the continental masses, resting on the plates, have been wandering all
through the geological period, and Pangaea was a result of converging of different continental
masses that were parts of one or the other plates.
· Position of the Indian subcontinent (mostly Peninsular India) is traced with the help of the rocks
analysed from the Nagpur area.

Fig. 4.4: Position of Continents through Geological Past
Major and Minor Plates
Major Plates:
· Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
· North American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the South American plate
along the Caribbean islands) plate
· South American (with western Atlantic floor separated from the North American plate
along the Caribbean islands) plate
· Pacific plate
· India-Australia-New Zealand plate.
· Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
24
· Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
Minor Plates:
· Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
· Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
· Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
· Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate
· Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
· Fuji plate: North-east of Australia
Fig. 4.5: Major and Minor Plates of the world
Types of Plate Boundaries

· Divergent Boundaries:
Ø Where new crust is generated as the plates pull away from each other.
Ø The sites where the plates move away from each other are called spreading sites.
Ø Example: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At this plate, the American Plate(s) is/are separated from the
Eurasian and African Plates.
· Convergent Boundaries:
Ø Where the crust is destroyed as one plate dived under another.
Ø The location where the sinking of a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
Ø There are three ways in which convergence can occur. These are:
o Between an oceanic and continental plate.
o Between two oceanic plates.
25
o Between two continental plates.
· Transform Boundaries:
Ø Where the crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the plates slide horizontally past each other.
Ø Transform faults are the planes of separation generally perpendicular to the mid-oceanic ridges.
Ø As the eruptions do not take all along the entire crest at the same time, there is a differential
movement of a portion of the plate away from the axis of the earth.
Ø Also, the rotation of the earth has its effect on the separated blocks of the plate portions.
Rates of the Plate Movements:

· The rate of plate movement is determined by the strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that
parallel the mid-oceanic ridges.
· These rates vary considerably.
· The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter
Island, in the South Pacific, has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr).
Force for the Plate Movement:

· At the time that Wegener proposed his theory of continental drift, most scientists believed that the
earth was a solid, motionless body.
· However, concepts of sea floor spreading, and the unified theory of plate tectonics have emphasised
that both the surface of the earth and the interior are dynamic.
· The mobile rock beneath the rigid plates is believed to be moving in a circular manner.
· The heated material rises to the surface, spreads and begins to cool, and then sinks back into deeper
depths. This cycle is repeated over and over and called convection cell or convective flow.
· Heat within the earth comes from two main sources: radioactive decay and residual heat.

· Arthur Holmes first considered this idea, which later influenced Harry Hess' thinking about seafloor
spreading.
· The slow movement of hot, softened mantle that lies below the rigid plates is the driving force
behind the plate movement.
The Indian Plate:

The Indian plate includes Peninsular India and the Australian continental portions.
· The subduction zone along the Himalayas forms the northern plate boundary in the form of continent-
continent convergence.
· In the east, it extends through Rakinyoma Mountains of Myanmar towards the island arc along the
Java Trench.
· The eastern margin is a spreading site lying to the east of Australia in the form of an oceanic ridge in
SW Pacific.
· The Western margin follows Kirthar Mountain of Pakistan. It further extends along the Makrana
coast and joins the spreading site from the Red Sea rift south-eastward along the Chagos Archipelago.
26
· The boundary between India and the Antarctic plate is also marked by oceanic ridge (divergent
boundary) running in roughly W-E direction and merging into the spreading site, a little south of New
Zealand.
Movement of Indian Plate:

· India was a large island situated off the Australian coast. The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian
continent till about 225 million years ago.
· India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million years ago at the time when
Pangaea broke.
· India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of the Himalayas.
· During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Eurasian plate, a major event that occurred was
the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan Traps.
· From 40 million years ago and thereafter, the event of formation of the Himalayas took place.
Fig. 4.6: Movement of the Indian plate
Interesting points
· About 140 million years before the present, the Indian subcontinent was located as south as 50oS
latitude.
27
MINERALS AND ROCKS
5
The earth is composed of various kinds of elements. The elements in the earth's crust are rarely found
exclusively but are usually combined with other elements to make various substances. These substances are
recognised as minerals.
Mineral:
· A mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic
structure and a definite chemical composition and physical properties.
· A mineral is composed of two or more elements but, sometimes single element minerals like sulphur,
copper, silver, gold, graphite etc. are found.
Elements of Earth Crust:

· Major Elements: About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is composed of eight elements like
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium.
· Minor Elements: The rest is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous, manganese, sulphur,
carbon, nickel and other elements.
· There are at least 2,000 minerals that have been named and identified in the earth crust but almost all
the commonly occurring ones are related to six major mineral groups that are known as major rock
forming minerals.
· Basic source of all Minerals: It is the hot magma in the interior of the earth. When magma cools,
crystals of minerals appear, and a systematic series of minerals are formed in sequence to solidify to
form rocks.
Physical Characteristics of Minerals:

· External crystal form: It is determined by internal arrangement of the molecules - cubes, octahedrons,
hexagonal prisms, etc.
· Cleavage: It is tendency to break in given directions producing relatively plane surfaces. This is due to
internal arrangement of the molecules. A mineral may cleave in one or more directions and at any
angle to each other.
· Fracture: The internal molecular arrangement so complex there are no planes of molecules and the
crystal will break in an irregular manner, not along planes of cleavage.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
· Lustre: It is the appearance of a material without regard to colour and each mineral has a distinctive
lustre like metallic, silky, glossy etc.
· Colour: Some minerals have characteristic colour determined by their molecular structure such as
malachite, azurite. Some minerals are coloured by impurities such as quartz.
· Streak: The colour of the ground powder of any mineral. It may be of the same colour as the mineral or
may differ. Malachite is green and gives green streak, fluorite is purple or green but gives a white
28
streak.
· Transparency:
Ø Transparent: Light rays pass through so that objects can be seen plainly.
Ø Translucent: Light rays pass through but will get diffused so that objects cannot be seen.
Ø Opaque: Light will not pass at all.
· Structure: It is the particular arrangement of the individual crystals such as fine, medium or coarse
grained.
· Hardness: It is the relative resistance while getting scratched. Ten minerals are selected to measure
the degree of hardness from 1-10:
Ø They are: 1. talc; 2. gypsum; 3. calcite; 4. fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. feldspar; 7. quartz; 8. topaz; 9.
corundum; 10. diamond.
Ø Compared to this for example, a fingernail is 2.5 and glass or knife blade is 5.5.
· Specific Gravity: The ratio between the weight of a given object and the weight of an equal volume
of water.
Metallic minerals:
These minerals contain metal content and can be sub-divided into three types:
· Precious metals: Gold, silver, platinum etc.
· Ferrous metals: Iron and other metals often mixed with iron to form various kinds of steel.
· Non-ferrous metals: It include metals like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium etc.
Non-metallic minerals:
These minerals do not contain metal content such as Sulphur, phosphates, and nitrates. Cement is a mixture
of non-metallic minerals.
Rocks:
· A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. The earth's crust is composed of rocks.
· Rocks do not have definite composition of mineral constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the most
common minerals found in rocks.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
Types of Rocks based on their mode of formation

Igneous Rocks (Primary Rocks):
· Igneous rocks form out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
· When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid form it is called igneous rock (ignis –
in Latin means 'Fire').
· They are classified based on texture which depends upon size and arrangement of grains.
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· If molten material is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.
· Sudden cooling (at the surface) results in small and smooth grains.
· Intermediate conditions of cooling result in intermediate sizes of grains.
· Examples: Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia and tuff.
Sedimentary Rocks:
· The word 'sedimentary' is derived from the Latin word sedimentum which means settling.
· Rocks of the earth's surface are exposed to denudational agents and are broken up into various sizes
of fragments.
· Such fragments are transported by different exogenous agencies and deposited. These deposits
through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
· There are number of layers of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale etc.
· They are classified based on the mode of formation:
Ø Mechanically formed: Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc.
Ø Organically formed: Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal etc.
Ø Chemically formed: Chert, limestone, halite, potash etc.
Metamorphic Rocks:
· The word metamorphic means 'change of form'. These rocks form under the action of pressure,
volume, and temperature (PVT) changes.
· Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and
reorganisation of materials within original rocks.
· Metamorphism occurs when rocks are forced down to lower levels by tectonic processes or when
molten magma rising through the crust comes in contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks
are subjected to great amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
· Dynamic Metamorphism: It is the mechanical disruption and reorganisation of the original minerals
within rocks due to breaking and crushing without any appreciable chemical changes.
· Thermal Metamorphism: It cause the materials of rocks to chemically alter and recrystallise. It is of two
types:
Ø Contact Metamorphism: The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the
rock materials recrystallise under high temperatures.
Ø Regional Metamorphism: Rocks undergo recrystallisation due to deformation caused by tectonic
MINERALS AND ROCKS
shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.

· In the process of metamorphism, some rocks grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such
an arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks is called foliation or lineation.
· In metamorphic rocks, minerals and materials are arranged in alternative thin to thick layers which is
called banding and rock displaying banding is called banded rocks.
· Metamorphic rocks are classified into two major groups - foliated and non-foliated rocks.
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· Examples: Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite.
Rock cycle:
It is a continuous process through which old rocks are transformed into new ones.
Fig: 5.1 Rock Cycle
· The crustal rocks (igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary) once formed may be carried down into the
mantle (interior of the earth) through subduction process.
· The same melt down due to increase in temperature in the interior and turn into molten magma.
Interesting points
· Petrology is science of rocks. A petrologist studies rocks in all their aspects viz., mineral composition,
texture, structure, origin, occurrence, alteration and relationship with other rocks.
MINERALS AND ROCKS
31
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES
6
The earth's crust is dynamic. The differences in the internal forces operating from within the earth which
built up the crust have been responsible for the variations in the outer surface of the crust. The earth's
surface is being continuously subjected to external forces induced basically by energy (sunlight).
Geomorphic Processes:
The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials
and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic
processes.
· Any exogenic element of nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.,) capable of acquiring and transporting
earth materials can be called a geomorphic agent such as running water, glaciers, currents etc.
· When these elements of nature become mobile due to gradients, they remove the materials and
transport them over slopes and deposit them at lower level.
· Geomorphic processes and geomorphic agents especially exogenic, unless stated separately, are
one and the same.
· An agent is a mobile medium (like running water, moving ice masses, wind, waves and currents etc.)
which removes, transports and deposits earth materials.
Importance of Gravity for geomorphic processes:

· Gravity besides being a directional force activating all downslope movements of matter also
causes stresses on the earth's materials.
· Indirect gravitational stresses activate wave and tide induced currents and winds.
· Without gravity and gradients there would be no mobility and hence no erosion, transportation and
deposition are possible. So, gravitational stresses are as important as the other geomorphic
processes.
· Gravity is the force that switches on the movement of all surface material on earth.
· Gravitational force applied per unit area is called stress which is produced in a solid by pushing or
pulling induces deformation.
· Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are shear stresses (separating forces). This stress
breaks rocks and other earth materials. It results in angular displacement or slippage.
· Molecular stresses may be caused by a number of factors amongst which temperature changes,
crystallisation and melting are the most common.
· Gradients: All the movements either within the earth or on the surface of the earth occur due to
gradients-from higher levels to lower levels, from high pressure to low pressure areas etc.
Forces Acting on Earth's Surface
Endogenic Forces:
· The internal forces are known as endogenic forces.
· These are mainly land building forces.
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· They continuously elevate or build up parts of the earth's surface.
· Diastrophism and volcanism are endogenic geomorphic processes.
Exogenic Forces:
· The external forces are known as exogenic forces.
· The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down (degradation) of relief/elevations and filling
up (aggradation) of basins/ depressions, on the earth's surface.
· The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations of the surface of the earth through erosion is
known as gradation.
· Weathering, mass wasting, erosion and deposition are exogenic geomorphic processes.
Endogenic Processes:
· The energy emanating within the earth is the main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes.
This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal friction and primordial heat from
the origin of the earth.
· Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength,
the action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original crustal
surface is uneven.
Diastrophism:
· All processes that move, elevate or build up portions of the earth's crust come under diastrophism.
They include:
Ø Orogenic processes involving mountain building through severe folding and affecting long and
narrow belts of the earth's crust.
Ø Epeirogeny processes involving uplift or warping of large parts of the earth's crust.
Ø Earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements.
Ø Plate tectonics involving horizontal movements of crustal plates.
· In the process of orogeny, the crust is severely deformed into folds.
· Orogeny is a mountain building process whereas epeirogeny is continental building process.
· Through the processes of orogeny, epeirogeny, earthquakes and plate tectonics, there can be
faulting and fracturing of the crust.
· All these processes cause pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes which in turn induce
metamorphism of rocks.
Volcanism:
Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock (magma) onto or toward the earth's surface and also
formation of many intrusive and extrusive volcanic forms.
Exogenic Processes:
· The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy
33
from the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors.
· It acts upon all earth materials having a sloping surface and tend to produce movement of matter in
down slope direction.
· Chemical processes normally lead to loosening of bonds between grains, dissolving of soluble
minerals or cementing materials. Thus, the basic reason that leads to weathering, mass movements,
and erosion is development of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
· Temperature and precipitation are the two important climatic elements that control various
processes.
· All the exogenic geomorphic processes are covered under a general term, denudation. The word
'denude' means to strip off or to uncover.
· Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and transportation are included in denudation.
Fig. 6.1: Denudational process and their driving force.
· Within different climatic regions, there may be local variations of the effects of different climatic
elements due to altitudinal differences, aspect variations and the variation in the amount of
insolation received by north and south facing slopes as compared to east and west facing slopes.
· Further, due to differences in wind velocities and directions, amount and kind of precipitation, its
intensity, the relation between precipitation and evaporation, daily range of temperature, freezing
and thawing frequency, depth of frost penetration, the geomorphic processes vary within any
climatic region.
· The intensity of action of exogenic geomorphic processes depends upon type and structure of
rocks.
· The term structure includes such aspects of rocks as folds, faults, orientation and inclination of beds,
presence or absence of joints, bedding planes, hardness or softness of constituent minerals,
chemical susceptibility of mineral constituents; the permeability or impermeability.
· Different types of rocks with differences in their structure offer varying resistances to various
geomorphic processes.
· A particular rock may be resistant to one process and non-resistant to another.
34
· Under varying climatic conditions, particular rocks may exhibit different degrees of resistance to
geomorphic processes and hence they operate at differential rates and give rise to differences in
topography.
· The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic processes are small and slow and may be
imperceptible in a short time span.
Various Exogenic Geomorphic Processes
Weathering:
· Weathering is defined as mechanical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks through
the actions of various elements of weather and climate.
· Weathering is action of elements of weather and climate over earth materials. There are number of
processes within weathering which act either individually or together to affect the earth materials in
order to reduce them to fragmental state.
· As very little or no motion of materials takes place in weathering, it is an in-situ or on-site process.
· They are conditioned by many complex geological, climatic, topographic and vegetative factors.
Climate is of particular importance.
· Not only weathering processes differ from climate to climate, but also the depth of the weathering
mantle.
Types of Weathering Processes

Chemical Weathering Processes:
· A group of weathering processes viz; solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation and reduction act
on the rocks to decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine clastic state through chemical reactions
by oxygen, surface and/or soil water and other acids.
· Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along with heat must be present to speed up all chemical
reactions.
· Over and above the carbon dioxide present in the air, decomposition of plants and animals increases
the quantity of carbon dioxide underground.
Physical Weathering Processes:

· Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces.

· The applied forces could be:
Ø Gravitational forces: Such as overburden pressure, load and shearing stress.
Ø Expansion forces: Due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity.
Ø Water pressures: It is controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
· Most of the physical weathering processes are caused by thermal expansion and pressure release.
· They are small and slow but can cause great damage to the rock because of continued fatigue the
rocks suffer due to repetition of contraction and expansion.
35
Biological Activity and Weathering:
· Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the weathering
environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
· Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing the
new surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
· Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing and
creating new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.
· Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which
enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
· Plant roots mechanically break rocks by exerting great pressure.
Exfoliation:
· Exfoliation is not a process but it a result of unloading, thermal contraction and expansion and salt
weathering.
· Exfoliation can occur due to expansion and contraction induced by temperature changes.
· Exfoliation domes and tors result due to unloading and thermal expansion, respectively.
Significance of the Weathering:

· Weathering processes are responsible for breaking down the rocks into smaller fragments and
preparing the way for formation of not only regolith and soils, but also erosion and mass movements.
· Biomes and biodiversity are basically a result of forests (vegetation) and forests depend upon the
depth of weathering mantles.
· Without weathering erosion is not significant as weathering aids mass wasting, erosion and
reduction of relief and changes in landforms are a consequence of erosion.
· Weathering of rocks and deposits helps in the enrichment and concentrations of certain valuable
ores of iron, manganese, aluminium, copper etc.
Mass Movements:
· These movements transfer the mass of rock debris down the slopes under the direct influence of
gravity. It means air, water or ice do not carry debris with them from place to place but on the other
hand the debris may carry with it air, water or ice.
· The movements of mass may range from slow to rapid, affecting shallow to deep columns of
materials and include creep, flow, slide and fall.
· Gravity exerts its force on all matter, both bedrock and the products of weathering. So, weathering is
not a pre-requisite for mass movement though it aids mass movements.
· Mass movements are very active over weathered slopes.
· Mass movements are aided by gravity and no geomorphic agent like running water, glaciers, wind,
waves and currents participate in the process of mass movements.
· Mass movements do not come under erosion though there is a shift (aided by gravity) of materials
36
from one place to another.
· Materials over the slopes have their own resistance to disturbing forces and will yield only when
force is greater than the shearing resistance of the materials.
· Weak unconsolidated materials, thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply dipping beds, vertical cliffs or
steep slopes, abundant precipitation and torrential rains and scarcity of vegetation etc., favour mass
movements.
Activating causes of Mass Movements:

· Removal of support from below to materials above through natural or artificial means.
· Increase in gradient and height of slopes.
· Overloading through addition of materials naturally or by artificial filling.
· Overloading due to heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of slope materials.
· Removal of material or load from over the original slope surfaces.
· Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions.
· Excessive natural seepage.
· Heavy drawdown of water from lakes, reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of water from
under the slopes or riverbanks.
· Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.
Types of Movements:
· Heave (heaving up of soils due to frost growth and other causes)
· Flow
· Slide
Landslides:
· These are relatively rapid and perceptible movements.
· The materials involved are relatively dry.
· The size and shape of the detached mass depends on the nature of discontinuities in the rock, the
degree of weathering and the steepness of the slope.
Types of Landslides based on types of movement:

· Slump: It is slipping of one or several units of rock debris with a backward rotation with respect to
the slope over which the movement takes place.
· Debris slide: It is the rapid rolling or sliding of earth debris without backward rotation of mass.
· Debris fall: It is nearly a free fall of earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face.
· Sliding: Sliding of individual rock masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces is rockslide. Over
steep slopes, rock sliding is very fast and destructive.
· Land slide: Rock fall is free falling of rock blocks over any steep slope keeping itself away from the
slope. Rock falls occur from the superficial layers of the rock face, an occurrence that distinguishes it
37
from rockslide which affects materials up to a substantial depth.
Debris Avalanche and Landslide in India

In the Himalayas:
· Himalayas are tectonically active.
· They are mostly made up of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated and semi-consolidated
deposits.
· The slopes are very steep.
In Western Ghats:
Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and the Western
Ghats along the west coast are relatively tectonically stable and are mostly made up of very hard rocks;
but, still, debris avalanches and landslides occur.
· Many slopes are steeper with almost vertical cliffs and escarpments in the Western Ghats and
Nilgiris.
· Mechanical weathering due to temperature changes and ranges is pronounced.
· They receive heavy amounts of rainfall over short periods.
Erosion and Deposition:

Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of rock debris and erosional agents deposit
transported material in plain areas.
· When massive rocks break into smaller fragments through weathering.
· Any other process, erosional geomorphic agents like running water, groundwater, glaciers, wind
and waves remove and transport it to other places depending upon the dynamics of each of these
agents.
· Abrasion by rock debris carried by these geomorphic agents also aids greatly in erosion.
· Weathering, mass-wasting and erosion are degradational processes.
· It is erosion that is largely responsible for continuous changes that the earth's surface is undergoing.
· The denudational processes like erosion and transportation are controlled by kinetic energy.
· The erosion and transportation of earth materials is brought about by wind, running water, glaciers,
waves and ground water.
Ø Of these the first three agents are controlled by climatic conditions. They represent three states
of matter, gaseous (wind), liquid (running water) and solid (glacier) respectively.
Ø The work of the other two agents of erosion (waves and ground water) is not controlled by
climate.
o In case of waves, it is the location along the interface of litho and hydro sphere (coastal region)
that will determine the work of waves.
o The work of ground water is determined more by the lithological character of the region. If the
rocks are permeable and soluble and water is available only then karst topography develops.
38
· Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
· The erosional agents lose their velocity and hence energy on gentler slopes and the materials
carried by them start to settle themselves.
· Deposition is not actually the work of any agent. The coarser materials get deposited first and
finer ones later.
· By deposition depressions get filled up. The same erosional agents viz., running water, glaciers,
wind, waves and groundwater act as aggradational or depositional agents also.
Soil Formation:
· Soil is a dynamic medium in which many chemical, physical and biological activities go on
constantly.
· Soil is a result of decay and is also the medium for growth.
· It may be alternatively cold and warm or dry and moist. Biological activity is slowed or stopped if the
soil becomes too cold or too dry.
· Organic matter increases when leaves fall, or grasses die.
Process of Soil Formation:

· Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on weathering. The weathering mantle (depth of the
weathered material) which is the basic input for soil to form.
· The weathered material or transported deposits are colonised by bacteria and other inferior plant
bodies like mosses and lichens and minor organisms take shelter in it.
· The dead remains of organisms and plants help in humus accumulation.
· Minor grasses and ferns may grow; later, bushes and trees will start growing through seeds brought
in by birds and wind.
· Plant roots penetrate down, burrowing animals bring up particles, mass of material becomes porous
and sponge-like with a capacity to retain water and to permit the passage of air and finally a mature
soil, a complex mixture of mineral and organic products forms.
Soil Forming Factors:

· Five basic factors control the formation of soils: parent material, topography, climate, biological
activity, and time.
· In fact, soil forming factors act in union and affect the action of one another.
Parent Material:
· Parent material is a passive control factor in soil formation.
· Parent materials can be any in-situ or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or transported
deposits (transported soils).
· Soil formation depends upon the texture (sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of individual
grains/particles of debris) as well as the mineral and chemical composition of the rock
39
debris/deposits.
· Nature and rate of the weathering and depth of weathering are important consideration under
parent materials.
· When soils are very young and have not matured these show strong links with the type of parent
rock.
· In limestone areas, where the weathering processes are specific and peculiar, soils will show clear
relation with the parent rock.
Topography:
· Topography like parent materials is another passive control factor.
· The influence of topography is felt through the amount of exposure of a surface covered by parent
materials to sunlight and the amount of surface and sub-surface drainage over and through the
parent materials.
· Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick over flat upland areas.
· Over gentle slopes where erosion is slow and percolation of water is good, soil formation is very
favourable.
· Soils over flat areas may develop a thick layer of clay with good accumulation of organic matter
giving the soil dark colour.
Climate:
Climate is an important active factor in soil formation. The climatic elements involved in soil
development are:
· Moisture: Moisture in terms of its intensity, frequency and duration of precipitation - evaporation and
humidity.
Ø Precipitation gives soil its moisture content which makes the chemical and biological activities
possible. Excess of water helps in the downward transportation of soil components through the
soil (eluviation) and deposits the same down below (illuviation).
Ø In climates like wet equatorial rainy areas with high rainfall, not only calcium, sodium, magnesium,
potassium etc. but also a major part of silica is removed from the soil. Removal of silica from the
soil is known as desilication.
Ø In tropical climates and in areas with intermediate precipitation conditions, calcium carbonate
nodules (kanker) are formed.

· Temperature: Temperature in terms of seasonal and diurnal variations.
Ø Temperature acts in two ways: increasing or reducing chemical and biological activity.
Ø Chemical activity is increased in higher temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures (with the
exception of carbonation) and stops in freezing conditions.
Ø The tropical soils with higher temperatures show deeper profiles and in the frozen tundra regions
soils contain largely mechanically broken materials.
Ø In dry climates, because of high temperature, evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence ground water
40
is brought up to the surface by capillary action and in the process the water evaporates leaving behind
salts in the soil. Such salts form into a crust in the soil known as hardpans.
Biological Activity:
· The vegetative cover and organisms that occupy the parent materials from the beginning and also at
later stages help in adding organic matter, moisture retention, nitrogen etc.
· Dead plants provide humus, the finely divided organic matter of the soil.
· Some organic acids which form during humification aid in decomposing the minerals of the soil
parent materials.
· Intensity of bacterial activity shows up differences between soils of cold and warm climates.
Ø Humus accumulates in cold climates as bacterial growth is slow.
Ø With undecomposed organic matter because of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop in
subarctic and tundra climates.
Ø In humid tropical and equatorial climates, bacterial growth and action is intense and dead
vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving very low humus content in the soil.
· Nitrogen Fixation:
Ø Bacteria and other soil organisms take gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert it into a
chemical form that can be used by plants. This process is known as nitrogen fixation.
Ø Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants and fixes nitrogen
beneficial to the host plant.
· The influence of animals like ants, termites, earthworms, rodents etc. is mechanical, but it is
nevertheless important in soil formation as they rework the soil up and down.
· In case of earthworms, as they feed on soil, the texture and chemistry of the soil that comes out of
their body changes.
Time:
Time is the third important passive controlling factor in soil formation.
· The length of time the soil forming processes operate, determines maturation of soils and profile
development.
· A soil becomes mature when all soil-forming processes act for a sufficiently long time developing a
profile.
· Soils developing from recently deposited alluvium or glacial till are considered young and they
exhibit no horizons or only poorly developed horizons.
Interesting points
· When rocks undergo weathering, some materials are removed through chemical or physical
leaching by groundwater and thereby the concentration of remaining (valuable) materials
increases.
· Without such a weathering taking place, the concentration of the same valuable material may not
be sufficient and economically viable to exploit, process and refine. This is called enrichment.
41
LANDFORMS AND THEIR
7 EVOLUTION
Several related landforms together make up landscapes, (large tracts of earth's surface). Each landform has
its own physical shape, size, materials and is a result of the action of certain geomorphic processes and
agents.
Landforms:
· It is a small to medium sized part of the surface of the earth.
· Landforms once formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to continued
action of geomorphic processes and agents.
· Due to changes in climatic conditions and vertical or horizontal movements of landmasses, either the
intensity of processes or the processes themselves might change leading to new modifications in the
landforms.
· Every landform has a beginning and passes through stages of development e.g., youth, mature and
old age.
Running Water:
· The running water is an important geomorphic agent in humid regions as it brings large scale
degradation on land surfaces.
· Two components of running water:
Ø Overland flow on general land surface as a sheet.
Ø Linear flow as streams and rivers in valleys.
· Landforms:
Ø Erosional Landforms: Most of the erosional landforms made by running water are associated with
vigorous and youthful rivers flowing over steep gradients. With time, stream channels over steep
gradients turn gentler due to continued erosion, and lose their velocity, facilitating active
deposition.
Ø Depositional Landforms: These are associated with streams flowing over steep slopes. But these
phenomena will be on a small scale compared to those associated with rivers flowing over medium
LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

to gentle slopes. The deposition will be greater in the gentler river in gradient or slope.
· When the stream beds turn gentler due to continued erosion, downward cutting becomes less
dominant and lateral erosion of banks increases that led to the hills and valleys being reduced to
plains.
· The minor or major quantities of materials from the surface of the land are removed due to sheer
friction of the column of flowing water in the direction of flow and gradually small and narrow rills is
formed.
· These rills will gradually develop into long and wide gullies which will further deepen, widen, lengthen,
and unite to give rise to a network of valleys.
· In the early stages, downcutting dominates during which irregularities such as waterfalls and
cascades will be removed.
· In the middle stages, streams cut their beds slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides becomes
42
severe. Gradually, the valley sides are reduced to lower and lower slopes.
· The divides between drainage basins are lowered until they are almost completely flattened leaving
finally a lowland of faint relief with some low resistant remnants called monadnocks standing out
here and there. This type of plain forming as a result of stream erosion is called a peneplain (an almost
plain).
Youth Stage:
· In this stage the streams are few with poor integration and flow over original slopes showing shallow
V-shaped valleys with no floodplains or with very narrow floodplains.
· Streams divides are broad and flat with marshes, swamp and lakes.
· Meanders if present develop over broad upland surfaces and may entrench into uplands.
· Waterfalls and rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies are exposed.
Mature Stage:
· During this stage streams are plenty with good integration.
· The valleys are still V-shaped but deep and trunk streams are broad enough to have wider floodplains
within which streams may flow in meanders confined within the valley.
· The flat and broad inter stream areas and swamps and marshes of youth disappear and the stream
divides turn sharp.
· Waterfalls and rapids disappear.
Old Stage:
· Smaller tributaries during old age are few with gentle gradients.
· Streams meander freely over vast floodplains showing natural levees, oxbow lakes, etc.
· Divides are broad and flat with lakes, swamps, and marshes.
· Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea level.
Erosional Landforms (Running water)

Valleys:
· Valleys start as small and narrow rills that will gradually develop into long and wide gullies and the
gullies will further deepen, widen, and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
· Types of Valleys: These are based on dimensions and shape such as V-shaped valley, gorge, canyon,
etc.
Ø Gorge: It is a deep valley with very steep to straight sides and is almost equal in width at its top as
well as its bottom.
Ø Canyon: It is characterised by steep steplike side slopes and may be as deep as a gorge. It is wider
at its top than at its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of gorge.
· Valley types depend upon the type and structure of rocks in which they form such as canyons
commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and gorges form in hard rocks.
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Potholes and Plunge Pools:
· Potholes: These are more or less circular depressions formed over the rocky beds of hill-streams
because of stream erosion aided by the abrasion of rock fragments.
· Once a small and shallow depression forms, the pebbles and boulders get collected in small and
shallow depressions and get rotated by flowing water and consequently the depressions grow in
dimensions.
· A series of such depressions eventually join, and the stream valley gets deepened.
· Plunge Pools: These are large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls. Large potholes are formed at
the foot of the water falls because of the sheer impact of water and rotation of boulders.
Incised or Entrenched Meanders:

· Normally erosion is concentrated on the bottom of the stream channel in streams flowing rapidly over
steep gradients.
· In the case of steep gradient streams, lateral erosion on the sides of the valleys is not much when
compared to the streams flowing on low and gentle slopes.
· The streams flowing over gentle slopes, develop sinuous or meandering courses due to active lateral
erosion.
· The meandering courses are commonly found over floodplains and delta plains where stream
gradients are very gentle.
· Incised or entrenched meanders: These are very deep and wide meanders found cut in hard rocks.
River Terraces:
· River terraces are surfaces marking old valley floor or floodplain levels. They may be bedrock surfaces
without any alluvial cover or alluvial terraces consisting of stream deposits.
· These are basically products of erosion as they result due to vertical erosion by the stream into its own
depositional floodplain.
· There can be number of such terraces at different heights indicating former river-bed levels.

· Paired Terraces: These are river terraces which may occur at the same elevation on either side of the
rivers.
Depositional Landforms (Running water)

Alluvial Fans:
· These are formed when streams flowing from higher levels break into foot slope plains of low
gradient.
· Normally very coarse load is carried by streams flowing over mountain slopes. This load becomes too
heavy for the streams to be carried over gentler gradients and gets dumped and spread as a broad low
to high cone shaped deposit called alluvial fan.
· The streams which flow over fans are not confined to their original channels for long and shift their
position across the fan forming many channels called distributaries.
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· Alluvial fans in humid areas show normally low cones with gentle slope from head to toe and in arid
and semi-arid climates, they appear as high cones with steep slope.
Deltas:
· Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop at a different location.
· The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea. If this load is not carried away far into
the sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads and accumulates as a low cone.
· Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification.
· The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer fractions like silts and clays are carried out into the
sea.
· As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue to increase in length and delta continues to build
up into the sea.
Flood plains:
· Floodplain is a major landform of river deposition. Large sized materials are deposited first when
stream channel breaks into a gentle slope.
· Fine sized materials like sand, silt and clay are carried by relatively slow-moving waters in gentler
channels usually found in the plains and deposited over the bed and when the waters spill over the
banks during flooding above the bed.
· The floodplain above the bank is inactive floodplain. It basically contains two types of deposits: flood
deposits and channel deposits.
· In plains, channels shift laterally and change their courses occasionally leaving cut-off courses which
get filled up gradually. Such areas over flood plains built up by abandoned or cut-off channels contain
coarse deposits.
· The flood deposits of spilled waters carry relatively finer materials like silt and clay.
· The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains.
Fig. 7.1.: Natural Levees and Point Bars:
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Natural Levees and Point Bars:
· These are landforms associated with floodplains.
· Natural levees are found along the banks of large rivers. They are low, linear, and parallel ridges of
coarse deposits along the banks of rivers, quite often cut into individual mounds.
· Point bars are also known as meander bars. They are found on the concave side of meanders of large
rivers and are sediments deposited in a linear fashion by flowing waters along the bank. They are
almost uniform in profile and in width and contain mixed sizes of sediments.
Meanders:
· In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns called
meanders develop over flood and delta plains.
· It is not a landform but is only a type of channel pattern because of:
Ø Propensity of water flowing over very gentle gradients to work laterally on the banks.
Ø Unconsolidated nature of alluvial deposits making up the banks with many irregularities which can
be used by water exerting pressure laterally.
Ø Coriolis force acting on the fluid water deflecting it like it deflects the wind.
· Slight irregularities along the banks slowly get transformed into a small curvature in the banks.
· The curvature deepens due to deposition on the inside of the curve and erosion along the bank on the
outside.
Fig. 7.2: Meander growth and cut-off loops and Slip-off and undercut banks
46
· If there is no deposition and no erosion or undercutting, the tendency to meander is reduced.
· In meanders of large rivers, there is active deposition along the concave bank and undercutting along
the convex bank.
Ø The concave bank is known as cut-off bank which shows up as a steep scarp.
Ø The convex bank presents a long, gentle profile.
· As meanders grow into deep loops, the same may get cut-off due to erosion at the inflection points
and are left as ox-bow lakes.
Work of Groundwater:
· The surface water percolates well in permeable, thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked rocks.
· After vertically going down to some depth, the water under the ground flows horizontally through the
bedding planes, joints or through the materials themselves.
· Physical or mechanical removal of materials by moving groundwater is insignificant in developing
landforms and hence the results of the work of groundwater cannot be seen in all types of rocks.
· In rocks like limestones or dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the surface water as well as
groundwater through the chemical process of solution and precipitation deposition develop varieties
of landforms.
· Karst Topography: It is any limestone or dolomitic region showing typical landforms produced by the
action of groundwater through the processes of solution and deposition. This is after the typical
topography developed in limestone rocks of Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic Sea.
Erosional Landforms (Karst Topography)

Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies and Limestone Pavements:
· Small to medium sized round to sub-rounded shallow depressions called swallow holes form on the
surface of limestones through solution.
· Sinkhole: It is an opening more or less circular at the top and funnel-shaped towards the bottom with
sizes varying in area from a few sq. m to a hectare.
· Some of these forms solely through solution action (solution sinks) and others might start as solution
forms first and if the bottom of a sinkhole forms the roof of a void or cave underground, it might collapse
leaving a large hole opening into a cave or a void below (collapse sinks). The Doline is sometimes used
to refer the collapse sinks.
· Solution sinks are more common than collapse sinks. The surface runoff simply goes down swallow
and sink holes and flow as underground streams and re-emerge at a distance downstream through a
cave opening.
· When sink holes and dolines join together because of slumping of materials along their margins or due
to roof collapse of caves, long, narrow to wide trenches called valley sinks or Uvalas form.
· Gradually, most of the surface of the limestone is eaten away by pits and trenches, leaving it extremely
irregular with a maze of points, grooves, and ridges or lapies.
· Limestone Pavements: The lapie field may eventually turn into somewhat smooth.
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Caves:
· The caves formation is prominent in areas where there are alternating beds of rocks (shales,
sandstones, quartzites) with limestones or dolomites in between or in areas where limestones are
dense, massive and occurring as thick beds.
· Water percolates down either through the materials or through cracks and joints and moves
horizontally along bedding planes.
· Caves: These are long and narrow to wide gaps formed when the limestone get dissolves along
bedding planes. Caves normally have an opening through which cave streams are discharged.
· Tunnels: These are caves having openings at both the ends.
Depositional Landforms by Groundwater:

· The chief chemical in limestone is calcium carbonate which is easily soluble in carbonated water
(carbon dioxide absorbed rainwater).
· This calcium carbonate is deposited when the water carrying it in solution evaporates or loses its
carbon dioxide as it trickles over rough rock surfaces.
Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillars:

· Stalactites: They hang as icicles of different diameters. Normally they are broad at their bases and
taper towards the free ends showing up in a variety of forms.
· Stalagmites: They rise up from the floor of the caves and form due to dripping water from the surface
or through the thin pipe, of the stalactite, immediately below it. They may take the shape of a column, a
disc, with either a smooth, rounded bulging end or a miniature crater like depression.
· The stalagmite and stalactites eventually fuse to give rise to columns and pillars of different diameters.
Fig. 7.3: Caves
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Glaciers:
· Masses of ice moving as sheets over the land (continental glacier or piedmont glacier if a vast sheet of
ice is spread over the plains at the foot of mountains) or as linear flows down the slopes of mountains
in broad trough-like valleys (mountain and valley glaciers) are called glaciers.
· Their movement is slow and is because of the force of gravity.
· Their erosion is tremendous because of friction caused by sheer weight of the ice.
· The material plucked from the land by glaciers (usually large-sized angular blocks and fragments) get
dragged along the floors or sides of the valleys and cause great damage through abrasion and
plucking.
· Glaciers can cause significant damage to even un-weathered rocks and can reduce high mountains
into low hills and plains.
Erosional landforms formed by glaciers:

Cirque:
· Cirques are found on heads of the glacial valleys. They are deep, long, and wide troughs or basins with
very steep concave to vertically dropping high walls at its head as well as sides.
· A lake of water can be seen quite often within the cirques after the glacier disappears. Such lakes are
called cirque or tarn lakes.
Horns and Serrated Ridges:

· Horns: These are high, sharp pointed and steep sided peaks formed if three or more radiating glaciers
cut headward until their cirques meet.
· The divides between cirque side walls or head walls get narrow because of progressive erosion and
turn into serrated or saw-toothed ridges sometimes referred to as arêtes with very sharp crest and a
zig-zag outline.
Glacial Valleys/ Troughs:

· Glaciated valleys: These are trough-like and U-shaped with broad floors and relatively smooth, and
steep sides.
· The valleys may contain littered debris or debris shaped as moraines with swampy appearance.
· There can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one or both sides of the main glacial valley.
· The faces of divides or spurs of such hanging valleys opening into main glacial valleys are quite often
truncated to give them an appearance like triangular facets.
· Very deep glacial troughs filled with sea water and making up shorelines (in high latitudes) are called
fjords/fiords.
Depositional Landforms Formed by Glaciers:

Glacial Till:
These are unassorted coarse and fine debris dropped by the melting glaciers. Most rock fragments in till are
49
angular to sub angular in form.
Outwash Deposit:
These are glacio-fluvial deposits which are rock debris small enough to be carried by melt water stream.
The rock fragments are rounded at their edges. Unlike till deposits, the outwash deposits are roughly
stratified and assorted.
Moraines:
· They are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
· Terminal Moraines: These are long ridges of debris and deposited at the end (toe) of the glaciers.
· Lateral Moraines: They may join a terminal moraine forming a horse-shoe shaped ridge. These
moraines partly or fully owe their origin to glacio-fluvial waters pushing up materials to the sides of
glaciers.
· Ground Moraines: Many valley glaciers retreating rapidly leave an irregular sheet of till over their
valley floors. Such deposits varying greatly in thickness and in surface topography are called ground
moraines.
· Medial Moraines: These are moraine in the centre of the glacial valley flanked by lateral moraines.
They are imperfectly formed as compared to lateral moraines. Sometimes These are indistinguishable
from ground moraines.
Eskers:
· When glaciers melt in summer, the water flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down along the
margins or even moves through holes in the ice.
· These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice.
· Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks.
· Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks along with some minor fractions of rock debris carried
into this stream settle in the valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a

sinuous ridge called esker.
Outwash Plains:
· The plains at the foot of the glacial mountains or beyond the limits of continental ice sheets are covered
with glacio-fluvial deposits.
· It is in the form of broad flat alluvial fans which may join to form outwash plains of gravel, silt, sand and
clay.
Drumlins:
· Drumlins: They are smooth oval shaped ridge-like features composed mainly of glacial till with some
masses of gravel and sand.
· The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement.
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· They may measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so in height.
· One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other
end called tail.
· The drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures in the
glacier.
· The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing by moving ice.
· Drumlins give an indication of direction of glacier movement.
Waves and Currents:

Coastal processes are the most dynamic and hence most destructive. There can be erosion in one season
and deposition in another. Most of the changes along the coasts are accomplished by waves.
· Constant impact of breaking waves drastically affects the coasts.
· Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching changes in a short period of time than
normal breaking waves.
· Apart from the action of waves, the coastal landforms depend upon:
Ø The configuration of land and sea floor.
Ø Whether the coast is advancing (emerging) seaward or retreating (submerging) landward.
· Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts are considered to explain the concept of
evolution of coastal landforms:
Ø Submerged coasts: High, rocky coasts
Ø Emerged coasts: Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary coasts
High Rocky Coasts:

· Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers appear to have been drowned with highly irregular coastline.
· The coastline appears highly indented with extension of water into the land where glacial valleys
(fjords) are present.
· The hill sides drop off sharply into the water.
· Shores do not show any depositional landforms initially and erosion features dominate.
· Along high rocky coasts, waves break with great force against the land shaping the hill sides into cliffs.
· With constant pounding by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-cut platform in front of the sea
cliff.
· Waves gradually minimise the irregularities along the shore.
· The materials which fall off, and removed from the sea cliffs, gradually break into smaller fragments,
and roll to roundness, will get deposited in the offshore.
· After a considerable period of cliff development and retreat when coastline turns somewhat smooth,
with the addition of some more material to this deposit in the offshore, a wave-built terrace would
develop in front of wave-cut terrace.
· Bars are long ridges of sand and/ or shingle parallel to the coast and are submerged features.
· When bars show up above water, they are called barrier bars.
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· Spit: It is a barrier bar which gets keyed up to the headland of a bay.
· Lagoon: It is formed when barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a bay and block. It would
gradually get filled up by sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal plain.
Low Sedimentary Coasts:

· Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers appear to extend their length by building coastal plains and
deltas.
· The coastline appears smooth with occasional incursions of water in the form of lagoons and tidal
creeks.
· The land slopes gently into the water and marshes and swamps may abound along the coasts.
· Depositional features dominate.
· When waves break over a gently sloping sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get churned and
move readily building bars, barrier bars, spits and lagoons.
· Lagoons would eventually turn into a swamp which would subsequently turn into a coastal plain.
· The maintenance of these depositional features depends upon the steady supply of materials.
· Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
· Large rivers which bring lots of sediments build deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
Erosional Landforms formed by Waves

Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks:
· Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms usually found where erosion is the dominant shore
process.
· At the foot of sea cliffs there may be a flat or gently sloping platform covered by rock debris derived
from the sea cliff behind. Such platforms occurring at elevations above the average height of waves is
called a wavecut terrace.
· The lashing of waves against the base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets smashed against the
cliff along with lashing waves create hollows and these hollows get widened and deepened to form

sea caves.
· Retreat of the cliff may leave some remnants of rock standing isolated as small islands just off the
shore. Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks.
· Sea stacks are also temporary and eventually coastal hills and cliffs will disappear because of wave
erosion giving rise to narrow coastal plains.
Depositional Landforms Formed by Waves

Beaches:
· Beaches are characteristic of shorelines that are dominated by deposition but may occur as patches
along even the rugged shores.
· Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes from land carried by the streams and rivers or
from wave erosion. Beaches are temporary features.
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· The sandy beach which appears so permanent may be reduced to a very narrow strip of coarse
pebbles in some other season.
· Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.
Dunes:
· Just behind the beach, the sands lifted and winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be deposited
as sand dunes.
· Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the coastline are very common along low sedimentary
coasts.
Bars, Barriers and Spits:
· A ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in the off-shore zone (from the position of low tide
waterline to seaward) lying approximately parallel to the coast is called an off-shore bar.
· An offshore bar which is exposed due to further addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
· The offshore bars and barriers commonly form across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
· The barrier bars which is attached from one end to the coast is called spit.
· The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of the bay gradually extend leaving only a small opening of
the bay into the sea and the bay will eventually develop into a lagoon.
· The lagoons later filled by sand brought by wind and broad wide plain develop replacing lagoon.
Winds:
· Wind is one of the two dominant agents in hot deserts.
· The heated floors heat up the air directly above them and result in upward movements in the hot lighter
air with turbulence, and any obstructions in its path sets up eddies, whirlwinds, updrafts and
downdrafts.
· Winds also move along the desert floors with great speed and the obstructions in their path create
turbulence.
· Wind cause deflation, abrasion and impact.
· Deflation includes lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the surface of rocks. this sand
blasting operations of the wind give rise to the various landforms.

· In fact, many features of deserts owe their formation to mass wasting and running water as sheet
floods.
· The desert rocks devoid of vegetation, exposed to mechanical and chemical weathering processes
due to drastic diurnal temperature changes, decay faster and the torrential rains help in removing the
weathered materials easily.
· Debris in deserts is not only moved by winds but also by rain/sheet wash.
· The wind moves fine materials and general mass erosion is accomplished mainly through sheet floods
or sheet wash.
· Stream channels in desert areas are broad, smooth and indefinite and flow for a brief time after rains.
53
Erosional Landforms in Deserts
Pediments and Pediplains:
· Pediments: These are gently inclined rocky floors close to the mountains at their foot with or without a
thin cover of debris. These are formed through the erosion of mountain front through a combination of
lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding.
· Once, pediments are formed with a steep wash slope followed by cliff or free face above it, the steep
wash slope and free face retreat backwards. This method of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of
slopes through backwasting.
· Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments extend backwards at the expense of mountain front,
and gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg which is a remnant of the mountain.
· The high relief in desert areas is reduced to low featureless plains called pediplains.
Playas:
· In basins with mountains and hills around and along, the drainage is towards the centre of the basin
and due to gradual deposition of sediment from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms at the centre
of the basin.
· In times of sufficient water, this plain is covered up by a shallow water body. Such types of shallow
lakes are called as playas where water is retained only for short duration due to evaporation and quite
often the playas contain good deposition of salts.
· Alkali Flats: These are the playa plain covered up by salts.
Deflation Hollows and Caves:

· Weathered mantle from over the rocks or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent movement of wind
currents in one direction. This process may create shallow depressions called deflation hollows.
· Deflation also creates numerous small pits or cavities over rock surfaces. The rock faces suffer impact
and abrasion of wind-borne sand and first shallow depressions called blow outs are created.
· Some of the blow outs become deeper and wider fit to be called caves.

Mushroom, Table, and Pedestal Rocks:
· Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion are worn out
quickly leaving some remnants of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the shape of mushroom with a
slender stalk and a broad and rounded pear-shaped cap above.
· The top surface is broad like a table-top and quite often, the remnants stand out like pedestals.
Depositional Landforms in Deserts:

· Wind is a good sorting agent. Depending upon the velocity of wind, different sizes of grains are
moved along the floors by rolling or saltation and carried in suspension and in this process of
transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
· When the wind slows or begins to die down, depending upon sizes of grains and their critical velocities,
the grains will begin to settle. So, good sorting of grains can be found in depositional landforms.
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Sand Dunes:
Dry hot deserts are good places for sand dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune formation are equally
important. There can be a great variety of dune forms:
· Barchans: These are crescent shaped dunes with the points or wings directed away from wind
direction i.e., downwind, form where the wind direction is constant and moderate and where the
original surface over which sand is moving is almost uniform.
· Parabolic Dunes: They form when sandy surfaces are partially covered with vegetation. These are
reversed barchans with wind direction being the same.
· Seif: It is similar to barchan with a small difference that it has only one wing or point due to shift in
wind conditions. The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and high.
Fig. 7.4: Various types of Sand Dunes Arrows indicate Wind Direction
· Longitudinal Dunes: They form when supply of sand is poor and wind direction is constant. They
appear as long ridges of considerable length but low in height.
· Transverse Dunes: They are aligned perpendicular to wind direction. These dunes form when the
wind direction is constant, and the source of sand is an elongated feature at right angles to the wind
direction. They may be very long and low in height.
· When sand is plenty, the regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their individual characteristics.
· Most of the dunes in the deserts shift and a few of them will get stabilised especially near human
habitations.
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Interesting points
· Bhagirathi river is basically fed by meltwaters from under the snout (Gaumukh) of the Gangotri
glacier. Alkapuri glacier feeds waters to Alakananda river.
· Rivers Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make river Ganga near Devprayag.
· The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest are horns
formed through headward erosion of radiating cirques.
· The west coast of India is a high rocky retreating coast and is dominated by erosional forms. The
east coast of India is a low sedimentary coast and dominated by depositional forms.
· The coastal offshore bars offer the first buffer or defence against storm or tsunami by absorbing
most of their destructive force. Then come the barriers, beaches, beach dunes and mangroves are
also offer defence against these forces.
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COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
8 OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases and its envelopes the earth all round. The air is an integral part of
the earth's mass and 99 per cent of the total mass of the atmosphere is confined to the height of 32 km
from the earth's surface.
Composition of the Atmosphere:

· The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles.
· The gases proportion changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be
almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.
· The carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface of the earth.
Gases:
· Carbon dioxide: It is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. It absorbs some part of terrestrial radiation
and reflect back some of it. It is largely responsible for green-house gas effect.
· The volume of carbon dioxide has been rising in the past few decades mainly because of the burning of
fossil fuels and subsequently it has increased temperature of the gases.
· Ozone: It is found between 10 and 50 km above the earth's surface and acts as a filter and absorbs
the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.
Wate Vapour:
· It is also a variable gas in the atmosphere which decreases with altitude.
COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE
· In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and
cold areas, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
· It decreases from the equator towards the poles.
· It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth's radiated heat. It acts like a
blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor become too hot.
Dust Particle:
· Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles which may originate from different
sources and includes sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of
meteors.
· They are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Yet, convectional air currents
may transport them to great heights.
· It has higher concentration in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry winds in comparison to
equatorial and polar regions.
· Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce
clouds.
Structure of the Atmosphere:
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· The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
· Density decreases with increasing altitude and is highest near the surface of the earth.
· The column of atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature
condition.
· Troposphere:
Ø The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
Ø Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km
at the equator.
Ø Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great
heights by strong convectional currents.
Ø This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate and weather take place
in this layer.
Ø The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1° C for every 165m of height.
Ø This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
Ø Tropopause: It is the zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere. The air temperature at
the tropopause is about minus 800C over the equator and about minus 45oC. over the poles. It is
called tropopause as the temperature in tropopause is nearly constant.
Fig. 8.1: Structure of atmosphere
· Stratosphere:
Ø It is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
Ø It contains the ozone layer which absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields life on the earth from
intense, harmful form of energy.
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· Mesosphere:
Ø It lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km.
Ø In this layer temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to minus
100° C at the height of 80 km.
Ø Mesopause: It is the upper limit of mesosphere.
· Ionosphere:
Ø It is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause.
Ø It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, it is known as ionosphere.
Ø It reflects back the radio waves transmitted from the earth.
Ø In this layer, temperature starts increasing with height.
· Exosphere:
Ø It is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere.
Ø It is the highest layer but very little is known about it.
Ø The contents in this layer are extremely rarefied and it gradually merges with the outer space.
The main elements of atmosphere which are subject to change and which influence human life on earth are
temperature, pressure, winds, humidity, clouds and precipitation.
Interesting points
· The air is colourless and odourless and can be felt only when it blows as wind.
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SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT
9 BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE
The earth receives almost all of its energy from the sun. The earth in turn radiates back to space the energy
received from the sun. The amount of heat received by different parts of the earth is not the same which
causes pressure differences in the atmosphere. This leads to the transfer of the heat from one region to other
region by wind.
Solar Radiation:
· The earth's surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths.
· The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar radiation which in short is termed as
insolation.
· As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun's rays fall obliquely at the top of the atmosphere
and the earth intercepts a very small portion of the sun's energy.
· On an average the earth receives 1.94 calories per sq. cm per minute at the top of its atmosphere.
· The solar output varies slightly in a year due to the variations in the distance between the earth and the
sun.
· Aphelion: It is the position of the earth when during its revolution around the sun, it is farthest from the
sun (152 million km) on 4th July.
· Perihelion: On 3rd January, the earth is the nearest to the sun (147 million km). The annual insolation
received by the earth on 3rd January is slightly more than the amount received on 4th July.
· The effect of this variation in the solar output is masked by other factors like the distribution of land and
sea and the atmospheric circulation.
· This variation in the solar output does not have great effect on daily weather.
SOLAR RADIATION, HEAT BALANCE AND TEMPERATURE

Variation of Insolation at the Surface of the Earth:
· The amount and the intensity of insolation vary during a day, in a season and in a year.
· Various factors causing variations in Insolation:
Ø The rotation of earth on its axis.
Ø The angle of inclination of the sun's rays.
Ø The length of the day.
Ø The transparency of the atmosphere.
Ø The configuration of land in terms of its aspect.
· The earth's axis makes an angle of 66½o with the plane of its orbit round the sun has a greater
influence on the amount of insolation received at different latitudes.
· The second factor that determines the amount of insolation received is the angle of inclination of the
rays which depends on the latitude of a place.
· The higher the latitude the less is the angle they make with the surface of the earth resulting in slant
sun rays. The area covered by vertical rays is always less than the slant rays.
· If more area is covered, the energy gets distributed and the net energy received per unit area
decreases.
· The slant rays are required to pass through greater depth of the atmosphere resulting in more
absorption, scattering and diffusion.
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Fig. 9.1: Summer Solstice
Passage of the Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere:

· The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation (incoming solar radiation).
· Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.
· The very small-suspended particles in the troposphere scatter visible spectrum both to the space and
towards the earth surface which adds colour to the sky.
· The red colour of the rising and the setting sun and the blue colour of the sky are the result of
scattering of light within the atmosphere.
Spatial Distribution of Insolation at the Earth's Surface:

· The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2 in the tropics to about 70
Watt/m2 in the poles.
· The subtropical deserts receive maximum insolation where the cloudiness is the least.
· Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
· At the same latitude, the insolation is more over the continent than over the oceans.
· In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation than in summer.
Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere:

There are different ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere.
· The earth after being heated by insolation transmits the heat to the atmospheric layers near to the
earth in long wave form.
· Conduction:
Ø It is the process when the air in contact with the land gets heated slowly and the upper layers in
contact with the lower layers also get heated.
Ø It takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there is a
flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body.
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Ø The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the same temperature, or the contact is
broken.
Ø It is important in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.
· Convection:
Ø It is the process of vertical heating of the atmosphere when the air in contact with the earth rises
vertically on heating in the form of currents and further transmits the heat of the atmosphere.
Ø The convective transfer of energy is confined only to the troposphere.
· Advection:
Ø It is the transfer of heat through horizontal movement of air.
Ø Horizontal movement of the air is relatively more important than the vertical movement.
Ø In middle latitudes, most of diurnal (day and night) variation in daily weather are caused by
advection alone.
Ø In tropical regions particularly in northern India during summer season local winds called 'loo' is
the outcome of advection process.
Terrestrial Radiation:
· The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth after
being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave
form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial
radiation.
· Indirect heating of atmosphere by earth's radiation: The long wave radiation is absorbed by the
atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the other greenhouse gases.

· The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space.
· Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant
temperature at the earth's surface and in the atmosphere.
Heat Budget of the Planet Earth:

· The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose heat and maintains its temperature. This can
happen only if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the
earth through terrestrial radiation.
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Fig. 9.2: Heat Budget of the Earth
· While passing through the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface.
· Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even before reaching the earth's surface.
Ø Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-
covered areas of the earth.
Ø The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth.

· The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth's
surface.
· The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.
Ø Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the
atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and
turbulence and 19 units through latent heat of condensation).
· 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are
also radiated back into space.
Ø Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65
units which balance the total of 65 units received from the sun. This is termed the heat budget or
heat balance of the earth.
Variation in the Net Heat Budget at the Earth's Surface:

· Some part of the earth has surplus radiation balance while the other part has deficit.
· There is a surplus of net radiation balance between 40 degrees north and south and the regions near
the poles have a deficit.
· The surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed pole wards and as a result the tropics do not
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get progressively heated up due to the accumulation of excess heat or the high latitudes get
permanently frozen due to excess deficit.
Fig. 9.3: Latitudinal variation in net radiation balance
Temperature:
· The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth's surface creates heat which is
measured in terms of temperature.
· The heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a substance and the
temperature measures in degrees of hot (or cold) of a thing (or a place).

Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution:
The temperature of air at any place is influenced by:
· Latitude of the place:
Ø The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received.
Ø The temperature varies as the insolation varies according to the latitude.
· Altitude of the place:
Ø The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the places near
the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations i.e., the
temperature generally decreases with increasing height.
Ø Normal Lapse Rate: It is the rate of decrease of temperature with height.
· Distance from the sea:
Ø Variation over sea is less: The sea gets heated slowly as compared to land and loses heat slowly.
Land heats up and cools down quickly.
Ø The places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes
which moderate the temperature.
· Air-mass and oceanic Currents:
Ø The passage of air masses also affects the temperature like the land and sea breezes.
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Ø The places, which come under the influence of warm airmasses experience higher temperature
and the places that come under the influence of cold air-masses experience low temperature.
Ø The places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature
than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.
· Local aspects:
Ø The local aspects also affect the temperature. For example, Due to construction of buildings, the
area experiences more temperature also called Heat Island effect.
Distribution of Temperature:
The January and July months are important to understand global temperature distribution.
· The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
· The effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced as the isotherms are generally parallel to
the latitude.
· The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the
northern hemisphere.
Ø In the northern hemisphere, the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere.
So, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
Ø In January, the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent.
Ø The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern
Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north.
· The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere.
Ø The isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more
gradual than in the northern hemisphere.
· In July, the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitude.
· The equatorial oceans record warmer temperature, more than 27°C.
· The highest range of temperature is more than 60°C over the north-eastern part of Eurasian
continent due to continentality.
· The least range of temperature, 3°C, is found between 20°S and 15°N.
Inversion of Temperature:
Ø Normally, temperature decreases with increase in elevation and called normal lapse rate. At times,
the situations are reversed, and the normal lapse rate is inverted. It is called Inversion of
temperature. Inversion is usually of short duration.
· Idea situation for inversion: A long winter night with clear skies and still air. The heat of the day is
radiated off during the night, and by early morning hours, the earth is cooler than the air above. Over
polar areas, temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.
· Effects of the inversion:
Ø Surface inversion promotes stability in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
Ø Smoke and dust particles get collected beneath the inversion layer and spread horizontally to fill the
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lower strata of the atmosphere.
Ø Dense fogs in mornings are common occurrences especially during winter season.
· In Hilly or Mountain areas:
Ø The inversion takes place due to air drainage.
Ø Cold air at the hills and mountains, produced during night, flows under the influence of gravity.
Ø Being heavy and dense, the cold air acts almost like water and moves down the slope to pile up
deeply in pockets and valley bottoms with warm air above. This is called air drainage. It protects
plants from frost damages.
Interesting points
· Plank's Law: It states that hotter the body, the more energy it will radiate and shorter the
wavelength of that radiation.
· Specific Heat: It is the energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of substance by one
Celsius.
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ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
10 AND WEATHER SYSTEMS
Air expands when heated and gets compressed when cooled which results in variations in the atmospheric
pressure. It causes the movement of air from high pressure to low pressure, setting the air in motion. It also
determines when the air will rise or sink. The vertical rising of moist air cools it down to form the clouds and
bring precipitation.
Atmospheric Pressure:
· Human body is subjected to a lot of air pressure and as one moves up the air gets verified and one feels
breathless.
· Atmospheric Pressure: It is the weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea
level to the top of the atmosphere. It is expressed in units of millibar.
· The average atmospheric pressure is 1,013.2 millibar at the sea level.
· Due to gravity, the air at the surface is denser and hence has higher pressure.
· Air pressure is measured with the help of a mercury barometer or the aneroid barometer.
Vertical Variation of Pressure:

· In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease amounts to about
1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same rate.
Table 10.1: Standard Pressure and Temperature at Selected Levels.

Atmospheric Circulation and Weather Systems
· The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. But it
is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force. Hence, there is no strong
upward winds.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure:

· Small differences in pressure are significant in terms of wind direction and velocity.
· Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines
connecting places having equal pressure.
· The isobars are measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison to
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eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure,
· Low-pressure system is enclosed by one or more isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre.
· High-pressure system is also enclosed by one or more isobars with the highest pressure in the
centre.
World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure:

· Near the equator the sea level pressure is low, and the area is known as equatorial low.
· Along 30° N and 30° S are found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs.
· Further pole wards along 60° N and 60° S, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows.
· Near the poles the pressure is high, and it is known as the polar high.
· These pressure belts are not permanent in nature and they oscillate with apparent movement of the
sun.
· In the northern hemisphere, in winter they move southwards and in the summer northwards.
Forces affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind:

· Wind is the air in motion and blows from high pressure to low pressure.
· The wind at the surface experiences friction.
· The rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement. The force exerted by the rotation of the
earth is known as the Coriolis force.
· The horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the combined effect of three forces: the
pressure gradient force, the frictional force and the Coriolis force.
· In addition, the gravitational force acts downward.
Pressure Gradient Force:

· The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force.

· The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
· The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the
isobars are apart.
Frictional Force:
· It affects the speed of the wind.
· It is greatest at the surface and its influence generally extends up to an elevation of 1-3 km.
· Over the sea surface the friction is minimal.
Coriolis Force:
· The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis
force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
· It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern
hemisphere. The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
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· The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is
absent at the equator.
· The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is
perpendicular to an isobar.
· The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the
deflection in the direction of wind.
· As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the
wind blows around it.
· It is zero at the equator and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low pressure gets filled
instead of getting intensified. This is the reason tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator.
Pressure and Wind:

· The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
· The winds in upper atmosphere (2-3 km above) are free from frictional forces and are mainly
controlled by pressure gradient force and Coriolis force.
· When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar. This wind is known as the
geostrophic wind.
Fig. 10.1: Geostrophic Wind
· The wind circulation around a low pressure is called cyclonic circulation. Around a high pressure it is
called anti cyclonic circulation. The direction is not same.
Table 10.2: Pattern of Wind Direction in Cyclones and Anticyclones
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· The wind circulation at the earth's surface around low and high on many occasions is closely related to
the wind circulation at higher level.
· Generally, over low-pressure area the air will converge and rise.
· Over high-pressure area the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
· Apart from convergence, some eddies, convection currents, orographic uplift and uplift along fronts
cause the rising of air, which is essential for the formation of clouds and precipitation.
Fig. 10.2: Convergence and divergence of winds
General circulation of atmosphere:

The pattern of the movement of the planetary winds is called the general circulation of the atmosphere.
The pattern of planetary winds largely depends on:
· Latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating.
· Emergence of pressure belts.

· The migration of belts following apparent path of the sun.
· The distribution of continents and oceans.
· The rotation of earth.
The general circulation of the atmosphere also sets in motion the ocean water circulation which
influences the earth's climate.
Fig. 10.3: Simplified general circulation of the atmosphere.
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· The air at the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high
insolation and a low pressure is created. The winds from the tropics converge at this low-pressure
zone.
· The converged air rises along with the convective cell. It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an
altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles.
· This causes accumulation of air at about 30° N and S.
· Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high.
· Another reason for sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30° N and S latitudes.
· Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.
· The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the ITCZ. Such circulations from the surface
upwards and vice-versa are called cells. Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley cell.
· In the middle latitudes, the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the rising
warm air that blows from the subtropical high.
· At the surface, these winds are called westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrell cell.
· At polar latitudes, the cold dense air subsides near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as
the polar easterlies. This cell is called the Polar cell.
· These three cells set the pattern for the general circulation of the atmosphere.
· The transfer of heat energy from lower latitudes to higher latitudes maintains the general circulation.
· The general circulation of the atmosphere also affects the oceans.
Ø Large-scale winds of the atmosphere initiate large and slow-moving currents of the ocean.
Ø Oceans in turn provide input of energy and water vapour into the air.
Seasonal Winds:
· The pattern of wind circulation is modified in different seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.
· The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in the monsoons, especially over southeast Asia.
Local Winds:
· Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or annually
can create several common, local or regional winds.
Land and Sea Breezes:
· During the day, the land heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land
the air rises giving rise to a low-pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over
sea is relatively high thus wind blow from sea to land.
· In the night, the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster and is cooler than the sea.
The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze results.
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Fig. 10.4: Sea and Land Breeze
Mountain and valley Winds:

· In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill the
resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley breeze.
· During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the mountain
wind.
· The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called katabatic wind.
· Another type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges.
Ø The moisture in these winds, while crossing the mountain ranges condense and precipitate.
Ø When it descends down the leeward side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by adiabatic
process. This dry air may melt the snow in a short time.

Air Masses:
· When the air remains over a homogenous area for a sufficiently longer time, it acquires the
characteristics of the area. The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains.
· The air with distinctive characteristics in terms of temperature and humidity is called an airmass. It is
defined as a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and moisture.
· The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called the source regions.
· The air masses are classified according to the source regions. Following are five major source regions:
Ø Warm tropical and subtropical oceans.
Ø The subtropical hot deserts.
Ø The relatively cold high latitude oceans.
Ø The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes.
Ø Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
· Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised: (i) Maritime tropical (mT); (ii) Continental
tropical (cT); (iii) Maritime polar (mP); (iv) Continental polar (cP); (v) Continental arctic (cA).
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· Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.
Fronts:
· When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front.
· The process of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis.
· There are four types of fronts:
Ø Cold: When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass, its contact zone is called the cold front.
Ø Warm: If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass, the contact zone is a warm front
hence it is called warm front.
Ø Stationary Front: When the front remains stationary.
Ø Occluded: If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is called the occluded front.
Fig. 10.5: Warm front Fig. 10.6: Cold front

Fig. 10.7: Occluded front
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· The fronts occur in middle latitudes and are characterised by steep gradient in temperature and
pressure.
· They bring abrupt changes in temperature and cause the air to rise to form clouds and cause
precipitation.
Extra Tropical Cyclones:

The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle latitude or
extra tropical cyclones. They form along the polar front.
· Formation of Extra Tropical Cyclone:
Ø Initially, the front is stationary.
Ø In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the front.
Ø When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move
towards, south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
Ø The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a
cold front.
Fig. 10.8: Extra tropical cyclones
· The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the warm
front and cause precipitation.
· The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air up. As a result, cumulus
clouds develop along the cold front.
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· The cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front.
· The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is occluded, and the cyclone dissipates.
· The processes of wind circulation both at the surface and aloft are closely interlinked.
Tropical Cyclone:
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
· Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to the
coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall, and
storm surges. This is one of the most devastating natural calamities.
· They are known as:
Ø Cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Ø Hurricanes in the Atlantic.
Ø Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea.
Ø Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
· Favourable conditions for Tropical Cyclone:
Ø Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
Ø Presence of the Coriolis force.
Ø Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
Ø A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
Ø Upper divergence above the sea level system.
Fig. 10.9: Vertical section of the tropical cyclone
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· The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm.
· On reaching the land, the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.
· The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
· The cyclones, which cross 20° N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.
· A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind around the centre,
called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km. The eye is a
region of calm with subsiding air.
· Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height
reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region and reach as high as 250
km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here.
· From the eye wall, rain bands may radiate, and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift
into the outer region.
· The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is between 600 - 1200
km.
Table 10.3: Difference between tropical and extra tropical cyclone:
Extra tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone
They have a clear frontal system. It doesn't have clear frontal system.
They can originate over the land and sea. They originate over only on sea and
reaching on land they dissipate.
They affect a much larger area as compared They affect smaller as compared to extra
to the tropical cyclone. tropical cyclone.

Wind velocity is static but not violent. The wind velocity in a tropical cyclone is
much higher and it is more destructive.
It moves from west to east. It moves from east to west.
Thunderstorms:
They are of short duration, occurring over a small area but are violent.
· A thunderstorm is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud producing thunder and lightning.
· Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
· A thunderstorm is characterised by intense updraft of rising warm air, which causes the clouds to
grow bigger and rise to greater height which causes precipitation. Later, downdraft brings down to
earth the cool air and the rain.
· When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero temperature prevails, hails are formed, and they
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come down as hailstorm.
· If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can generate dust storms.
Tornadoes:
· From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with
great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is called a tornado.
· Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
· The tornado over the sea is called waterspouts.
· These violent storms are the manifestation of the atmosphere's adjustments to varying energy
distribution.
· The potential and heat energies are converted into kinetic energy in these storms and the restless
atmosphere again returns to its stable state.
Interesting points
· El-Nino: Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general
atmospheric circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South
American coast and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the
coast of Peru is known as the El Nino.
· Southern Oscillation: The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the
Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the
southern oscillation.
· EL Nino- Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and
El Nino is known as ENSO. In the years when the ENSO is strong, it affects weather conditions over
various regions of the world like the arid west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought
occurs in Australia and sometimes in India and floods in China.
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WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
11
Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely gaseous, liquid, and solid. The moisture in the
atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants through transpiration. There
is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and the continents through the
processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
Humidity:
Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity. It is expressed quantitatively in different ways.
· Absolute Humidity:
Ø The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute
humidity.
Ø It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic
metre.
Ø The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.
Ø It differs from place to place on the surface of the earth.
· Relative Humidity:
Ø The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.
Ø With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the
relative humidity is also affected.
Ø It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.
Evaporation and Condensation:

The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
condensation, respectively.
Evaporation:
· It is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.
· Heat is the main cause for evaporation.
· The temperature at which the water starts evaporating is referred to as the latent heat of
vaporisation.
· Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer. Hence, the greater the
movement of air, the greater is the evaporation.
Condensation:
· The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
· It is caused by the loss of heat and air becomes cool.
· When water vapour directly condenses into solid form it is known as sublimation.
· In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic
condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei
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because they absorb water.
· Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object, and it may
also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point.
· It depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air.
· It is influenced by the volume of air, temperature, pressure and humidity.
· Condensation takes place:
Ø When the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume remaining constant.
Ø When both the volume and the temperature are reduced.
Ø When moisture is added to the air through evaporation.
Ø The most favourable condition for condensation is the decrease in air temperature.
· After condensation, the water vapour or the moisture in the atmosphere takes one of the following
forms - dew, frost, fog and clouds.
· Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point as well as higher than
the freezing point.
· Forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of temperature and location.
Dew:
When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects (rather
than nuclei in air above the surface) such as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
· Ideal conditions for its formation: Clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long nights.
· For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.
Frost:
Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (0°C), i.e., the dew point
is at or below the freezing point.
· The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets.
· Ideal conditions for its formation: They are same as those for the formation of dew, except that the air
temperature must be at or below the freezing point.
Fog and mist:

When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls suddenly,
condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles.
· The fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
· Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust, smoke,
and the salt particles.
· The visibility becomes poor to zero because of the fog and mist.
· In urban and industrial centres, smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and
mist. Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog.
· Difference between Fog and Mist:
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Ø Mist contains more moisture than the fog.
Ø In mist, each nuclei contains a thicker layer of moisture. Mists are frequent over mountains as the
rising warm air up the slopes meets a cold surface.
Ø Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with
cold currents.
Clouds:
Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the water
vapour in free air at considerable height. They take various shapes as the clouds are formed at some
height over the surface of the earth.
Clouds are grouped under four types according to their height, expanse, density and transparency or
opaqueness:
· Cirrus:
Ø They are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m).
Ø They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance.
Ø They are always white in colour.
· Cumulus:
Ø They look like cotton wool.
Ø They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m.
Ø They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there.
Ø They have a flat base.
· Stratus:
Ø As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
Ø These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with
different temperatures.
· Nimbus:
Ø They are black or dark grey.
Ø They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth.
Ø These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.
Ø Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
Ø These are shapeless masses of thick vapour.
A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
· High clouds: cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus.
· Middle clouds: altostratus and altocumulus.
· Low clouds: stratocumulus and nimbostratus and clouds with extensive vertical development are
cumulus and cumulonimbus.
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Precipitation:
The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow in size. When
the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the earth's surface.
So, after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation. This may
take place in liquid or solid form.
· The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall.
· When the temperature is lower than the 0°C, precipitation takes place in the form of fine flakes of
snow and is called snowfall.
· Moisture is released in the form of hexagonal crystals. These crystals form flakes of snow.
· Sleet:
Ø It is frozen raindrops and refrozen melted snow-water.
Ø When a layer of air with the temperature above freezing point overlies a subfreezing layer near the
ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
Ø Raindrops, which leave the warmer air, encounter the colder air below. As a result, they solidify and
reach the ground as small pellets.
· Hailstones:
Ø Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small rounded solid
pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones.
Ø These are formed by the rainwater passing through the colder layers.
Ø Hailstones have several concentric layers of ice one over the other.
Types of Rainfall:
On the basis of origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types: the convectional, orographic and the
cyclonic or frontal.
Convectional Rainfall:
· The air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents. As it rises, it expands and
loses heat and consequently, condensation takes place and cumulous clouds are formed.
· Heavy rainfall takes place with thunder and lightning, but this does not last long.
· Such rain is common in the summer or in the hotter part of the day.
· It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the
northern hemisphere.
Orographic rain:
· When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it
expands; the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed. It is also known as the relief rain.
· The windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
· When these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and their temperature rises. Then their
capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and dry. The
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area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.
Cyclonic rainfall:
It is the rainfall caused by the occurrence of tropical and extra-tropical cyclones.
World Distribution of Rainfall:

Different places on the earth's surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons.
· The rainfall decreases from equator towards the poles.
· The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
· The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water.
· The rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and goes on decreasing towards the west between the
latitudes 35 degree and 40-degree N and S of the equator.
· Between 45 degree and 65-degree N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first
received on the western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
· Wherever mountains run parallel to the coast, the rain is greater on the coastal plain, on the
windward side and it decreases towards the leeward side.
On the basis of the total amount of annual precipitation, major precipitation regimes of the world are
identified as follows:
· Heavy rainfall (over 200 cm per annum): The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains
along the western coasts in the cool temperate zone.
· Moderate rainfall (200 cm per annum): Interior continental areas, coastal areas of the continents
receive moderate amount of rainfall.
· Low rainfall (50 - 100 cm per annum): Central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior
parts of the temperate lands.
· Very low rainfall (less than 50 cm per annum): Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of
the continents and high latitudes.
In some region's rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in the
western parts of cool temperate regions.
Interesting points
· Dew Point:
Ø The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
Ø The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.
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WORLD CLIMATE AND
12 CLIMATE CHANGE
The world climate can be studied by organising information and data on climate and synthesising them in
smaller units for easy understanding, description, and analysis.
Three broad approaches for classifying Climate:

· Empirical classification: It is based on observed data, particularly on temperature and precipitation.
· Genetic classification: It attempts to organise climates according to their causes.
· Applied classification: It is for specific purpose.
Koeppen's Scheme of Classification of Climate:

The most widely used classification of climate is the empirical climate classification scheme developed by
V. Koeppen.
· He identified a close relationship between the distribution of vegetation and climate.
· He selected certain values of temperature and precipitation and related them to the distribution of
vegetation and used these values for classifying the climates.
· It is an empirical classification based on mean annual and mean monthly temperature and
precipitation data.
· He introduced the use of capital and small letters to designate climatic groups and types.
· He recognised five major climatic groups, four of them are based on temperature and one on
precipitation.
· Capital letters: A, C, D and E delineate humid climates and B dry climates.
Table 12.1: Climatic Groups According to Koeppen

WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
83
Table 12.2: Climatic Types According to Koeppen
· The climatic groups are subdivided into types, designated by small letters, based on seasonality of
precipitation and temperature characteristics.
· The seasons of dryness are indicated by the small letters: f, m, w and s
Ø f: no dry season.
Ø m: monsoon climate.

Ø w: winter dry season.
Ø s: summer dry season.
· The small letters a, b, c and d refer to the degree of severity of temperature.
· The B- Dry Climates are subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe or semi-arid and W for
deserts.
Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

· Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
· The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid.
· Annual range of temperature is very low and annual rainfall is high.
· The tropical group is divided into three types, namely Af- Tropical wet climate, Am - Tropical
monsoon climate, Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
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Tropical Wet Climate (Af):
· Regions: It is found near the equator and the major areas are the Amazon Basin in South America,
western equatorial Africa and the islands of East Indies.
· Rainfall: Significant amount of rainfall occurs, every month of the year, as thunder showers in the
afternoon.
· Temperature: The temperature is uniformly high and annual range of the temperature is negligible.
The maximum temperature on any day is around 30°C while the minimum temperature is around 20°C.
· Vegetation and Biodiversity: Tropical evergreen forests with dense canopy cover and large
biodiversity are found in this climate.
Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am):

· Regions: It is found over the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part of South America and Northern
Australia.
· Rainfall: Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer and mostly winter is dry.
· Vegetation and Biodiversity: It has monsoon forest. Tree shed their leaves during dry period. In this
region, biodiversity is abundantly found.
Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw):

· Regions:
Ø It occurs north and south of Af type climate regions.
Ø It borders with dry climate on the western part of the continent and Cf or Cw on the eastern part.
Ø Extensive Aw climate is found to the north and south of the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining
parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, Sudan and south of Central Africa.
· Rainfall:
Ø The annual rainfall in this climate is considerably less than that in Af and Am climate types and is
variable also.
Ø The wet season is shorter, and the dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
· Temperature: Temperature is high throughout the year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the
greatest in the dry season.
· Vegetation and Biodiversity: Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Dry climate (B)

Dry climates are characterised by very low rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of plants.
· Regions: These climates cover a very large area of the planet extending over large latitudes from 15°-
60° north and south of the equator.
Ø At low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the area of subtropical high where subsidence and
inversion of temperature do not produce rainfall.
Ø In middle latitudes, from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they are confined to the interior of
continents where maritime-humid winds do not reach and to areas often surrounded by mountains.
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On the western margin of the continents, adjoining the cold current, particularly over the west
coast of South America, they extend more equator wards and occur on the coast land.
· Dry climates are divided into steppe or semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
· They are further subdivided as subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at latitudes
from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at latitudes between 35° -
60°.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical Desert (BWh) Climates:

· Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) have common precipitation and temperature
characteristics.
· Located in the transition zone between humid and dry climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough for the growth of sparse grasslands.
· The rainfall in both the climates is highly variable.
Ø The variability in the rainfall affects the life in the steppe much more than in the desert, more often
causing famine.
Ø Rain occurs in short intense thundershowers in deserts and is ineffective in building soil moisture.
· Fog is common in coastal deserts bordering cold currents.
· Maximum temperature in the summer is very high. The highest shade temperature of 58° C was
recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal ranges of temperature
are also high.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C:

· Regions: They extend from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern and western margins of
continents.
· These climates generally have warm summers with mild winters.

Types of Wet Temperate (Mid-Latitude)
Humid subtropical climate (Cwa):
· It occurs poleward of Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in North Indian plains and South China
interior plains.
· The climate is similar to Aw climate except that the temperature in winter is warm.
Mediterranean Climate (Cs):

· It occurs around Mediterranean Sea, along the west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
between 30° - 40° latitudes. For example - Central California, Central Chile, along the coast in south
eastern and south western Australia.
· These areas come under the influence of sub-tropical high in summer and westerly wind in winter.
· The climate is characterised by hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter.
· Monthly average temperature in summer is around 25° C and in winter below 10°C.
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· The annual precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate:

· It lies on the eastern parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
· In this region the air masses are generally unstable and cause rainfall throughout the year.
· Regions: They occur in eastern USA, southern and eastern China, southern Japan, north-eastern
Argentina, coastal south Africa and eastern coast of Australia.
· Precipitation: The annual averages of precipitation vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in summer
and frontal precipitation in winter are common.
· Temperature: Mean monthly temperature in summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies from 5°-
12° C. The daily range of temperature is small.
Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb):

· It is located poleward from the Mediterranean climate on the west coast of the continents.
· Regions: North-western Europe, west coast of North America, north of California, southern Chile,
south-eastern Australia and New Zealand.
· Temperature: The temperature is moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for its latitude the mean
temperature in summer months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter 4°-10°C. The annual and daily
ranges of temperature are small.
· Precipitation: It occurs throughout the year and varies greatly from 50-250cm.
Cold Snow Forest Climate:

They occur in the large continental area in the northern hemisphere between 40°-70° north latitudes in
Europe, Asia and North America. The severity of winter is more pronounced in higher latitudes. They are
divided into two types:
Cold climate with humid winters (Df):

· They occur poleward of marine west coast climate and mid latitude steppe.
· The winters are cold and snowy.
· The frost-free season is short.
· The annual ranges of temperature are large.
· The weather changes are abrupt and short.
· Poleward, the winters are more severe.
Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw):

· Regions: They occurs mainly over North-eastern Asia.
· The development of pronounced winter anti cyclone and its weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
reversal of wind in this region.
· Temperature: Poleward summer temperatures are lower and winter temperatures are extremely low
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with many locations experiencing below freezing point temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
· Precipitation: It occurs in summer and the annual precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.
Polar Climates (E):

They exist poleward beyond 70° latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
Tundra Climate (ET):

· The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the types of vegetation, like low growing mosses, lichens and
flowering plants.
· This is the region of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently frozen.
· The short growing season and water logging support only low growing plants.
· During summer, the tundra regions have very long duration of day light.
Ice Cap Climate (EF):

· It occurs over interior Greenland and Antarctica.
· Temperature: Even in summer, the temperature is below freezing point.
· Precipitation: This area receives very little precipitation.
· The snow and ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure causes the deformation of the ice
sheets and they break.
· They move as icebergs that float in the Arctic and Antarctic waters.
· Plateau Station, Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.
Highland Climates (H):

· They are governed by topography. In high mountains, large changes in mean temperature occur over
short distances.
· Precipitation types and intensity also vary spatially across high lands.
· There is vertical zonation of layering of climatic types with elevation in the mountain environment.

Climate Change:
The planet earth has witnessed many variations in climate since beginning. There are various evidence
showing that climate change is natural and continuous process:
· Geological records show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial periods.
· The geomorphological features, especially in high altitudes and high latitudes, exhibit traces of
advances and retreats of glaciers.
· The sediment deposits in glacial lakes also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold periods.
· The rings in the trees provide clues about wet and dry periods.
· The Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool climate around 8,000 B.C.
Stages of Climate Change:

· In the geological past, the earth was warm some 500-300 million years ago, through the Cambrian,
Ordovician and Silurian periods.
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· During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major peak glacial
period was about 18,000 years ago.
· The present inter-glacial period started 10,000 years ago.
Causes of climate change:

They can be grouped into astronomical and terrestrial causes.
Astronomical causes: They are the changes in solar output associated with sunspot activities.
· Sunspot activities: Sunspots are dark and cooler patches on the sun which increase and decrease in a
cyclical manner.
Ø According to some meteorologists, when the number of sunspots increase, cooler and wetter
weather and greater storminess occur.
Ø A decrease in sunspot numbers is associated with warm and drier conditions.
· Milankovitch Oscillations: It infer cycles in the variations in the earth's orbital characteristics around
the sun, the wobbling of the earth and the changes in the earth's axial tilt. All these alter the amount of
insolation received from the sun, which in turn, might have a bearing on the climate.
Terrestrial Causes:
· Volcanism: Volcanic eruption throws up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere which remain in the
atmosphere for a considerable period of time reducing the sun's radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. After the recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
fell to some extent for some years.
· Anthropogenic Effect: There is increasing trend in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere.
Impacts of climate change in 19th century:

· Variability in climate occurs all the time. The nineties decade of the last century witnessed extreme
weather events. The 1990s recorded the warmest temperature of the century and some of the worst
floods around the world.
· The worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, south of the Sahara Desert, from 1967-1977 is
one such variability.
· Historical records of crop yield or crop failures, of floods and migration of people talk about the effects
of changing climate.
· A number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet, cold and dry periods, the significant episodes were
the warm and dry conditions in the tenth and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings settled in
Greenland.
· Europe witnessed “Little Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850.
· From about 1885-1940, world temperature showed an upward trend.
· After 1940, the rate of increase in temperature slowed down.
Global Warming:
· Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse.
· Atmosphere starts absorbing the vast majority of long wave radiation emitted upwards by the
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earth's surface. The gases that absorb long wave radiation are called greenhouse gases.
· The processes that warm the atmosphere are often collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse Gases (GHGs):

· The primary GHGs are Carbon dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), Methane (CH4), Nitrous
oxide (N2O) and Ozone (O3).
· Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with GHGs and
affect their concentration in the atmosphere.
· Effectiveness of any GHG molecule depend on:
Ø The magnitude of the increase in its concentration.
Ø Its lifetime in the atmosphere.
Ø The wavelength of radiation it absorbs.
· The largest concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere is carbon dioxide.
· The emission of carbon dioxide comes mainly from fossil fuel combustion (oil, gas and coal).
· Forests use CO2 in their growth. Due to changes in land use, Deforestation increases the
concentration of CO2.
· The more time the GHG molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer it will take for earth's
atmospheric system to recover from any change brought about by the latter.
· The chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are highly effective and are products of human activity.
· Ozone which absorbs ultraviolet radiation in the stratosphere is very effective in absorbing terrestrial
radiation when it is present in the lower troposphere.
· Ozone occurs in the stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert oxygen into ozone.
· The depletion of ozone concentration in the stratosphere is called the ozone hole. Large depletion of
ozone occurs over Antarctica.
International effort to reduce GHGs:

· Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997 and went into effect in 2005. It bounds the 35 industrialised
countries to reduce their emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less than the levels prevalent in the

year 1990.
Interesting points
· Greenhouse: This term is derived from the analogy to a greenhouse used in cold areas for
preserving heat. A greenhouse is made up of glass.
Ø The glass which is transparent to incoming short wave solar radiation is opaque to outgoing long
wave radiation.
Ø The glass, therefore, allows in more radiation and prevents the long wave radiation going
outside the glass house, causing the temperature inside the glasshouse structure warmer than
outside.
· The Great Plains of the United States is described as the dust bowl.
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13 WATER (OCEANS)
Water is an essential component of all life forms that exist over the surface of the earth. Water is a rare
commodity in our solar system There is no water on the sun or anywhere else in the solar system.
Hydrological Cycle:
The hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the earth's hydrosphere in different forms i.e., the
liquid, solid and the gaseous phases. It also refers to the continuous exchange of water between the
oceans, atmosphere, land surface and subsurface and the organisms.
· Water is a cyclic resource and can be used and re-used.
· Water also undergoes a cycle from the ocean to land and land to ocean.
· The hydrological cycle describes the movement of water on, in, and above the earth.
· The distribution of water on earth is quite uneven as many locations have plenty of water while others
have very limited quantity.
· About 71 per cent of the planetary water is found in the oceans and the remaining is held as
freshwater in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater sources, lakes, soil moisture, atmosphere, streams
and within life.
Fig. 13.1: Hydrological Cycle
· Nearly 59 per cent of the water that falls on land returns to the atmosphere through evaporation from
WATER (OCEANS)
over the oceans as well as from other places.

· The remainder runs-off on the surface, infiltrates into the ground or a part of it becomes glacier.
· The renewable water on the earth is constant while the demand is increasing tremendously which
leads to water crisis in different parts of the world both spatially and temporally.
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Table 13.1: Components and Processes of the Water Cycle
Relief of the Ocean Floor:

The oceans are confined to the great depressions of the earth's outer layer.
· The oceans, unlike the continents, merge so naturally into one another that it is hard to demarcate
them.
· The geographers have divided the oceanic part of the earth into five oceans, namely the Pacific, the
Atlantic, the Indian, Southern Ocean and the Arctic.
· The various seas, bays, gulfs and other inlets are parts of these large oceans.
· A major portion of the ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea level.
· The 'land' under the waters of the oceans, that is, the ocean floor exhibits complex and varied features
as those observed over the land.
· The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world's largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and
the largest plains. These features are formed, like those of the continents, by the factors of tectonic,
volcanic and depositional processes.
WATER (OCEANS)
Division of the Ocean Floors:

· The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions: The Continental Shelf, the Continental
Slope, the Deep-Sea Plain and the Oceanic Deeps.
· Besides, these divisions there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges,
hills, sea mounts, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.
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Major Divisions:
Continental shelf:
It is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow seas and gulfs.
· It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1° or even less.
· The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
· The width of the continental shelf is not uniform in all the oceans and seas and its average width is
about 80 km.
· The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the coasts of Chile, the
west coast of Sumatra, etc. On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the Arctic Ocean, the largest in the
world, stretches to 1,500 km in width.
· The depth of the shelves also varies. It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas while in some areas it
is as deep as 600 m.
· The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers,
glaciers, wind, from the land and distributed by waves and currents.
· Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the
source of fossil fuels.
Continental Slope:
It connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
· It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
· The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
· The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
· The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
· Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
Deep Sea Plains:

They are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
· These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world.
· The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000m.
· These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
WATER (OCEANS)
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Fig. 13.2: Relief features of ocean floors
Oceanic Deeps and Trenches:

These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans.
· The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins.
· They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
· They occur at the bases of continental slopes and along island arcs and are associated with active
volcanoes and strong earthquakes and are significant in the study of plate movements.
· As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic
Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.
Minor Relief Features:

Some minor but significant features predominate in different parts of the oceans.
Mid-Oceanic Ridges:
· It is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.
· The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean's
surface. For example, Iceland is a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge.
Seamount:
· It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the surface of the
ocean.
· Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
· These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
· For example, The Emperor seamount is an extension of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean.
WATER (OCEANS)
Submarine Canyons:
· These are deep valleys, some of them can be compared with the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
· They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes, often extending from the
mouths of large rivers.
· The Hudson Canyon is the best-known submarine canyon in the world.
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Guyots:
· It is a flat-topped seamount.
· They show evidence of gradual subsidence through stages to become flat topped submerged
mountains.
· It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
Atoll:
· These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs surrounding a central
depression.
· It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh, brackish, or highly
saline water.
Temperature of Ocean Waters:

There are spatial and vertical variations of temperature in various oceans of the world. Ocean waters get
heated up by the solar energy just as land. The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is
slower than land.
Factors affecting Temperature Distribution:

· Latitude: The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because
the amount of insolation decreases poleward.
· Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat
due to their contact with larger extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
· Prevailing wind: The winds blowing from the land towards the oceans drive warm surface water
away from the coast resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below.
Ø It results into the longitudinal variation in the temperature.
Ø Contrary to this, the onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the
temperature.
· Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents
decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature
near the eastern coast of North America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold
current) lowers the temperature near the north-east coast of North America.
· The enclosed seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open seas,
whereas the enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
WATER (OCEANS)
Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature:

The temperature-depth profile for the ocean water shows how the temperature decreases with the
increasing depth. The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the
deeper layers.
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Vertical Distribution of the temperature:
· The boundary usually begins around 100 - 400 m below the sea surface and extends several hundred
of metres downward. This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is
called the thermocline.
Fig. 13.3: Thermocline
· About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In
this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
· The temperature structure of oceans over middle and low latitudes can be described as a three-layer
system from surface to the bottom.
Ø The first layer: It represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with
temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C. This layer, within the tropical region, is present
throughout the year but in mid latitudes it develops only during summer.
Ø The second layer: It is called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterised by
rapid decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
Ø The third layer: It is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. In the Arctic and Antarctic
circles, the surface water temperatures are close to 0° C and so the temperature change with the
depth is very slight. Here, only one layer of cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep
WATER (OCEANS)
ocean floor.
Horizontal Distribution of Temperature:

· The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases
from the equator towards the poles.
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· The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude.
· The average temperature is around 22°C at 20° latitudes, 14° C at 40° latitudes and 0° C near poles.
· The oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher temperature than in the southern
hemisphere.
· The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly towards north of it.
· The average annual temperatures for the northern and southern hemisphere are around 19° C and 16°
C respectively. This variation is due to the unequal distribution of land and water in the northern and
southern hemispheres.
· The maximum temperature of the oceans is always at their surfaces because they directly receive the
heat from the sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the oceans through the process
of convection.
· The temperature falls very rapidly up to the depth of 200 m and thereafter, the rate of decrease of
temperature is slowed down.
Salinity of Ocean Waters:

All waters in nature, whether rainwater or ocean water, contain dissolved mineral salts. Salinity is the
term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water.
· It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
· It is usually expressed as parts per thousand (o/oo) or ppt.
· Salinity is an important property of sea water.
· Salinity of 24.7 o/oo has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate 'brackish water'.
Factors affecting Ocean Salinity:

· The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and precipitation.
· Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh-water flow from rivers, and in
polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice.
· Wind also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
· The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations.
· Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or
density influences the salinity of water in an area.
Horizontal Distribution of Salinity:

· The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 PPT and 37 PPT in the land locked Red Sea, it is
as high as 41 PPT while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 - 35 PPT
WATER (OCEANS)
seasonally.
· In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 PPT.
· The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.
· Salinity decreases from 35 PPT - 31 PPT on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of
the influx of melted water from the Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20° south, it decreases to
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33 PPT.
· The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 PPT. The highest salinity is recorded between
15° and 20° latitudes. Maximum salinity (37 PPT) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W -
60° W. It gradually decreases towards the north.
· Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
· The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
· Salinity is very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh-water influx by rivers.
· The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 PPT.
· The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water. On the contrary, the
Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh water.
Vertical Distribution of Salinity:

Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
· Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or decreased by the input of
fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
· Salinity at depth is very much fixed because there is no way that water is lost, or the salt is added.
· There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of the
oceans.
· The high salinity sea water sinks below the lower salinity water this leads to stratification by salinity.
· Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the halocline, where salinity
increases sharply. Increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to increase.
Interesting points
· Water Bodies with Highest Salinity:

Ø Lake Van in Turkey (330 o/oo),
Ø Dead Sea (238 o/oo),
Ø Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo)
The earth has an abundant supply of water on its surface. Hence, it is called the 'Blue Planet'.
WATER (OCEANS)
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MOVEMENTS OF OCEAN WATER
14
The ocean water is dynamic. Its physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density and the external
forces like of the sun, moon and the winds influence the movement of ocean water.
Common Horizontal and Vertical Motions in Ocean Water Bodies:

· The Horizontal motion: It refers to the ocean currents and waves.
Ø Ocean currents: These are the continuous flow of huge amount of water in a definite direction.
Water moves ahead from one place to another through ocean currents.
Ø Waves: These are the horizontal motion of water. The water in the waves does not move, but the
wave trains move ahead.
· The Vertical motion: It refers to the rise and fall of water in the oceans and seas which is called tides.
Ø Due to attraction of the sun and the moon, the ocean water is raised up and falls down twice a day.
Ø The upwelling of cold water from subsurface and the sinking of surface water are also forming of
vertical motion of ocean water.
Waves:
· Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which moves across the ocean surface.
· Water particles only travel in a small circle as a wave passes.
· Wind provides energy to the waves and causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is
released on shorelines.
· The motion of the surface water does not affect the stagnant deep bottom water of the oceans.
· As a wave approaches the beach, it slows down due to the friction occurring between the dynamic
water and the sea floor.
· When the depth of water is less than half the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks.
· The largest waves are found in the open oceans.
· Waves continue to grow larger as they move and absorb energy from the wind.
· Most of the waves are caused by the wind driving against water.
· When a breeze of two knots or less blows over calm water, small ripples form and grow as the wind
speed increases until white caps appear in the breaking waves.
· Waves may travel thousands of km before rolling ashore, breaking and dissolving as surf.
· A wave's size and shape reveal its origin.

Ø Steep Waves: They are fairly young ones and are probably formed by local wind.
Ø Slow and Steady Waves: They originate from faraway places, possibly from another hemisphere.
· The maximum wave height is determined by the strength of the wind, i.e., how long it blows and the
area over which it blows in a single direction.
· Waves travel because wind pushes the water body in its course while gravity pulls the crests of the
waves downward. The falling water pushes the former troughs upward, and the wave moves to a new
position.
· The actual motion of the water beneath the waves is circular. It indicates that things are carried up
and forward as the wave approaches, and down and back as it passes.
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Characteristics of Waves:
· Wave crest and trough: The highest and lowest points of a wave are called the crest and trough,
respectively.
· Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
· Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
· Wave period: It is merely the time interval between two successive wave crests or troughs as they
pass a fixed point.
· Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two successive crests.
· Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves through the water and is measured in knots.
· Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a given point during a one second time interval.
Tides:
· The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun
and the moon, is called a tide.
· Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) are
called surges. Surges are not regular like tides.
Factors responsible for Tides:

· Gravitational pull: The major causes for the occurrence of tides are the moon's gravitational pull to a
great extent and to a lesser extent the sun's gravitational pull.
· Centrifugal force: It is the force that acts to counterbalance the gravity.
· A tidal bulge occurs on the side of the earth facing the moon while on the opposite side though the
gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal bulge
on the other side.
Fig. 14.1: Relation between gravitational forces and tides
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· Tide-generating' force: It is the difference between these two forces, i.e., the gravitational attraction
of the moon and the centrifugal force.
· On the surface of the earth, nearest the moon, pull or the attractive force of the moon is greater than
the centrifugal force, and so there is a net force causing a bulge towards the moon.
· On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is farther away from the moon, the
centrifugal force is dominant. Hence, there is a net force away from the moon. It creates the second
bulge away from the moon.
· On the surface of the earth, the horizontal tide generating forces are more important than the vertical
forces in generating the tidal bulges.
· The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height.
· When tidal bulges hit the mid-oceanic islands, they become low.
· The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify the intensity of tides. Funnel-
shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. When the tide is channelled between islands or into
bays and estuaries, they are called tidal currents.
Types of Tides:
Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and also from time to time.
Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence in one day or 24 hours or
based on their height.
Tide based on Frequency:

· Semi-diurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides each
day. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same height.
· Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high and
low tides are approximately of the same height.
· Mixed tide: These are tides having variations in height. These tides generally occur along the west
coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific Ocean.
Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions:

The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and moon with
respect to the earth.
· Spring tides: The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on
tide height.
Ø When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide will be higher.
These are called spring tides.
Ø They occur twice a month, one on full moon period and another during new moon period.
· Neap tides: At this time, the sun and moon are at right angles to each other, and the forces of the sun
and moon tend to counteract one another.
Ø The Moon's attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun's, is diminished by the
counteracting force of the sun's gravitational pull.
Ø Normally, there is a seven-day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
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Tidal Range:
· Once in a month, when the moon's orbit is closest to the earth (perigee), unusually high and low tides
occur. During this time, the tidal range is greater than normal.
· Two weeks later, when the moon is farthest from earth (apogee), the moon's gravitational force is
limited, and the tidal ranges are less than their average heights.
· When the earth is closest to the sun (perihelion), around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides.
· When the earth is farthest from the sun (aphelion), around 4th July each year, tidal ranges are much
less than average.
Importance of Tides:
· The prediction of tides helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities. Tidal flows are of great
importance in navigation.
· Tidal heights are very important, especially harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow
'bars' at the entrance, which prevent ships and boats from entering into the harbour.
· They are helpful in desilting the sediments and in removing polluted water from river estuaries.
· Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France, Russia, and China). In India, a 3 MW
tidal power project at Durgaduani in Sunderbans of West Bengal is under way.
Ocean Currents:
· Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans.
· They represent a regular volume of water in a definite path and direction.
· Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely: Primary forces that initiate the
movement of water and Secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
Primary forces:
· Heating by Solar energy: It causes the water to expand. The ocean water is about 8 cm higher in level
than in the middle latitudes near the equator. This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to
flow down the slope.

· Wind blowing: On the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and
the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
· Gravity: It tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
· Coriolis force: It intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern hemisphere and
to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Ø This results into accumulation of water at respective locations.
Ø These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called Gyres.
Ø These produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins.
Secondary forces:
Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents.
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· Salinity: Water with high salinity is denser than water with low salinity and in the same way cold water
is denser than warm water. Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents.
· Temperature: Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
Ø Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles sinks and slowly moves towards
the equator.
Ø Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the surface, flowing towards the poles to
replace the sinking cold water.
Characteristics of Ocean Currents:

· Usually, the currents are strongest near the surface and may attain speeds over five knots.
· At depths, currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots. The speed of a current is
referred as its “drift.” Drift is measured in terms of knots.
· The strength of a current refers to the speed of the current. A fast current is considered strong. A
current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in strength (speed) with depth.
· Most currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.
Types of Ocean Currents

Classification based on their Depth:
· Surface Currents: It constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean and these waters are the
upper 400 m of the ocean.
· Deep water currents: They make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water.
Ø These waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
Ø Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the temperatures are cold
enough to cause the density to increase.
Classification based on Temperature:

· Cold currents: It bring cold water into warm water areas. These currents are usually found on the west
coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on the east
coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
· Warm currents: These bring warm water into cold water areas and are usually observed on the east
coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern
hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.
Major oceanic currents:

· Major ocean currents are greatly influenced by the stresses exerted by the prevailing winds and
Coriolis force.
· The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the earth's atmospheric circulation pattern.
· The air circulation over the oceans in the middle latitudes is mainly anticyclonic (more pronounced in
the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere). The oceanic circulation pattern also
corresponds with the same.
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Fig. 14.2: Major currents in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans
· At higher latitudes, where the wind flow is mostly cyclonic, the oceanic circulation follows this
pattern.
· In regions of pronounced monsoonal flow, the monsoon winds influence the current movements.
· The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner similar to the heat
transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
· The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in tropical and
equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move pole wards.
Effects of Ocean Currents:

Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on human activities.
· West coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes (except close to the equator) are
bordered by cool waters. Their average temperatures are relatively low with a narrow diurnal and

annual ranges. There is fog, but generally the areas are arid.
· West coasts of the continents in the middle and higher latitudes are bordered by warm waters which
cause a distinct marine climate. They are characterised by cool summers and relatively mild winters
with a narrow annual range of temperatures.
· Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and subtropical latitudes.
This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in the western margins of the subtropical anti-
cyclones.
· The mixing of warm and cold currents helps to replenish the oxygen and favour the growth of
planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing grounds of the world exist mainly in
these mixing zones.
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Interesting points
· Ebb: It is the time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling.
· Flow or flood: It is the time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising.
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LIFE ON THE EARTH
15
The biosphere includes all the living organisms of the earth. It consists of all plants and animals, including
all the micro-organisms that live on the planet earth and their interactions with the surrounding
environment. Most of the organisms exist on the lithosphere and/or the hydrosphere as well as in the
atmosphere.
Ecology:
Ecology can be defined as a scientific study of the interactions of organisms with their physical
environment and with each other.
· The interactions of a particular group of organisms with abiotic factors within a particular habitat
resulting in clearly defined energy flows and material cycles on land, water and air, are called
ecological systems.
· Habitat: In the ecological sense it is the totality of the physical and chemical factors that constitute the
general environment.
· Different types of ecosystems exist with varying ranges of environmental conditions where various
plants and animal species have got adapted through evolution. This phenomenon is known as
ecological adaptation.
· The environment is made up of abiotic and biotic components. All these components in ecosystem are
inter-related and interact with each other.
Types of Ecosystem:
Ecosystems are of two major types namely terrestrial and aquatic.
Terrestrial ecosystem: It can be further classified into 'biomes'.
· A biome is a plant and animal community that covers a large geographical area. The boundaries of
different biomes on land are determined mainly by climate.
· A biome can be defined as the total assemblage of plant and animal species interacting within specific
conditions. These include rainfall, temperature, humidity and soil conditions.
· Some of the major biomes of the world are forest, grassland, desert and tundra biomes.
Aquatic ecosystems: It can be classed as marine and freshwater ecosystems.

· Marine ecosystem: It includes the oceans, estuaries and coral reefs.
· Freshwater ecosystem: It includes lakes, ponds, streams, marshes and bogs.
Structure and Function of the Ecosystem:

LIFE ON THE EARTH
The structure of an ecosystem involves a description of the available plant and animal species. From a
structural point of view, all ecosystems consist of abiotic and biotic factors.
· Abiotic Factors: They include rainfall, temperature, sunlight, atmospheric humidity, soil conditions,
inorganic substances (carbon dioxide, water, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, etc.).
· Biotic Factors: It include the producers, the consumers (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the
decomposers.
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Ø Producers: It includes all the green plants, which manufacture their own food through
photosynthesis.
Ø Primary consumers: It include herbivorous animals like deer, goats, mice and all plant-eating
animals. The producers are consumed by the primary consumers.
Ø Secondary consumers (carnivores): It include all the flesh-eating animals like snakes, tigers and
lions. The primary consumers are being eaten by the secondary consumers.
Ø Tertiary consumers (Top Carnivores): These are certain carnivores that feed on carnivores like
hawks and mongooses.
Ø Decomposers: They are those that feed on dead organisms (for example, scavengers like vultures
and crows), and further breaking down of the dead matter by other decomposing agents like
bacteria and various microorganism
o The decomposers feed on the dead at each and every level.
o They change them into various substances such as nutrients, organic and inorganic salts
essential for soil fertility.
Fig. 15.1: Structure and functions of Ecosystems

LIFE ON THE EARTH
Food Chain:
· Organisms of an ecosystem are linked together through a food chain. For example, a plant eating
beetle feeding on a paddy stalk is eaten by a frog, which is, in turn, eaten by a snake, which is then
consumed by a hawk.
· This sequence of eating and being eaten and the resultant transfer of energy from one level to
another is known as the food-chain.
107
· Flow of Energy: Transfer of energy that occurs during the process of a food-chain from one level to
another is known as flow of energy.
Food Web:
· Food-chains are not isolated from one another as there is interdependence of eating and being eaten
between various organisms. For example, a mouse feeding on grain may be eaten by different
secondary consumers (carnivores) and these carnivores may be eaten by other different tertiary
consumers (top carnivores).
· In such situations, each of the carnivores may consume more than one type of prey. As a result, the
food- chains get interlocked with one another. This interconnecting network of species is known as
food web.
· Two types of food-chains are recognised namely grazing food-chain and detritus food-chain:
Ø Grazing Food-Chain:
o In a grazing food-chain, the first level starts with plants as producers and ends with carnivores
as consumers at the last level, with the herbivores being at the intermediate level.
o There is a loss of energy at each level which may be through respiration, excretion or
decomposition.
o The levels involved in a food-chain range between three to five and energy is lost at each level.
Ø Detritus Food-Chain: It is based on autotrophs energy capture initiated by grazing animals and
involves the decomposition or breaking down of organic wastes and dead matter derived from the
grazing food-chain.
Types of biomes:
There are five major biomes : forest, desert, grassland, aquatic and altitudinal biomes.
LIFE ON THE EARTH
108
Table 15.1: World Biomes
Biogeochemical Cycles:
· The sun is the basic source of energy on which all life depends. This energy initiates life processes in
the biosphere through photosynthesis, the main source of food and energy for green plants.
· During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is converted into organic compounds and oxygen.
· Out of the total solar insolation that reaches the earth's surface, only a very small fraction (0.1 per cent)
is fixed in photosynthesis. More than half of it is used for plant respiration and the remaining part is
temporarily stored or is shifted to other portions of the plants.
LIFE ON THE EARTH
· All living organisms exist and survive in a diversity of associations. Such survival involves the presence
of systemic flows such as flows of energy, water and nutrients. These flows show variation in different
part of the world in different seasons and various local factors.
· The balance between atmosphere and hydrosphere composed of same balance of chemical
components. This balance of the chemical elements is maintained by a cyclic passage through the
tissues of plants and animals.
109
· The cycle starts by absorbing the chemical elements by the organism and is returned to the air, water
and soil through decomposition. These cycles are largely energised by solar insolation.
· These cyclic movements of chemical elements of the biosphere between the organism and the
environment are referred to as Biogeochemical cycles.
· There are two types of biogeochemical cycles:
Ø Gaseous Cycle: The main reservoir of nutrients is the atmosphere and the ocean.
Ø Sedimentary Cycle: The main reservoir is the soil and the sedimentary and other rocks of the
earth's crust.
The Water Cycle: All living organisms, the atmosphere and the lithosphere maintain between them a
circulation of water in solid, liquid or gaseous form referred to as the water or hydrologic cycle.
The Carbon Cycle:

Carbon is one of the basic elements of all living organisms. It forms the basic constituent of all the organic
compounds.
· The carbon cycle is mainly the conversion of carbon dioxide which is initiated by the fixation of
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through photosynthesis.
· The conversion results in the production of carbohydrate, glucose that may be converted to other
organic compounds such as sucrose, starch, cellulose, etc.
· Some of the carbohydrates are utilised directly by the plant itself. During this process, more carbon
dioxide is generated and is released through its leaves or roots during the day.
LIFE ON THE EARTH
Fig. 15.2: Carbon Cycle
110
· The remaining carbohydrates not being utilised by the plant become part of the plant tissue which are
being eaten by the herbivorous animals or get decomposed by the microorganisms.
· The herbivores convert some of the consumed carbohydrates into carbon dioxide for release into the
air through respiration.
· The micro-organisms decompose the remaining carbohydrates after the animal dies. The
carbohydrates that are decomposed by the micro-organisms then get oxidised into carbon dioxide
and are returned to the atmosphere.
The Oxygen Cycle:

Oxygen is the main by-product of photosynthesis. It is involved in the oxidation of carbohydrates with
the release of energy, carbon dioxide and water.
· The cycling of oxygen is a highly complex process.
· Oxygen occurs in a number of chemical forms and combinations. It combines with nitrogen to form
nitrates and with many other minerals and elements to form various oxides such as the iron oxide,
aluminium oxide and others.
· Much of oxygen is produced from the decomposition of water molecules by sunlight during
photosynthesis and is released in the atmosphere through transpiration and respiration processes of
plants.
The Nitrogen Cycle:
Nitrogen is a major constituent of the atmosphere comprising about seventy-eight per cent of the
atmospheric gases. It is an essential constituent of different organic compounds such as the amino acids,
nucleic acids, proteins, vitamins and pigments.
· Only a few types of organisms like certain species of soil bacteria and blue green algae can utilise it
directly in its gaseous form.
· Nitrogen is usable only after it is fixed. Ninety per cent of fixed nitrogen is biological.
· The principal source of free nitrogen is the action of soil micro-organisms and associated plant roots on
atmospheric nitrogen found in pore spaces of the soil.
· Nitrogen can also be fixed in the atmosphere by lightning and cosmic radiation.
· In the oceans, some marine animals can fix it.
· After atmospheric nitrogen has been fixed into an available form, green plants can assimilate it.
· Herbivorous animals feeding on plants, in turn, consume some of it.
LIFE ON THE EARTH
· Dead plants and animals, excretion of nitrogenous wastes is converted into nitrites by the action of
bacteria present in the soil.
· Some bacteria can even convert nitrites into nitrates that can be used again by green plants.
· There are still other types of bacteria capable of converting nitrates into free nitrogen, a process
known as denitrification.
111
Fig. 15.3: Nitrogen Cycle
Other Mineral Cycles:

Certain minerals are critical nutrients for plant and animal life. They are obtained from inorganic sources
such as Phosphorus, Sulphur, Calcium and Potassium.
· They usually occur as salts dissolved in soil water or lakes, streams and seas.
· Mineral salts come directly from the earth's crust by weathering where the soluble salts enter the
water cycle, eventually reaching the sea.
· Other salts are returned to the earth's surface through sedimentation, and after weathering, they
again enter the cycle.
· All living organisms fulfil their mineral requirements from mineral solutions in their environments and
some animals also receive their mineral needs from their consumption of plants and animals.
· After the death of living organisms, the minerals are returned to the soil and water through
LIFE ON THE EARTH
decomposition and flow.
Ecological Balance:
· Ecological balance is a state of dynamic equilibrium within a community of organisms in a habitat or
ecosystem.
· It can happen when the diversity of the living organisms remains relatively stable.
112
· Gradual changes do take place but that happens only through natural succession.
· It can also be explained as a stable balance in the numbers of each species in an ecosystem. This occurs
through competition and cooperation between different organisms where population remains stable.
· This balance is also attained by the fact that some species depend on others for their food and
sustenance.
Ø Such accounts are encountered in vast grasslands where the herbivorous animals (deer, zebras,
buffaloes, etc.) are found in plenty.
Ø On the other hand, the carnivorous animals (tigers, lions, etc.) that are not usually in large numbers,
hunt and feed on the herbivores, thereby controlling their population.
· In the plants, any disturbance in the native forests such as clearing the forest for shifting cultivation
usually brings about a change in the species distribution. This change is due to competition where the
secondary forest species such as grasses, bamboos or pines overtakes the native species changing
the original forest structure. This is called succession.
Disturbance to Ecological Balance:

· Ecological balance may be disturbed due to the introduction of new species, natural hazards or
human causes.
· Human interference has affected the balance of plant communities leading to disturbances in the
ecosystems. Such disturbances bring about numerous secondary successions.
· Human pressure on the earth's resources has put a heavy toll on the ecosystem. This has destroyed its
originality and has caused adverse effects to the general environment.
· Ecological imbalances have brought many natural calamities like floods, landslides, diseases, erratic
climatic occurrences, etc.
· There is a very close relationship between the plant and animal communities within particular habitats.
· Diversity of life in a particular area can be employed as an indicator of the habitat factor.
Interesting points
· A German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who used the term as 'oikology' in 1869, became the first
person to use the term 'ecology'.
· The study of interactions between life forms (biotic) and the physical environment (abiotic) is the
science of ecology.
LIFE ON THE EARTH
113
BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION
15
Weathered material of the earth provide base for diversity of vegetation and vegetation provides essential
base for survival of the biodiversity. The basic cause for such weathering variations and resultant
biodiversity is the input of solar energy and water.
Biodiversity:
· Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. It
refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, their genes etc.
· Biodiversity is a system in constant evolution, from a viewpoint of species and an individual organism.
· It relates to the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and
between the species and that within and between the ecosystems.
· The average half-life of a species is estimated at between one and four million years, and 99 per cent
of the species that have ever lived on the earth are today extinct.
· Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth. It is consistently richer in the tropics and as one
approaches the polar regions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species.
Levels of Biodiversity
Genetic Diversity:
· Genes are the basic building blocks of various life forms.
· Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species.
· Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called
species.
· Human beings genetically belong to the homo sapiens group and also differ in their characteristics
such as height, colour, physical appearance, etc. This is due to genetic diversity.
· The genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species.
Species Diversity:
· Species Diversity refers to the variety of species and relates to the number of species in a defined
area.
· The diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types.
· Some areas are richer in species than others.
· Areas rich in species diversity are called 'hotspots of diversity'.
Ecosystem Diversity:
· The broad differences between ecosystem types and the diversity of habitats and ecological
processes occurring within each ecosystem type constitute the ecosystem diversity.
· The 'boundaries' of communities (associations of species) and ecosystems are not very rigidly defined.
Thus, the demarcation of ecosystem boundaries is difficult and complex.
Importance of Biodiversity:
Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture, and, in turn, human
114
communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species and ecological
levels. Biodiversity plays the following roles:
Ecological Role of Biodiversity:
· Various species perform various functions at various level in ecosystem. Nothing in an ecosystem
evolves and sustains without any reason.
· Functions like Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to
cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the
climate.
· These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival.
· The more diverse ecosystem has better chances for the species to survive through adversities and
attacks, and consequently, is more productive.
· Hence, the loss of species would decrease the ability of the system to maintain itself.
· Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a
greater chance of adapting to environmental change.
Economic Role of Biodiversity:

· One important part of biodiversity is 'crop diversity', which is also called Agro-Biodiversity.
· Biodiversity is seen as a reservoir of resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food,
pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products.
· Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are food crops,
livestock, forests, fish, medicinal resources, etc.
Scientific Role of Biodiversity:

· Biodiversity is important because each species give some clue about evolution of life.
· Biodiversity also helps in understanding functioning of life and the role of each species in sustaining
ecosystems.
Loss of Biodiversity:
· The growth in human population has increased the rate of consumption of natural resources. It has

accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts of the world.
· Tropical regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about
three fourth of the world human population.
Ø Overexploitation of resources and deforestation have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large
population.
Ø As these tropical rain forests contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, destruction of natural
habitats has proved disastrous for the entire biosphere.
· Natural calamities such as earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, etc. cause
damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected
regions.
115
· Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak and
sensitive species.
· Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system,
are called exotic species.
· During the last few decades, some animals like tigers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks and
birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks, hides, etc.
Classification of Threatened Species:

The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the
threatened species of plants and animals into three categories for the purpose of their conservation.
Endangered Species:
· It includes those species which are in danger of extinction.
· The IUCN publishes information about endangered species world-wide as the Red List of threatened
species.
Vulnerable Species:
· This includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future if the factors
threatening to their extinction continue.
· Survival of these species is not assured as their population has reduced greatly.
Rare Species:
· Population of these species is very small in the world and they are confined to limited areas or thinly
scattered over a wider area.
Conservation of Biodiversity:
· All forms of life are so closely interlinked that disturbance in one give rise to imbalance in the others. If
species of plants and animals become endangered, they cause degradation in the environment, which
may threaten human being's own existence.
· There is an urgent need to educate people to adopt environment-friendly practices and reorient their
activities in such a way that our development is harmonious with other life forms and is sustainable.
· There is an increasing consciousness of the fact that conservation with sustainable use is possible only
with the involvement and cooperation of local communities and individuals. For this the development
of institutional structures at local levels is necessary.
The Earth Summit (1992):

The Government of India along with 155 other nations have signed the Convention of Biodiversity at the
Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The world conservation strategy has suggested
the following steps for biodiversity conservation:
116
· Efforts should be made to preserve the species that are endangered.
· Prevention of extinction requires proper planning and management.
· Varieties of food crops, forage plants, timber trees, livestock, animals and their wild relatives should
be preserved.
· Each country should identify habitats of wild relatives and ensure their protection.
· Habitats where species feed, breed, rest and nurse their young should be safeguarded and
protected.
· International trade in wild plants and animals be regulated.
Conservation of Biodiversity steps by India:

To protect, preserve and propagate the variety of species within natural boundaries, the Government of India
passed the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, under which national parks and sanctuaries were established
and biosphere reserves declared.
Mega Diversity Centres:

· There are some countries which are situated in the tropical region and possess a large number of the
world's species diversity. They are called mega diversity centres.
· There are 12 such countries, namely Mexico, Columbia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Madagascar, China, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and Australia in which these centres are
located.
Biodiversity Hotspots:
· The IUCN has identified certain areas as biodiversity hotspots in order to concentrate resources on
those areas that are most vulnerable.
· Hotspots are defined according to their vegetation. Plants are important because these determine the
primary productivity of an ecosystem. Most, but not all, of the hotspots rely on species-rich
ecosystems for food, firewood, cropland, and income from timber.
Fig. 16.1: Some Ecological 'hotspots' in the world
117
Interesting points
· Biodiversity today is the result of 2.5-3.5 billion years of evolution. Since, the emergence of
humans, however, biodiversity has begun a rapid decline, with one species after another bearing
the brunt of extinction due to overuse.
· The number of species globally vary from 2 million to 100 million, with 10 million being the best
estimate.
· New species are regularly discovered most of which are yet to be classified. An estimate states
that about 40 per cent of freshwater fishes from South America are not classified yet).
· The islands of Hawaii have many unique plants and animals that are threatened by introduced
species and land development.
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NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
11th Standard
India Physical Environment
CONTENTS
India - Location ................................................................................................................................ 1 - 2
Structure and Physiography ..................................................................................................... 3 - 13
Drainage System ....................................................................................................................... 14 - 26
Climate .......................................................................................................................................... 27 - 43
Natural Vegetation .................................................................................................................... 44 - 54
Soils ............................................................................................................................................... 55 - 61
Natural Hazards and Disasters ............................................................................................. 62 - 72

INDIA - LOCATION
1
The Indian mainland extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and Arunachal
Pradesh in the east to Gujarat in the west. India's territorial limit further extends towards the sea up to 12
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. Our southern boundary extends up to 6°45' N latitude in the
Bay of Bengal.
Location of India:
· The Longitudinal and latitudinal extent of India is about 30 degrees.
· North-South distance: 3214 Km
· East-West distance: 2933 Km
· India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world's land surface area and
stands as the seventh largest country in the world.
· Reason behind difference between North- South and East-West extent: The distance between two
longitudes decreases towards the poles whereas the distance between two latitudes remains the
same everywhere.
· Reasons for large Variations in landforms, climate, soil types and natural vegetation:
Ø The southern part of the country lies within the tropics.
Ø The northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or the warm temperate zone.
· Impact of longitudinal extent on People:
Ø Longitudinal difference is nearly 30 degrees.
Ø There is two hours difference between easternmost and westernmost part of India.
Ø This means that sun rises two hours earlier in eastern part than in western part.
Size of India:
· The size of India has endowed her with great physical diversity. It has the presence of lofty mountains
in the north; large rivers such as Ganga, Brahmaputra, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari and Kaveri; green
forested hills in northeast and south India; and the vast sandy expanse of Marusthali.
· Indian subcontinent: It includes Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and India.
· The Peninsular part of India extends towards the Indian Ocean.
· The peninsular part provided India with a coastline of 6,100 km in the mainland and 7,517 km in the
entire geographical coast of the mainland plus the island groups Andaman and Nicobar located in the
Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.
INDIA - LOCATION
1
Interesting points
· Standard Meridian:
Ø There is a general understanding among the countries of the world to select the standard
meridian in multiples of 7°30' of longitude.
Ø The 82°30' E has been selected as the 'standard meridian' of India.
Ø Indian Standard Time (IST) is ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) by 5 hours and 30
minutes.
Ø There are some countries where there are more than one standard meridian due to their vast
east-to-west extent. For example, the USA has seven time zones.
· School Bhuvan: It is a portal providing map-based learning to bring awareness among the
students about country's natural resources, environment and their role in sustainable development.
· Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait.
· Maldives is located south of Lakshadweep Island.
INDIA - LOCATION
2
2 STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
The earth and its landforms have evolved over a very long time. The current estimation shows that the earth
is approximately 460 million years old. Over these long years, it has undergone many changes brought about
primarily by the endogenic and exogenic forces. These forces have played a significant role in giving shape to
various surface and subsurface features of the earth.
Movement of Indian Plate:

· Indian plate was south of the equator and Australian part was part of the Indian plate million years ago.
· After the breaking, Indian plate moved towards northern direction and Australian plate towards
southern direction.
Division of India based on its Geological Structure and Formations:

· The Peninsular Block
· The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains
· The Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
The Peninsular Block:

· Its Northern boundary may be taken as an irregular line running from Kachchh, western flank of the
Aravali Range to Delhi and then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the Raajmahal
Hills and the Ganga delta.
· Extension of the Peninsular Block:
Ø North Eastern extent: Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya plateau
Ø Western Extent: Rajasthan
· The North-Eastern parts are separated by the Malda fault in West Bengal from the Chotanagpur
plateau.
· In Rajasthan, the desert and other desert-like features overlay this block.
· A major part of the peninsular region is formed by complex and very ancient gneisses and granite.
· Since Cambrian period, peninsular part has been standing like rigid block.
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOGRAPHY
Ø The exception is western coast which is submerged beneath the sea.

Ø The other parts changed due to tectonic activity.
· As a part of the Indo-Australian plate, peninsular block is subjected to various vertical movements and
block faulting. For examples, The rift valleys of Narmada, Tapi and Mahanadi and block mountain of
Satpura.
· The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and residual mountains like the Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills,
the Javadi hills, the Veliconda hills, the Palkonda range and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. and the river
valleys are shallow with low gradients.
· Most of the rivers flowing towards east and form deltas such river Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi forms
delta.
3
The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains:
· The Himalayas along with other Peninsular mountains are young, weak and flexible in their geological
structure unlike the rigid and stable Peninsular Block.
· Peninsular and Himalayan mountains are still subjected to interplay of endogenic and exogenic forces
which resulting in the development of faults, folds and thrust plains.
· These mountains are tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are in their youthful
stage.
· Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative of this youthful
stage.
Indo - Ganga - Brahmaputra Plain:

· It comprises the plain formed by river Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
· Originally, it was a geo-synclinal depression which developed in third phase of Himalayan formation
64 million years ago.
· Since then, it has been gradually filled by sediments brought by peninsular and Himalayan rivers.
· The average depth of alluvial deposits is 1000 - 2000 m.
Physiography:
· Physiography' of an area is the outcome of structure, process and the stage of development.
· Physical features of India: It is characterised by:
Ø The rugged mountain topography in North with various peaks, valleys and deep gorges.
Ø The Southern part consists stable table land with highly dissected plateaus, denuded rocks and
developed series of scarps.
Ø In between these two lies the vast north Indian plain.
Physiographic Division of India:

· The Northern and North-Eastern Mountains

· The Northern Plain
· The Peninsular Plateau
· The Indian Desert
· The Coastal Plains
· The Islands
4
The North and North-Eastern Mountains:
· The North and North-eastern Mountains are part of the Himalayas.
· It includes series of parallel mountain ranges such as Greater Himalayan range, which includes the
Great Himalayas and the Shiwalik.
· General orientation of the ranges:
Ø North-western part of India: Northwest to the southeast direction
Ø Himalayas in the Darjeeling and Sikkim regions: East-west direction
Ø Arunachal Pradesh: From southwest to the northwest direction.
Ø Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram: North-south direction.

· The central axial length of the Great Himalayan Range is 2,500 km from east to west, and their width
varies between 160-400 km from north to south.
· Physical Barrier:
Ø Himalayas form strong and long wall between the Indian subcontinent and the Central and East
Asian countries.
Ø They also form climatic, drainage and cultural barriers.
Division of Himalayas:
It is based on relief, alignment of ranges and other geomorphological features.
· Kashmir or North-Western Himalayas
5
· Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas
· Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
· Arunachal Himalayas
· Eastern Hills and Mountains
· Kashmir or North-Western Himalayas:
Ø It comprises a series of ranges such as the Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal.
Ø The cold desert is situated in its north eastern part between the Greater Himalaya and the Karakoram
range.
Ø The Kashmir valley lies between Great Himalaya and Pir Panjal range.
Ø Important glaciers of south Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are found in this range.
Ø It is famous for Karewa formations, which are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local variety of
saffron.
Ø Important Passes of this region: Zoji La on the Great Himalayas, Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photu
La on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the Ladakh range.
Ø Important freshwater lakes such as Dal and Wular and saltwater lakes such as Pangong Tso and
Tso Moriri are also in this region.
Ø This region is drained by the river Indus, and its tributaries such as the Jhelum and the Chenab.
Ø This region is known for beautiful scenic features and picturesque landscape and this land scape is
important attraction for adventure tourists.
Ø Important Pilgrimage Sites: Vaishno Devi, Amarnath Cave, Charar -e-Sharif, etc.
Ø Srinagar is located on the banks of Jhelum river.
Ø Jhelum in the valley of Kashmir is still in its youth stage and yet forms meanders – a typical feature
associated with the mature stage in the evolution of fluvial landform.
Ø Its southernmost part consists of longitudinal valleys known as 'duns' such as Jammu dun and
Pathankot dun.
Fig. 2.2: The Western Himalayas
6
Himachal and Uttarakhand Himalayas:
· It lies between the Ravi in the west and the Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east.
· It is drained by two major river systems of India namely the Indus and the Ganga.
· Tributaries of the Indus: Ravi, Beas and Satluj
· Tributaries of Ganga: Yamuna and Ghaghara
· The Northern most part this region is extension of Ladakh cold desert which lies in the Spiti
subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti.
· All the three ranges of Himalayas are prominent in this section. These are from North to South:
Ø The Great Himalayan ranges
Ø The Lesser Himalayas: Locally known as Dhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and Nagtibha in
Uttarakhand
Ø The Shiwalik ranges
· The altitude is between 1,000-2,000 m specially attracted to the British colonial administration, and
they established:
Ø Important Hill Stations: Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani
Ø Cantonment Towns and Health Resorts: Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne and
Ranikhet, etc. were developed in this region.
· The two distinguishing features of this region are the 'Shiwalik' and 'Dun formations'.
Ø Important Duns: Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc.
Ø Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns with an approximate length of 35-45 km and a width of 22-25
km.
· The Great Himalayan range the valley is mostly inhabited by Bhotia's. These are nomadic groups who
migrate to 'Bugyals' (the summer glass lands in the higher reaches) during summer months and return
to the valleys during winters.
· Valley of flower is also situated in this region.
· Places of Pilgrimage: The Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Hemkund Sahib are
situated in this part.
· The region is also known to have five famous Prayags (river confluences)
Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas:

· They are flanked by Nepal Himalayas in the west and Bhutan Himalayas in the east.
· This region is known for fast flowing rivers such as Tista.
· It is a region of high mountain peaks like Kanchenjunga (Kanchengiri), and deep valleys.
· The higher reaches of this region inhabited by Lepcha tribes.
· The southern part particularly, Darjilling Himalaya has a mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and
tribals from Central India.
7
· The Britishers introduced Tea plantation in this region because of the physical conditions:
Ø Moderate slope
Ø Thick soil cover with high organic content
Ø Well distributed rainfall throughout the year
Ø Mild winters
· In this region, Shiwalik formation is absent and in place of the Shiwalik here, the 'duar formations' are
important, which have also been used for the development of tea gardens.
· Sikkim is known for its orchids.
Arunachal Himalayas:
· These extend from the east of the Bhutan Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east.
· Important Mountain Peaks: Kangtu and Namcha Barwa.
· These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the north to the south, forming deep gorges.
Brahmaputra flows through a deep gorge after crossing Namcha Barwa.
· Important Rivers: The Kameng, the Subansiri, the Dihang, the Dibang and the Lohit. These are
perennial with the high rate of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric power potential in the
country.
· Ethnic Tribal Communities: From West to East are the Monpa, Abor, Mishmi, Nyishi and the Nagas.
Most of them practice Jhumming cultivation.
· Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley transportation linkages are nominal. Hence, most of the
interactions are carried through the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam border.
Eastern Hills and Mountains:

· These are part of the Himalayan mountain system having their general alignment from the North to
the South direction.
· They are known by different local names:
Ø Northern region: Patkai Bum, Naga hills, Manipur hills

Ø Southern region: Mizo or Lushai hills.
· These are low hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups practising Jhum cultivation.
· Most of these ranges are separated from each other by numerous small rivers.
· The Barak is an important river in Manipur and Mizoram and other rivers of both states forms
tributaries of Barak which in turn tributary of Meghana.
· Loktak lake in Manipur is surrounded by mountains in a unique feature.
· The rivers in the eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of
the Irrawaddy of Myanmar.
· Mizoram which is also known as the 'Molassis basin' which is made up of soft unconsolidated
deposits.
8
· Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the tributary of the Brahmaputra.
Fig. 2.3: The Eastern Himalayas
The Northern Plains:

· They are formed by the alluvial deposits brought by the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra.
· Its length is 3200 km from east to west, average width varies from 150-300 Km and the maximum
depth is between 1000-2000 m.
· From the north to the south, these can be divided into three major zones: The Bhabar, the Tarai and
the alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be further divided into the Khadar and the Bhangar.
Ø Bhabar:
o It is a narrow belt ranging between 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at the break-up of
the slope.
o The streams and rivers coming from the mountains deposit heavy materials of rocks and
boulders, and at times, disappear in this zone.
Ø Tarai:
9
o It lies South of the Bhabar with an approximate width of 10-20 km.
o Most of the streams and rivers re-emerge without having any properly demarcated channel,
thereby, creating marshy and swampy conditions known as the Tarai.
o This has a luxurious growth of natural vegetation and houses a varied wildlife.
Ø The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of old and new alluvial deposits known as the Bhangar and
Khadar respectively.
· These plains have characteristic features of mature stage of fluvial erosional and depositional
landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oxbow lakes and braided channels.
· The Brahmaputra plains are known for their riverine islands and sand bars. Most of these areas are
subjected to periodic floods and shifting river courses forming braided streams.
· The states of Haryana and Delhi form a water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems.
· Brahmaputra river flows from the northeast to the southwest direction before it takes an almost 90°
southward turn at Dhubri before it enters into Bangladesh.
· These river valley plains have a fertile alluvial soil cover which supports a variety of crops like wheat,
rice, sugarcane and jute, and hence, supports a large population.
The Peninsular Plateau:

· Rising from the height of 150 m above the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900 m is the irregular
triangle known as the Peninsular plateau.
· Extent:
Ø Northwest: Delhi ridge (extension of Aravalis)
Ø East: Rajmahal hills
Ø West: Gir range
Ø South: Cardamom hills constitute the outer extent of the Peninsular plateau.
· It is made up of a series of patland plateaus such as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the
Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plateau, the Coimbatore, plateau and the Karnataka plateau, etc.
· The general elevation of the plateau is from the west to the east.
· Important Physiographic Features: Tors, block mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures,

series of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural sites for water storage.
· The western and north-western part of the plateau has an emphatic presence of black soil.
· It has gone from recurrent phases of upliftment and submergence such as Bhima fault.
· The north-western part of the plateau has a complex relief of ravines and gorges such as the ravines
of Chambal, Bhind and Morena.
· On the basis of the prominent relief features, the Peninsular plateau can be divided into three broad
groups: The Deccan Plateau, The Central Highlands, The North-eastern Plateau.
The Deccan Plateau:

· This is bordered by the Western Ghats in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and the Satpura, Maikal
range and Mahadeo hills in the north.
10
· Western Ghats are locally known by different names:
Ø Sahyadri in Maharashtra.
Ø Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Ø Anaimalai hills and Cardamom hills in Kerala.
· Western ghats are higher in elevation and more continuous.
Ø Average elevation is about 1,500 m with the height increasing from north to south.
Ø Anaimudi (2,695 m), the highest peak of peninsular region followed by Dodabetta (2,637 m) on
the Nilgiri hills.
· The Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers such as
the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri, etc.
· The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.
The Central Highlands:

· They are bounded to the west by the Aravali range.
· The Satpura range is formed by a series of scarped plateaus on the south generally at an elevation
varying between 600-900 m above the mean sea level.
Ø This forms the northernmost boundary of the Deccan plateau.
Ø It is a classic example of the relict mountains which are highly denuded and form discontinuous
ranges.
· The western region of this peninsular part has undergone metamorphic processes in its geological
history, which can be corroborated by the presence of metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate, gneiss,
etc.
· The general elevation of the Central Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above.
· It slopes towards the north and north-eastern directions.
· Most of the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
· Banas is the only significant tributary of the river Chambal that originates from the Aravalli in the
west.
· An eastern extension of the Central Highland is formed by the Rajmahal hills, to the south of which
lies a large reserve of mineral resources in the Chotanagpur plateau.
The North-Eastern Plateau:

· It is extension of peninsular plateau.
· It is believed that due to the force exerted by the north-east ward movement of the Indian plate at the
time of the Himalayan origin, a huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya
plateau.
· The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-divided into three regions: The Garo Hills; The Khasi Hills; The
Jaintia Hills. An extension of this is also seen in the Karbi Anglong hills of Assam.
· The Meghalaya plateau is also rich in mineral resources like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone and
uranium.
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· This area receives maximum rainfall from the south west monsoon.
Ø As a result, the Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded surface.
Ø Cherrapunji displays a bare rocky surface devoid of any permanent vegetation cover.
The Indian Desert:

· It lies to the northwest of the Aravali hills.
· It is a land of undulating topography dotted with longitudinal dunes and barchans.
· During the Mesozoic era, this region was under the sea.
Ø This can be corroborated by the evidence available at wood fossils park at Aakal and marine
deposits around Brahmsar, near Jaisalmer.
· Desert land Features: Mushroom rocks, shifting dunes and oasis (mostly in its southern part).
· The desert can be divided into two parts based on the orientation:
Ø Northern part: Slopes towards Sindh.
Ø Southern part: Slopes towards Rann of Kachchh.
· Most of the rivers are ephemeral.
· The Luni river flowing in the southern part of the desert is of some significance.
· This region presents a typical case of inland drainage by joining a lake or playa.
· The lakes and the playas have brackish water which is the main source of obtaining salt.
Coastal Plains:
On the basis of the location and active geomorphological processes, it can be broadly divided into two
regions:
The Western Coastal Plains:

· It is submerged coastal plain.
· Due to submergence, it is a narrow belt and provides natural conditions for the development of ports
and harbours such as Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port Navha Sheva, Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc.
· It may be divided into following divisions:

Ø Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat.
Ø Konkan coast in Maharashtra.
Ø Goan coast and Malabar coast in Karnataka and Kerala respectively.
· They are narrow in the middle and get broader towards north and south.
· The Malabar coast has got certain distinguishing features in the form of 'Kayals' (backwaters), which
are used for fishing, inland navigation.
· Every year the famous Nehru Trophy Vallamkali (boat race) is held in Punnamada Kayal in Kerala.
The Eastern Coastal Plains:

· These are broader and are an example of an emergent coast.
· There are well developed deltas formed by the rivers flowing eastward into the Bay of Bengal.
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· It has a smaller number of ports and harbours. The continental shelf extends up to 500 km into the
sea, which makes it difficult for the development of good ports and harbours.
The Islands:
There are two major island groups in India, one in the Bay of Bengal and the other in the Arabian Sea.
The Bay of Bengal island groups:
· It consists of about 572 islands/islets and are situated roughly between 6°N-14°N and 92°E -94°E.
· The two principal groups of islets include the Ritchie's archipelago and the Labrynth island.
· The Andaman and Nicobar are separated by a water body which is called ten-degree channel.
· These islands are an elevated portion of submarine mountains.
· Barren island, the only active volcano in India is also situated in the Nicobar Islands.
· These islands receive convectional rainfall and have an equatorial type of vegetation.
The Islands of the Arabian Sea:

· It includes Lakshadweep and Minicoy.
· These are scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -74°E longitude.
· These islands are located of 280 km-480 km off the Kerala coast.
· The entire island group is built of coral deposits.
· There are approximately 36 islands of which 11 are inhabited.
· Minicoy is the largest island with an area of 453 sq. km.
· The entire group of islands is broadly divided by the Ten-degree channel, north of ten-degree channel
Amini island and south of it Cannanore island is situated.
· The Islands of this archipelago have storm beaches consisting of unconsolidated pebbles, shingles,
cobbles and boulders on the eastern seaboard.
Interesting points
· Karewas: These are the thick deposits of glacial clay and other materials embedded with moraines.
· In Kashmir Valley, the meanders in Jhelum river are caused by the local base level provided by the
erstwhile larger lake of which the present Dal Lake is a small part.
· Some important mountain peaks in Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
Ø Saddle peak (North Andaman – 738 m)
Ø Mount Diavolo (Middle Andaman – 515 m)
Ø Mount Koyob (South Andaman – 460 m)
Ø Mount Thuiller (Great Nicobar – 642 m)
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3 DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as 'drainage' and the network of such channels
is called a 'drainage system'. The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological time period,
nature and structure of rocks, topography, slope, amount of water flowing and the periodicity of the flow.
Important Terms related to Drainage:

· A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its 'catchment area'.
· An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin.
· The boundary line separating one drainage basin from the other is known as the watershed.
· The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are
often referred to as watersheds. Watersheds are small in area while the basins cover larger
areas.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Figure 3.1: Major Rivers of India
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Division of Indian Drainage System:
· On the basis of Discharge of water (orientations to the sea):
Ø It may be grouped into the Arabian Sea drainage, and the Bay of Bengal drainage.
Ø They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris.
· On the basis of the size of the Watershed:
Ø Major River Basins: It has more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage
basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the
Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
Ø Medium River Basins: It has catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km and incorporate 44
river basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
Ø Minor River Basins: It has catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km and include fairly good number
of rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.
Drainage Systems of India:

· The most accepted classification is Himalayan drainage system and Peninsular drainage system.
· Indian drainage system consists of a large number of small and big rivers.
· It is the outcome of the evolutionary process of the three major physiographic units and the nature
and characteristics of precipitation.
Himalayan Drainage System:

· The Himalayan drainage system has evolved through a long geological history.
· It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins. These rivers are flowing
from large gorges which is carved out by the erosional activity carried on simultaneously with the uplift
of the Himalayas.
· These rivers form deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their mountainous course.
· While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, ox-bow lakes, flood plains,
braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth.
· In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortous, but over the plains they display
a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
· River Kosi, also known as the 'sorrow of Bihar', has been notorious for frequently changing its course.
As this river brings huge quantity of sediments and deposit on its plains consequently course gets
blocked.
SYSTEM
Evolution of Himalayan Drainage System:

DRAINAGECRAFTS
· During the Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago, the river Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed
the entire longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finally
THEATRE
discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab.

· The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of
sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint.
15
· Indo-Brahma river was dismembered into three main drainage systems:
Ø The Indus and its five tributaries in the western part.
Ø The Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part.
Ø The Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.
· This dismemberment due to Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas and uplift of Potawar
plateau (Delhi ridge), which acted as water divide between Indus and Ganga river system.
· Also, down thrusting of Malda gap in mid Pleistocene period diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
River System of Himalayan Drainage

The Indus River System:
· It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321,
289 sq. km) and a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
· It is the western most Himalayan river of the India and in Tibet it is known as 'Singi Khamban, or
Lion's mouth.
· It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu (31°15' N latitude and 81°40' E longitude) in the Tibetan
region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain range.
· It flows North-West direction between Ladakh and Zaskar range and passes through Ladakh and
Baltistan region.
· It cuts across the Ladakh range and forms gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
· It enters Pakistan near Chilas in the Dardistan region.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Zaskar, Suru, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj, etc.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Shyok, Hunza, Nubara, Kabul, Khurram, Gomal, Tochi, The Viboa and the
Sangar, etc.
· It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its right bank.
· The river flows southward and receives 'Panjnad' a little above Mithankot.
· The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the
Chenab and the Jhelum.
· Indus flows in India only through Jammu and Kashmir.
Tributaries of the Indus

Jhelum:
· It rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
valley of Kashmir.
· It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.
· It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan.
Chenab:
· It is the largest tributary of the Indus.
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· It is formed by two streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in Himachal
Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
· The river flows for 1,180 km before entering Pakistan.
Ravi:
· It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the
Chamba valley of the state.
· Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area lying between the
south-eastern part of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
Beas:
· It originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean
sea level.
· The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range.
· It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.
Satluj:
· It originates in the 'Raksas tal' near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known as
Langchen Khambab.
· It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of a gorge
at Rupar.
· It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains.
· It is an antecedent river.
· It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
The Ganga System:

· The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and cultural
significance.
· It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand. Here,
it is known as the Bhagirathi.
· It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges.
· At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga.
· The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. Important Prayags where
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
other rivers meet Alaknanda are:

Ø Vishnu Prayag or Joshimath: Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet
here.
Ø Karna Prayag: Pindar joins Alaknanda.
Ø Rudra Prayag: Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets Alaknanda.
· The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar. After this, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east
17
and east.
· It has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km), Bihar
(445 km) and West Bengal (520 km).
· The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq. km area in India.
· The Ganga river system consist of rivers originating from both peninsula and Himalayas.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Ramganga, Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi and Mahananda
· Right Bank Tributaries: Son, Punpun and Damodar
Tributaries of Ganga river

Yamuna:
· It is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga and has its source in the Yamunotri
glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km).
· It joins the Ganga at Prayagraj (Allahabad).
· Right Bank Tributaries: Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Hindan, Rind, Sengar, the Varuna.
Chambal:
· It rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows through a gorge up wards of
Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
· From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
· The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.
Gandak:
· It comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
· It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part
of Nepal.
· It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
Ghaghara:
· It originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti
and Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
· The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Kosi:
· It is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main-stream
Arun rises.
· After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the
Tamur Kosi from the east.
· It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun.
18
Ramganga:
· It is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain.
· It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik and enters into the plains of
Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
· Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.
Damodar:
· It occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift valley and
finally joins the Hugli.
· The Barakar is its main tributary.
· Once known as the 'sorrow of Bengal', the Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley
corporation, a multipurpose project.
Sarda or Saryu river:

· It rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.
· Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the Ghaghara.
Mahananda:
· It is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the Darjilling hills.
· It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.
Son:
· It Is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
· After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, west of Patna, to join
the Ganga.
The Brahmaputra System:

· The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier
of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
· Then it travels eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat region of
southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which means 'the purifier'.
· The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
· It emerges out by carving out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m).
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
· The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
· It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South)
· Right Bank Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and Sankosh
· The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent river.
· The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
19
Ø In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna.
Ø It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
· The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion because the fact that
most of its tributaries are large and bring large quantity of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
catchment area.
The Peninsular River System:

· The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. This is evident from the broad,
largely graded shallow valleys, and the maturity of the rivers.
· Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from west to east.
· The Western Ghats act as the water divide between west and east flowing rivers.
· The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of the Peninsula
belong to the Ganga river system.
· The major river systems of the Peninsular drainage are the Mahanadi the Godavari, the Krishna and
the Kaveri.
· Peninsular rivers are characterised by fixed course, absence of meanders and nonperennial flow of
water. The Narmada and the Tapi which flow through the rift valley are, however, exceptions.
Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:

Three major geological events of past have shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:
· Subsidence of the Western part of the Peninsula:
Ø It leads to its submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period.
Ø It has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the original watershed.
· Upheaval of the Himalayas:
Ø When the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent
trough faulting.
Ø The Narmada and the Tapi flow in trough faults and fill the original cracks with their detritus
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.
· Slight tilting of the Peninsular Block:
Ø From northwest to the south-eastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system
towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage

DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Mahanadi:
· It rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs through Odisha to discharge its water
into the Bay of Bengal.
· It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq. km.
· Some navigation is carried on in the lower course of this river.
· 53 per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per
20
cent lies in Odisha.
Godavari Colon
· Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system. It is also called the Dakshin Ganga.
· It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.
· Its tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and
Andhra Pradesh.
· It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km of which 49 per cent of this,
lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Banganga, Kadva, Shivana, Purna, Kadam, Pranahita, Indravati, Taliperu,
Sabari, Dharna
· Right Bank Tributaries: Nasardi, Pravara, Sindphana, Manjira, Manair, Kinnerasani.
· The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches to the south of Polavaram, where it
forms a picturesque gorge.
· It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch.
· The river after Rajamundri splits into several branches forming a large delta.
Krishna:
· It is the second largest east-flowing Peninsular river which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri.
· Its total length is 1,401 km.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Bhima, Dindi, Peddavagu, Musi, Paleru, Munneru.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Koyana, Venna, Panchganga, Dhudhganga, Ghataprabha, Malaprabha and
Tungabhadra.
· Out of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka
and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
Kaveri:
· It rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district in Karnataka.
· Its length is 800 km, and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.
· The river carries water throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the other
Peninsular rivers.
Ø Upper catchment area receives rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (summer)
Ø Lower part during the northeast monsoon season (winter)
· About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Nadu.
· Left Bank Tributaries: Herangi, Hemvati, Shimsha, Akravaty etc.
· Right Bank Tributaries: Kabini, Bhavani, Amravati, Lakshmana tirtha, Noyyal etc.
Narmada:
· It originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m.
21
· Flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north, it forms
a picturesque gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
· After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a
broad 27 km long estuary.
· Its catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km.
· The Sardar Sarovar Project has been constructed on this river.
Tapi:
· It originates from Multai in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
· It is 724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
· Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6
per cent in Gujarat.
Luni:
· It is the largest river system of Rajasthan and flows west of Aravali.
· It originates near Pushkar in two branches, i.e., the Saraswati and the Sabarmati.
Ø These rivers join each other at Govindgarh.
Ø At Govindgarh, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as Luni.
· It flows towards the west till Telwara and then takes a southwest direction to join the Rann of Kuchchh.
· The entire river system is ephemeral.
Some West flowing Rivers: The rivers flowing towards the Arabian sea have short courses.
In Gujarat:
· Shetruniji rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli district.
· Bhadra originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
· Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat.
· Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
In Maharashtra: Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district at an elevation of 670 m.
In Karnataka:
· Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the Karwar Bay.
· Bedti source lies in Hubli Dharwar and it has course of 161 km.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
· Sharavati originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km.
In Goa: It has two important rivers, Mandovi and Juari.
In Kerala:
· Bharathapuzha rises near Annamalai hills. It is also known as Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq.
km. It is the longest river of Kerala.
22
· Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km.
· Pamba falls in the Vemobanad lake after traversing a course of 177 km.
Rivers Catchment area (in sq km)
Mahi 34,832
Sabarmati 21,674
Bharathapuzha 5,397
Periyar 5,247
Kalinadi 5,179
Dhandhar 2,770
Sharavati 2,029
Some East Flowing Rivers: There are small rivers which join the Bay of Bengal.
In Jharkhand:
Subarnrekha rises over Chota Nagpur plateau, Jharkhand.
In Odisha:
· Baitarni rises in the hills of Kendhujhar, Odisha.
· Brahmani is formed by two streams the river south Koel and Sankh join near Rourkela and then it is
called Brahmani river.
· Vamsadhara originate on southern part of Odisha and it flows through Andhra Pradesh.
In Karnataka:
· Penner:
Ø The northern Pennar originate from Nadidurga Karnataka and it flows through Andhra Pradesh.
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Ø The southern Pennar rises from Keshav hills of Karnataka. It flows south to the northern Pennar
and drains into Bay of Bengal.
· Palar rises from Kolar district of Karnataka and flows through Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The
river Poini and Cheyyar are two important tributaries.
In Tamil Nadu:
Vaigai rises from hills of Varshanand hills of Mdhurai. It drains into Palk strait.
23
Rivers Catchment area in sq.km
Pennar 55,213
Brahmani 39,033
Subarnarekha 19,296
Palar 17,870
Baitarni 12,789
River Regimes:
The pattern of flow of water in a river channel over a year is known as its regime.
Himalayan river:
· The north Indian rivers originating from the Himalayas are perennial as they are fed by glaciers
through snow melt and also receive rainfall water during rainy season so there is less fluctuations in
river regime.
· The rivers of South India do not originate from glaciers and their flow pattern witnesses
fluctuations. Thus, the regime of the rivers of South India is controlled by rainfall which also varies
from one part of the Peninsular plateau to the other.
Discharge: The discharge is the volume of water flowing in a river and it is measured either in
cusecs (cubic feet per second) or cumecs (cubic metres per second).
Ganga:
It has its minimum flow during the January-June period. The maximum flow is attained either in August or in
September. After September, there is a steady fall in the flow. The river, thus, has a monsoon regime during
the rainy season.
· There are striking differences in the river regimes in the eastern and the western parts of the Ganga
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Basin.
Ø The Ganga maintains a sizeable flow in the early part of summer due to snow melt before the
monsoon rains begin.
Ø The mean maximum discharge of the Ganga at Farakka is about 55,000 cusecs while the mean
minimum is only 1,300 cusecs.
24
Peninsular rivers
Narmada:
· It has a very low volume of discharge from January to July, but it suddenly rises in August when the
maximum flow is attained.
· The fall in October is as spectacular as the rise in August.
· The flow of water in the Narmada, as recorded at Garudeshwar, shows that the maximum flow is of the
order of 2,300 cusecs, while the minimum flow is only 15 cusecs.
Godavari:
· It has the minimum discharge in May, and the maximum in July-August.
· After August, there is a sharp fall in water flow although the volume of flow in October and November
is higher than that in any of the months from January to May.
· The mean maximum discharge of the Godavari at Polavaram is 3,200 cusecs while the mean minimum
flow is only 50 cusecs.
Aspects Himalayan river Peninsular river
Place of origin Mountains covered with glaciers Peninsular plateau and central highland
Nature of flow Perennial: Receive water from Seasonal: Dependent on monsoon

glaciers and rainfall rainfall
Type of drainage Antecedent and consequent Super imposed, rejuvenated resulting in

leading to dendritic pattern in trellis, radial and rectangular pattern
plains
Nature of river Long course, flowing through the Smaller, fixed course and well-adjusted
rigged mountains experiencing valleys
headward erosion and river
capturing. In plains, meandering
and shifting of course.
Catchment area Very large basin Relatively smaller basin

DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Age of river Young and youthful, active, and Old rivers with graded profile and have
deepening in river valleys almost reached their base level
Table 3.1: comparison between Himalayan and peninsular river system.
25
Uneven Distribution of Water:
The rivers of India carry huge volumes of water per year, but it is unevenly distributed both in time and space.
· There are perennial rivers carrying water throughout the year while the non-perennial rivers have
very little water during monsoon.
· During rainy season much of water of the water is wasted in floods and flows down to the sea.
· When there is a flood in one part of the country, the other area suffers from drought.
Reasons of River pollution:

· Industrial affluents and wastes get disposed in rivers.
· Most of the cremation grounds are on the banks of rivers and the dead bodies are sometimes thrown
in the rivers.
· On the occasion of some festivals, the flowers and statues are immersed in the rivers.
· Large scale bathing and washing of clothes.
Interesting points
· Important Drainage Patters:

Ø Dendritic: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic”
such as the rivers of northern plain.
Ø Radial: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is
known as 'radial' such as the rivers originating from the Amarkantak range.
Ø Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary
tributaries join them at right angles, the pattern is known as 'trellis'.
Ø Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression,
the pattern is known as 'centripetal'
· Namami Gange Programme: It is an Integrated flagship Conservation programme approved in
June 2014 with the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution, conservation and
rejuvenation of the National River Ganga. Main pillars of the Namami Gange Programme are:
Ø Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure
Ø River-Front Development
Ø River-Surface Cleaning
Ø Biodiversity
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Ø Afforestation
Ø Public Awareness
Ø Industrial Effluent Monitoring
Ø Ganga Gram
26
CLIMATE
4
Climate refers to the average of the weather conditions over a longer period of time. India has hot
monsoonal climate which is the prevalent climate in south and southeast Asia.
Climate of India:
· Monsoon connotes the climate associated with seasonal reversal in the direction of winds.
· The climate of India has many regional variations expressed in the pattern of winds, temperature and
rainfall, rhythm of seasons and the degree of wetness or dryness. These regional diversities may be
described as sub-types of monsoon climate.
Regional Variations in Precipitation:

· While snowfall occurs in the Himalayas, it only rains over the rest of the country.
· Cherrapunji and Mawsynram in the Khasi Hills of Meghalaya receive rainfall over 1,080 cm in a year
whereas Jaisalmer in Rajasthan rarely gets more than 9 cm of rainfall during the same period.
· The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Odisha are hit by strong rain-bearing storms in July and
August.
· The Coromandal coast goes generally dry during July and August months.
· Most parts of India get rainfall during June-September, but on the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, it rains
in the beginning of the winter season.
Factors Determining Climate of India:

India's climate is controlled by a number of factors which can be broadly divided into two groups — factors
related to location and relief, and factors related to air pressure and winds.
Factors related to Location and Relief

Latitude:
· The Tropic of Cancer passes through the central part of India in east-west direction. Thus, northern
part of the India lies in sub-tropical and temperate zone and the part lying south of the Tropic of
Cancer falls in the tropical zone.
· The tropical zone being nearer to the equator, experiences high temperatures throughout the year
with small daily and annual range.
· Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away from the equator, experiences extreme climate with
high daily and annual range of temperature.
Himalayan Mountains:
· It acts as an effective climatic divide and protects the subcontinent from the cold northern winds.
These cold and chilly winds originate near the Arctic circle and blow across central and eastern Asia.
· The Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them to shed their moisture within the
CLIMATE
subcontinent.
27
Distribution of Land and Water:
· India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on three sides in the south and girdled by a high and continuous
mountain-wall in the north.
· As compared to the landmass, water heats up or cools down slowly. This differential heating of land
and sea creates different air pressure zones in different seasons in and around the Indian
subcontinent.
· Difference in air pressure causes reversal in the direction of monsoon winds.
Distance from the Sea:

· With a long coastline, large coastal areas have an equable climate.
· Areas in the interior of India are far away from the moderating influence of the sea. Such areas have
extremes of climate.
· The seasonal contrasts in weather at places in the interior of the country such as Delhi, Kanpur and
Amritsar can be observed.
Altitude:
· Temperature decreases with height.
· Due to thin air, places in the mountains are cooler than places on the plains. For example, Agra and
Darjiling are located on the same latitude, but temperature of January in Agra is 16°C whereas it is only
4°C in Darjiling.
Relief:
· The physiography or relief of India also affects the temperature, air pressure, direction and speed of
wind and the amount and distribution of rainfall.
· The windward sides of Western Ghats and Assam receive high rainfall during June-September
whereas the southern plateau remains dry due to its leeward situation along the Western Ghats.
Air Pressure and Wind:
To understand the differences in local climates of India, it is necessary to understand the mechanism of the
following three factors:
· Distribution of air pressure and winds on the surface of the earth.
· Upper air circulation caused by factors controlling global weather and the inflow of different air
masses and jet streams.
· Inflow of western cyclones generally known as disturbances during the winter season and tropical depressions
during the south-west monsoon period into India, creating weather conditions favourable to rainfall.
Mechanism of Weather in the Winter Season

Surface Pressure and Winds:
CLIMATE
· In winter months, the weather conditions over India are generally influenced by the distribution of
pressure in Central and Western Asia.
28
· A high-pressure centre in the region lying to the north of the Himalayas develops during winter.
· The centre of high pressure gives rise to the flow of air at the low level from the north towards the
Indian subcontinent, south of the mountain range.
· The surface winds blowing out of the high-pressure centre over Central Asia reach India in the form of
a dry continental air mass.
Ø These continental winds encounter trade winds over north-western India.
Ø The position of this contact zone is not, however, stable.
· Occasionally, it may shift its position as far east as the middle Ganga valley with the result that the
whole of the north-western and northern India up to the middle Ganga valley comes under the
influence of dry north-western winds.
Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation:

· Jet streams are observed up in the lower troposphere, about 3 km above the surface of the earth.
· The variations in the atmospheric pressure closer to the surface of the earth have no role to play in the
making of upper air circulation.
CLIMATE
Fig. 4.1: Direction of Winds in India in Winter at the Height of 9-13 km
29
· All of Western and Central Asia remains under the influence of westerly winds along the altitude of 9-
13 km from west to east.
· These winds blow across the Asian continent at latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly parallel to the
Tibetan highlands and are known as jet streams.
· Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams get
bifurcated
Ø One of its branches blows to the north of the Tibetan highlands.
Ø The southern branch blows in an eastward direction, south of the Himalayas.
o It has its mean position at 25°N in February at 200-300 mb level.
o It is believed that this southern branch of the jet stream exercises an important influence on the
winter weather in India.
Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Tropical Cyclones:

· The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the
northwest during the winter months, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India
by the westerly jet stream.
· An increase in the prevailing night temperature generally indicates an advance in the arrival of these
cyclones' disturbances.
· Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of Bengal and the Indian ocean. These tropical cyclones have
very high wind velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha coast.
· Most of these cyclones are very destructive due to high wind velocity and torrential rain that
accompanies it.
Mechanism of Weather in Summer Season

Surface Pressure and Winds:
· When the sun shifts northwards, the wind circulation over the subcontinent undergoes a complete
reversal at both, the lower and the upper levels.
· By the middle of July, the low-pressure belt nearer the surface [termed as Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ)] shifts northwards, roughly parallel to the Himalayas between 20° N and 25° N.
· By this time, the westerly jet stream withdraws from the Indian region.
· There is an interrelationship between the northward shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from over the North Indian Plain.
· ITCZ is low pressure zone and attract maritime tropical airmass from the southern hemisphere, after
crossing the equator, rushes to the low-pressure area in the general south-westerly direction.
· It is this moist air current which is popularly known as the southwest monsoon.
Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation:

CLIMATE
· The pattern of pressure and winds is formed only at the level of the troposphere.
· An easterly jet stream flows over the southern part of the Peninsula in June.
30
· In August, it is confined to 15oN latitude, and in September up to 22o N latitudes.
· The easterlies normally do not extend to the north of 30o N latitude in the upper atmosphere.
Figure 4.2: Summer Monsoon Winds (Surface Circulation)
Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical Cyclones:

· The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions into India.
· These depressions play a significant role in the distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Indian
subcontinent.
· The tracks of these depressions are the areas of highest rainfall in India.
· The frequency at which these depressions visit India, their direction and intensity, all go a long way in
determining the rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoon period.
The Nature of Indian Monsoon:

Systematic studies of the causes of rainfall in the South Asian region help to understand the causes and
salient features of the monsoon, particularly some of its important aspects, such as:
· The onset of the monsoon
· Rain-bearing systems (e.g., tropical cyclones) and the relationship between their frequency and
CLIMATE
distribution of monsoon rainfall

· Break in the monsoon
31
· Onset of the Monsoon:
Ø It was believed that the differential heating of land and sea during the summer months is the
mechanism which sets the stage for the monsoon winds to drift towards the subcontinent.
Ø During April and May when the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer, the large landmass in
the north of Indian ocean gets intensely heated.
Ø This causes the formation of an intense low pressure in the north-western part of the
subcontinent. Since the pressure in the Indian Ocean in the south of the landmass is high as water
gets heat slowly and low-pressure cell attracts southeast trades across the Equator.
Ø The southwest monsoon may be seen as a continuation of the southeast trades deflected
towards the Indian subcontinent after crossing the Equator.
Ø These winds cross the Equator between 40°E and 60°E longitudes.
Ø The shift in position to ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the withdrawal of the westerly
jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain, south Himalayas.
Ø The easterly jet stream sets in along 15°N latitude only after the western jet stream has
withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly jet stream is held responsible for the burst of the
monsoon in India.
Ø Entry of Monsoon into India: The southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala coast by 1st June and
moves swiftly to reach Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th June. By mid-July southwest
monsoon engulfs the entire subcontinent.
Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall Distribution:

· Two rain-bearing systems in India.
Ø First originate in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of north India.
Ø Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which brings rain to the west coast
of India.
· Much of the rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is obstructed and forced to
rise along the Ghats.
· The intensity of rainfall over the west coast of India is related to two factors:
Ø The offshore meteorological conditions.
Ø The position of the equatorial jet stream along the eastern coast of Africa.
· The frequency of the tropical depressions originating from the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year.
Ø Their paths over India are mainly determined by the position of ITCZ which is generally termed as
the monsoon trough.
Ø As the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there are fluctuations in the track and direction of
these depressions, and the intensity and the amount of rainfall vary from year to year.
· The rain which comes in spells, displays a declining trend from west to east over the west coast, and
from the southeast towards the northwest over the North Indian Plain and the northern part of the
CLIMATE
Peninsula.
32
Break in the Monsoon:
· During the south-west monsoon period after having rains for a few days, if rain fails to occur for one
or more weeks, it is known as break in the monsoon.
· These dry spells are quite common during the rainy season.
· These breaks in the different regions are due to different reasons:
Ø In northern India rains are likely to fail if the rain-bearing storms are not very frequent along the
monsoon trough or the ITCZ over this region.
Ø Over the west coast the dry spells are associated with days when winds blow parallel to the coast.
The Rhythm of Seasons:

The climatic conditions of India can best be described in terms of an annual cycle of seasons. The
meteorologists recognise the following four seasons:
· Cold weather season
· Hot weather season
· Southwest monsoon season
· Retreating monsoon season
Cold Weather Season

Temperature:
· Usually, the cold weather season sets in by mid-November in northern India.
· December and January are the coldest months in the northern plain.
· The mean daily temperature remains below 21°C, over most parts of northern India.
· The night temperature may be quite low.
· There are three main reasons for the excessive cold in north India during this season:
Ø States like Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan being far away from the moderating influence of sea
experience continental climate.
Ø The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan ranges creates cold wave situation.
Ø Around February, the cold winds coming from the Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring cold
wave along with frost and fog over the north-western parts of India.
· The Peninsular region of India, however, does not have any well-defined cold weather season.
· There is hardly any seasonal change in the distribution pattern of the temperature in coastal areas
because of moderating influence of the sea and the proximity to equator.
Pressure and Winds:

· By the end of December (22nd December), the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in
the southern hemisphere.
· The weather in this season is characterised by feeble high-pressure conditions over the northern
CLIMATE
plain. In South India, air pressure slightly lower.

Ø As a result, winds start blowing from north-western high-pressure zone to the low air pressure
33
zone over the Indian Ocean in the south.
· Due to low pressure gradient, the light winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km per hour begin to
blow outwards.
· By and large, the topography of the region influences the wind direction.
Ø They are westerly or north-westerly down the Ganga Valley.
Ø They become northerly in the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta.
Ø Free from the influence of topography, they are clearly north-easterly over the Bay of Bengal.
· Cyclonic depressions originating over the east Mediterranean Sea and travelling eastwards across
West Asia, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan before they reach the north-western parts of India.
· On their way, the moisture content gets augmented from the Caspian Sea in the north and the Persian
Gulf in the south.
Rainfall:
Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It is because they have little
humidity and due to anti cyclonic circulation on land, the possibility of rainfall from them reduces. However,
there are some exceptions to it:
· Some weak temperate cyclones from the Mediterranean Sea cause rainfall in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi
and western Uttar Pradesh.
Ø Although the amount is meagre, it is highly beneficial for rabi crops.
Ø The precipitation is in the form of snowfall in the lower Himalayas. It is this snow that sustains the
flow of water in the Himalayan rivers during the summer months.
· The precipitation goes on decreasing from west to east in the plains and from north to south in the
mountains.
· Central parts of India and northern parts of southern Peninsula also get winter rainfall occasionally.
· Arunachal Pradesh and Assam in the north-eastern parts of India also have rains between 25 mm and
50 mm during these winter months.
· During October and November, northeast monsoon while crossing over the Bay of Bengal, picks up
moisture and causes torrential rainfall over the Tamil Nadu coast, southern Andhra Pradesh,
southeast Karnataka and southeast Kerala.
Hot Weather Season

Temperature:
· The apparent northward movement of the sun towards the Tropic of Cancer in March, temperatures
start rising in north India.
· April, May and June are the months of summer in north India.
· The hot weather season in south India is mild and not so intense as found in north India.
· The Peninsular situation of south India with moderating effect of the oceans keeps the temperatures
lower than that prevailing in north India.
CLIMATE
· In the coastal regions, the north-south extent of isotherms parallel to the coast confirms that
temperature does not decrease from north to south rather it increases from the coast to the interior.
34
Pressure and Winds:
· The summer months are a period of excessive heat and falling air pressure in the northern half of the
country.
· Because of the heating of the subcontinent, this elongated low pressure monsoon trough extends
over the Thar desert in the north-west to Patna and Chotanagpur plateau in the east-southeast.
· The location of the ITCZ attracts a surface circulation of the winds which are south-westerly on the
west coast as well as along the coast of West Bengal and Bangladesh.
· Currents of south-westerly monsoon are in reality 'displaced' equatorial westerlies. The influx of
these winds by mid-June brings about a change in the weather towards the rainy season.
· In the heart of the ITCZ in the northwest, the dry and hot winds known as 'Loo', blows in the
afternoon.
· Dust storms in the evening are very common during May in Punjab, Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and
Uttar Pradesh.
Ø These temporary storms bring a welcome respite from the oppressing heat since they bring with
them light rains and a pleasant cool breeze.
· A sudden contact between dry and moist air masses gives rise to local storms of great intensity, these
local storms are associated with violent winds, torrential rains and hailstorms.
Famous local Storms of Hot Weather Season

Mango Shower: There are pre-monsoon showers which are a common phenomenon in Kerala
and coastal areas of Karnataka. Locally, they are known as mango showers since they help in the
early ripening of mangoes.
Blossom Shower: With this shower, coffee flowers blossom in Kerala and nearby areas.
Nor Westers: These are dreaded evening thunderstorms in Bengal and Assam.
Ø Their notorious nature can be understood from the local nomenclature of 'Kalbaisakhi', a
calamity of the month of Baisakh.
Ø These showers are useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation.
Ø In Assam, these storms are known as “Bardoli Chheerha”.
Loo: Hot, dry, and oppressing winds blowing in the Northern plains from Punjab to Bihar
with higher intensity between Delhi and Patna.
South-West Monsoon Season:

· High temperature over northern plains create lower pressure condition, and they are powerful
enough to attract trade winds of southern hemisphere.
· These southeast trade winds cross the equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea.
· Passing over the equatorial warm currents, they bring with them moisture in abundance.
· After crossing the equator, they follow a south-westerly direction.
CLIMATE
· The sudden onset of the moisture-laden winds associated with violent thunder and lightning, is often
termed as the “break” or “burst” of the monsoons.
35
Two branches of monsoon :
· Arabian sea branch: The monsoon winds originating over the Arabian Sea further split into three
branches:
Ø First branch: It is obstructed by the Western Ghats and climb the slopes of the Western Ghats from
900-1200 m.
o The windward side of the Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain receive very heavy rainfall
ranging between 250 cm and 400 cm.
o After crossing western ghats, these winds descend and become hotter and get heated up and
reduces moisture, thus east of western ghat is the rain shadow region.
Ø Second branch: It strikes with coast of the north Mumbai.
o It moves along valley of Narmada and Tapi and cause extensive rainfall over central India.
o It enters the Ganga plains and mingle with the Bay of Bengal branch.
Ø Third branch: It strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the Kachchh.
o It then passes over west Rajasthan and along the Aravalis, causing only a scanty rainfall.
o In Punjab and Haryana, it too joins the Bay of Bengal branch. These two branches, reinforced by
each other, cause rains in the western Himalayas.
· Bay of Bengal branch:
Ø It strikes the coast of Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh but Arakan Hills along the coast
of Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent.
Ø The monsoon enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and southeast direction.
Ø This branch splits into two under the influence of the Himalayas and the thermal low is northwest
India.
o One branch moves westward along the Ganga plains reaching as far as the Punjab plains.
o The other branch moves up the Brahmaputra valley in the north and the northeast, causing
widespread rains.
Ø Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya.
Ø Mawsynram, located on the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest average annual rainfall in the
world.
Ø Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during this season:
o The Tamil Nadu coast is situated parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of southwest monsoon.
o It lies in the rain-shadow area of the Arabian Sea branch of the south-west monsoon.
Characteristics of Monsoon Rainfall:

· Rainfall received from the southwest monsoons is seasonal in character, which occurs between June
and September.
· Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief or topography.
Ø For instance, the windward side of the Western Ghats register a rainfall of over 250 cm.
CLIMATE
Ø The heavy rainfall in the north-eastern states can be attributed to their hill ranges and the Eastern
Himalayas.
36
· The monsoon rainfall has a declining trend with increasing distance from the sea. Kolkata receives
119 cm during the southwest monsoon period, Patna 105 cm, Allahabad 76 cm and Delhi 56 cm.
· The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of few days' duration at a time.
Ø The wet spells are interspersed with rainless interval known as 'breaks.
Ø These breaks in rainfall are related to the cyclonic depressions mainly formed at the head of the Bay
of Bengal, and their crossing into the mainland.
· Besides the frequency and intensity of these depressions, the passage followed by them determines
the spatial distribution of rainfall.
· The summer rainfall comes in a heavy downpour leading to considerable run off and soil erosion.
· Monsoons play a pivotal role in the agrarian economy of India because over three-fourths of the total
rain in the country is received during the southwest monsoon season.
· Its spatial distribution is also uneven which ranges from 12 cm to more than 250 cm.
· The beginning of the rains sometimes is considerably delayed over the whole or a part of the country.
· The rains sometimes end considerably earlier than usual, causing great damage to standing crops and
making the sowing of winter crops difficult.
Season of Retreating Monsoon:

· The months of October and November are known for retreating monsoons.
· By the end of September, the southwest monsoon becomes weak as the low-pressure trough of the
Ganga plain starts moving southward in response to the southward march of the sun.
· The monsoon retreats from the western Rajasthan by the first week of September.
· It withdraws from Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Ganga plain and the Central Highlands by the end of
the month.
· By the beginning of October, the low pressure covers northern parts of the Bay of Bengal and by early
November, it moves over Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
· By the middle of December, the centre of low pressure is completely removed from the Peninsula.
· It is marked by clear skies and rise in temperature. The land is still moist.
· Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive.
This is commonly known as the 'October heat'.
· In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly, particularly in northern India.
· The weather in the retreating monsoon is dry in north India but it is associated with rain in the eastern
part of the Peninsula.
· The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic depressions which
originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
Ø These tropical cyclones are very destructive.
Ø The thickly populated deltas of the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri are their preferred targets.
Ø A few cyclonic storms also strike the coast of West Bengal, Bangladesh and Myanmar.
CLIMATE
Ø The bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandal coast is derived from these depressions and cyclones.
Ø Such cyclonic storms are less frequent in the Arabian Sea.
37
El-Nino and Indian Monsoon
EI-Nino is a complex weather system that appears once every three to seven years, bringing
drought, floods and other weather extremes to different parts of the world.
· The system involves oceanic and atmospheric phenomena with the appearance of warm
currents off the coast of Peru in the Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many places
including India.
· EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm equatorial current which gets replaced
temporarily by cold Peruvian current or Humboldt current.
· This current increases the temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by 10°C and results
in:
· The distortion of equatorial atmospheric circulation.
· Irregularities in the evaporation of sea water.
· Reduction in the number of planktons which further reduces the number of fish in the sea.
· EI-Nino is used in India for forecasting long range monsoon rainfall.
Traditional Indian Seasons:

· In the Indian tradition, a year is divided into six two-monthly seasons. This cycle of seasons, which
the common people in north and central India followed.
· However, this system does not match with the seasons of south India where there is little variation in
the seasons.
Seasons Months (according to Indian Months (according to Gregorian

tradition) calendar)
Vasanta Chaitra-Vaisakha March-April
Grishma Jiashtha-Asadha May-June
Varsha Sravana-Bhadra July-August
Sharada Asvina-Kartika September-October
Hemanta Margashirsha-Pusha November-December
Shishira Magha-Phalguna January-February

CLIMATE
Table 4.1: Name of seasons in Traditional Indian and Gregorian calendar
38
Distribution of Rainfall:
The average annual rainfall in India is about 125 cm, but it has great spatial variations.
· Areas of High Rainfall:
Ø The highest rainfall occurs on the Western Ghats, as well as in the sub-Himalayan areas (northeast
and the hills of Meghalaya).
Ø In some parts of Khasi and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000 cm.
Ø In the Brahmaputra valley and the adjoining hills, the rainfall is less than 200 cm.
· Areas of Medium Rainfall:
Ø Rainfall between 100-200 cm is received in the southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil Nadu, north-
eastern Peninsula covering Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga
plain along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar Valley and Manipur.
· Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir, eastern
Rajasthan, Gujarat and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall between 50-100 cm.
· Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
Maharashtra, Ladakh and most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall below 50 cm.
· Snowfall is restricted to Himalayan region.
Variability of Rainfall:
· A characteristic feature of rainfall in India is its variability. The variability of rainfall is computed with the
help of the following formula:
Here, C.V. is the coefficient of variation.

· The values of coefficient of variation show the change from the mean values of rainfall. The actual
rainfall in some places deviates from 20-50 per cent.
· A variability of less than 25 per cent exists on the western coasts, Western Ghats, north-eastern
Peninsula, eastern plains of the Ganga, north-eastern India, Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and
south-western part of Jammu and Kashmir. These areas have an annual rainfall of over 100 cm.
· A variability of over 50 per cent exists in the western part of Rajasthan, northern part of Jammu and
Kashmir and interior parts of the Deccan plateau. These areas have an annual rainfall of less than 50
cm.
· Rest of India have a variability of 25-50 per cent and these areas receive an annual rainfall between
CLIMATE
50 -100 cm.
39
Figure 4.3: India: Seasonal Rainfall (June-September)
Climatic Regions of India:

· A climatic region has a homogeneous climatic condition which is the result of a combination of factors.
· Temperature and rainfall are two important elements which are considered to be decisive in all the
schemes of climatic classification.
· Koeppen based his scheme of Climatic classification on monthly values of temperature and
precipitation. He identified five major climatic types, namely:
Ø Tropical climates: Mean monthly temperature throughout the year is over 18°C.
Ø Dry climates: Precipitation is very low in comparison to temperature, and hence, dry. If dryness is
less, it is semiarid (S); if it is more, the climate is arid(W).
CLIMATE
Ø Warm temperate climates: Mean temperature of the coldest month is between 18°C and minus
3°C.
40
Ø Cool temperate climates: Mean temperature of the warmest month is over 10°C, and mean
temperature of the coldest month is under minus 3°C.
Ø Ice climates: Mean temperature of the warmest month is under 10°C.
· Koeppen used letter symbols to denote climatic types as given above.
· Each type is further sub-divided into sub-types on the basis of seasonal variations in the distributional
pattern of rainfall and temperature.
· He used S for semi-arid and W for arid and the following small letters to define sub-types: f (sufficient
precipitation), m (rain forest despite a dry monsoon season), w (dry season in winter), h (dry and hot), c
(less than four months with mean temperature over 10°C), and g (Gangetic plain).
· Accordingly, India can be divided into following eight climatic regions.
Type of climate Areas
Amw: Monsoon with short dry season West coast of India south of Goa
As: Monsoon with dry summer Coromandal coast of Tamil Nadu
Aw: Tropical savannah Most of peninsular plateau and south of tropic of cancer
Bwhw: Semiarid steppe climate North-western Gujarat, some parts of western

Rajasthan and Punjab
Bwhw: Hot desert Extreme western Rajasthan
Cwg: Monsoon with dry winter Ganga plain, eastern Rajasthan, northern Madhya
Pradesh, most of North-east India
Dfc: Cold humid winter with short Arunachal Pradesh

summer
E: Polar type Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand
Table 4.2: Climatic Regions of India According to Koeppen's Scheme.

CLIMATE
41
Fig. 4.4: India: Climatic Regions According to Koeppen's Scheme
Monsoon and Economic life of India:

· Monsoon is that axis around which revolves the entire agricultural cycle of India. It is because about
64 per cent people of India depend on agriculture for their livelihood and agriculture itself is based on
southwest monsoon.
· Except Himalayas, all the parts of India have temperature above the threshold level to grow the
crops or plants throughout the year.
· Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of crops.
· Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the country.
· Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and adequately distributed rainfall. If it
fails, agriculture is adversely affected particularly in those regions where means of irrigation are not
CLIMATE
developed.
· Sudden monsoon burst creates problem of soil erosion over large areas in India.
42
· Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial for rabi crops.
Global Warming:
· Human activities such as large-scale industrialisation and presence of polluting gas in the
atmosphere are also important factors responsible for global warming.
· Carbon dioxide produced by human activities is a major source of concern. This gas, released to the
atmosphere in large quantities by burning of fossil fuel, is increasing gradually.
· Other gases like methane, chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide which are present in much smaller
concentrations in the atmosphere, together with carbon dioxide are known as greenhouse gases.
These gases are better absorbers of long wave radiations than carbon dioxide, and so, are more
effective at enhancing the greenhouse effect.
Effect of Global Warming:
It is projected that by the year 2,100, global temperature will increase by about 2°C. This rise in
temperature will cause many other changes:
· Rise in sea level, as a result of melting of glaciers and sea-ice due to warming.
Ø On an average, the sea level will rise 48 cm by the end of twenty first century.
Ø This would increase the incidence of annual flooding.
· Climatic change would promote insect borne diseases like malaria, and lead to shift in climatic
boundaries, making some regions wetter and others drier.
· Agricultural pattern would shift and human population as well as the ecosystem would experience
change.
Interesting points
· Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):

Ø It is a low-pressure zone located at the equator where trade winds converge, and so, it is a zone
where air tends to ascend.
Ø In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes
called the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough encourages the development of thermal low
over north and northwest India.
Ø Due to the shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator between
40° and 60°E longitudes and start blowing from southwest to northeast due to the Coriolis force.
· The intensity of southwest monsoon winds of southern oscillation can be measured by the
difference in pressure between Tahiti (roughly 20°S and 140°W) in French Polynesia in East Pacific
and port Darwin (12°30'S and 131°E) in northern Australia.
· Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) can forecast the possible behaviour of monsoons on the
basis of 16 indicators.
CLIMATE
43
5 NATURAL VEGETATION
Natural vegetation refers to a plant community that has been left undisturbed over a long time, so as to allow
its individual species to adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions as fully as possible.
Variation in Natural Vegetation of India:

India is a land of great variety of natural vegetation depending upon the variations in the climate and the
soil.
· Himalayan heights are marked with temperate vegetation.
· Western Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands have tropical rain forests.
· Deltaic regions have tropical forests and mangroves.
· Desert and semi-desert areas of Rajasthan are known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and thorny
vegetation.
Classification of Forests:
On the basis of certain common features such as predominant vegetation type and climatic regions,
Indian forests can be divided into the following groups:
· Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests.
· Tropical Deciduous forests.
· Tropical Thorn forests.
· Montane forests.
· Littoral and Swamp forests.
Tropical Evergreen Forest:

· Regions: These forests are found in the western slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the north-
eastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
· Climatic Conditions: They are found in warm and humid areas with an annual precipitation of over
200 cm and mean annual temperature above 22oC.
· These are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground and are covered with shrubs and creepers,
with short, structured trees followed by tall variety of trees.
· In these forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m or above.
· There is no definite time for trees to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these forests
appear green all the year round.
· Tree Species: Rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
NATURAL VEGETATION
Tropical Semi Evergreen Forest:

· Regions: These forests are found in the less rainy parts of evergreen regions.
· These have a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The undergrowing climbers provide
an evergreen character to these forests.
· Tree Species: White cedar, hollock and kail etc.
· The British were aware of the economic value of the forests in India; hence, large scale exploitation of
44
these forests was started.
Ø The oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed to lay
railway lines.
Ø Forests were also cleared for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and coffee.
Ø The British also used timber for construction activities as it acts as an insulator of heat.
Ø The protectional use of forests was, thus, replaced by commercial use.
Tropical deciduous forest:

These are the most widespread forests in India and are also called the monsoon forests. They spread
over regions which receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the basis of the availability of water, these
forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous.
· The Moist deciduous forests:
Ø These are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100-200 cm.
Ø These forests are found in the north-eastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern
slopes of the Western Ghats and Odisha.
Ø Tree Species: Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, Kusum, and sandalwood.
· Dry deciduous forest:
Ø These forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm.
Ø On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn
forests.
Ø These forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Ø In the higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian plain, these forests
have a parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed with
patches of grass are common.
Ø Characteristics: As the dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest
appears like a vast grassland with naked trees all around.
Ø Tree Species: Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axle wood, etc
Tropical Thorn Forest:

· Regions: It grows in areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm.
· It includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh.
NATURAL VEGETATION
· In these forests, plants remain leafless for most part of the year and give an expression of scrub
vegetation and it also consists variety of grasses and shrubs.
· Tree Species: Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas.
· Tussocky grass grows up to a height of 2 m as the under growth.
Montane Forest:
· In mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
45
change in natural vegetation.
· The Himalayan ranges show a succession of vegetation from the tropical to the tundra which change
in with the altitude.
· Mountain forests can be classified into two types namely the northern mountain forests and the
southern mountain forests.
Northern Mountain Forest:

· Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
· Wet temperate type of forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
Ø These trees found in the higher hill ranges of north-eastern India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
Uttaranchal.
Ø Evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and chestnut are predominant.
· Pine forests are also well-developed between 1500-1750 m altitude.
Ø Chir Pine is very useful commercial tree.
Ø Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows mainly in the western part of the Himalayan range.
Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in construction activity.
Ø Similarly, the chinar and the walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this
zone.
· Between heights of 2,225-3048 m:
Ø Blue pine and spruce appear.
Ø At many places in this zone, temperate grasslands are also found.
· Between 3000-4000 m:
Ø There is a transition to Alpine forests and pastures.
Ø Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and rhododendrons, etc are found.
Ø These pastures are used extensively for transhumance by tribes like the Gujjars, the Bakarwals,
the Bhotia's and the Gaddis.
· At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the tundra vegetation.
· The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover because of relatively higher
precipitation than the drier north-facing slopes.
Southern Mountain Forests:

· It includes the forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the
NATURAL VEGETATION
Vindhyan and the Nilgiris.

· As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the
higher regions, and subtropical on the lower regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and Karnataka.
· The temperate forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills.
· Forest of economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle.
· Such forests are also found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges.
46
Fig. 5.1: Natural Vegetation
Littoral and Swamp Forests:

· India has a rich variety of wetland habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy
cultivation.
· The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares.
· Two sites namely Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as
water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
NATURAL VEGETATION
Convention).
· The country's wetlands have been grouped into eight categories,
Ø The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other wetlands of
the southern west coast.
Ø The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of Kachchh.
Ø Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan (Keoladeo National
Park) and Madhya Pradesh.
47
Ø The delta wetlands and lagoons of India's east coast (Chilika Lake).
Ø The freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain.
Ø The floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the
Himalayan foothills.
Ø The lakes and rivers of the montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh.
Ø The mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Mangroves:
· They grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries.
· They consist of several salt-tolerant species of plants.
· Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of
birds.
· They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sundarbans of West Bengal.
Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas.
Forest Cover in India (Updated):

· The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the existence of
trees. It is based on the records of the State Revenue Department.
· The actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy. It is based on aerial photographs
and satellite imageries.
· According to the 'Indian State of The Forest Report 2019',
Ø Total forest and tree cover rises to 24.56% of the total geographical area of the country.
Ø Area-wise: Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country followed by Arunachal
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Maharashtra.
NATURAL VEGETATION
Fig. 5.2: Forest Cover in India
48
Ø In terms of forest cover as percentage of total geographical area, the top five States are Mizoram
(85.41%), Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%), Meghalaya (76.33%), Manipur (75.46%) and Nagaland
(75.31%).
Ø Mangrove cover has been separately reported in the ISFR 2019 and the total mangrove cover in the
country is 4,975 sq. km. An increase of 54 sq Km in mangrove cover has been observed.
Ø There is 5,188 sq. km increase in total forest cover as compared to 2017 assessment.
o Increase in Forest Cover: 3,976 sq. km
o Increase in Tree Cover: 12,12 sq.km
Ø The top three states showing increase in forest cover are Karnataka (1,025 sq. km) followed by
Andhra Pradesh (990 sq. km) and Kerala (823 sq. km).
Ø Extent of Bamboo: The extent of bamboo area has estimated at 16 million sq. km. There is increase
of 0.32 million sq. km as compared to 2017 ISFR report.
Ø Carbon Stock: In 2019 assessment the total carbon stock in country's forest is estimated 7,124.6
million tonnes. There is an increase of 42.6 million tonnes in the carbon stock of country as
compared to the last assessment of 2017.
Table 5.1: Percentage cover of the forest
Regions Percentage cover of the forest
High Concentration > 40
Medium Concentration 20-40
Low Concentration 10-20
Very Low Concentration 10-20
Forest Conservation:
· Forests have an intricate interrelationship with life and environment. These provide numerous direct
and indirect advantages to our economy and society.
NATURAL VEGETATION
· According to Forest Policy 1988, the Government will emphasise sustainable forest management in
order to conserve and expand forest reserve on the one hand, and to meet the needs of local people on
the other. Following are important policy targets,
Ø Bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest cover.
Ø Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance was
disturbed.
Ø Conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and genetic pool.
49
Ø Checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and droughts.
Ø Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded land.
Ø Increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available to rural
population dependant on forests and encourage the substitution of wood.
Ø Creating of a massive people's movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop
felling of trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.
Social forestry
Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren lands
with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The National
Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories. These are
Urban forestry, Rural forestry and Farm forestry.
· Urban Forestry: It pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately
owned lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial
and commercial green belts, etc.
· Rural Forestry: It lays emphasis on promotion of Agro-forestry and Community forestry.
Ø Agro-Forestry: It is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land inclusive of the
waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the simultaneous
production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit.
Ø Community Forestry: It involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the
village pasture and temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc.
o It aims to provide benefits to the community.
o People of landless classes can associate with themselves with tree raising.
· Farm forestry: It is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial
and non-commercial purposes on their farmlands.
Ø Forest departments of various states distribute seedlings of trees free of cost to small and
NATURAL VEGETATION
medium farmers.
Ø Several lands such as the margins of agricultural fields, grasslands and pastures, land around
homes and cow sheds may be used for raising trees under non-commercial farm forestry.
50
Wildlife:
It is estimated that about 4-5 per cent of all known plant and animal species on the earth are found in India.
There is a considerable threat to the wildlife because of the following reasons:
· Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid increase in the exploitation of
forest resources.
· More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining, reservoirs, etc.
· Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and fuelwood and removal of small timber by
the local people.
· Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
· Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild animals were killed in a single hunt.
Now, commercial poaching is rampant.
· Incidence of forest fire.
Wildlife Conservation in India:

· In 1972, a comprehensive Wildlife Act was enacted, which provides the main legal framework for
conservation and protection of wildlife in India. The two main objectives of the act are.
Ø To provide protection to the endangered species listed in the schedule of the Act.
Ø To provide legal support to the conservation areas of the country classified as National parks,
Sanctuaries, and closed areas.
· For the purpose of effective conservation of flora and fauna, special steps have been initiated by the
Government of India in collaboration with UNESCO's 'Man and Biosphere Programme'.
· Following schemes have been launched to conserve these species and their habitat in a sustainable
manner.
Ø Project Tiger: The main objective of the scheme is to ensure maintenance of viable population of
tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, cultural and ecological values, and to preserve areas of
biological importance as natural heritage for the benefit, education and enjoyment of the people.
Ø Project Elephant: It was launched in 1992 to assist states having free ranging population of wild
elephants. It was aimed at ensuring long-term survival of identified viable population of elephants
in their natural habitat.
Ø Crocodile Breeding Project, Project Hangul and conservation of Himalayan Musk deer have also
been launched by the Government of India.
NATURAL VEGETATION
Biosphere Reserve:
A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial and coastal areas which are
internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCO's Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.
There is total 11 biosphere reserves are recognised under UNESCO'S MAB programme.
51
Fig. 5.3: Objectives of a Biosphere Reserve
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve:

· This is the first biosphere reserve was established in September 1986.
· It embraces the sanctuary complex of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipore and Mudumalai, the entire
forested hill slopes of Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent Valley and the Siruvani hills.
· The total area of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq. km.
· It has unspoilt areas of natural vegetation types with several dry scrubs, dry and moist deciduous,
semievergreen and wet evergreen forests, evergreen sholas, grasslands and swamps.
· It includes the largest known population of two endangered animal species, namely the Nilgiri Tahr
and the Lion-tailed macaque.
· The largest south Indian population of elephant, tiger, gaur, sambar and chital as well as a good
number of endemic and endangered plants are also found in this reserve.
· Its topography is extremely varied.
Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve:

· It is situated in Uttarakhand and includes parts of Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh and Bageshwar
NATURAL VEGETATION
districts.
· The major forest types of the reserve are temperate.
· Flora: Silver weed and orchids like latifolie and rhododendron.
· Fauna: Snow leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer, snowcock, golden eagle and black eagle.
· Major threats: Collection of endangered plants for medicinal use, forest fires and poaching.
Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve:
· It is located in the swampy delta of the river Ganga in West Bengal.
52
· It extends over a vast area of 9,630 sq. km and consists of mangrove forests, swamps and forested islands.
· Sundarbans is the home of Royal Bengal tigers. The tigers at the park are good swimmers, and they
hunt scarce preys such as chital deer, barking deer, wild pig and even macaques.
· The mangrove forests are characterised by Heritiera fomes, a species valued for its timber.
Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve:

· The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve covers an area of 105,000 hectares on the southeast coast of India.
· The biosphere reserve comprises 21 islands with estuaries, beaches, forests of the nearshore
environment, sea grasses, coral reefs, salt marshes and mangroves.
· 3,600 plant and animal species are the globally endangered e.g., Sea cow (Dugong dugon). Besides
six mangrove species, endemic to Peninsular India are also endangered.
S . Biosphere Reserve and Total Date of Location in the States/UT

No. Geographical Area (km2) Designation
1. Nilgiri (5520) 01.08.1986 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and

Madumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and
Karnataka)
2. Nanda Devi (5860.69) 18.01.1988 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora

Districts in Uttarakhand
Nokrek (820) 01.09.1988 Part of East, West and South Garo Hill
3.
Districts in Meghalaya
4. Manas (2837) 14.03.1989 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta,

Nalbari, Kamrup and Darang Districts in Assam
5. Sunderban (9630) 29.03.1989 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahamaputra

river system in West Bengal
NATURAL VEGETATION
6 Gulf of Mannar (10500) 18.02.1989 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending

from Rameswaram island in the North to
Kaniyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu
7 Great Nicobar (885) 06.01.1989 Southernmost island of Andaman and

Nicobar Islands
53
8. Similipal (4374) 21.06.1994 Part of Mayurbhanj District in Odisha
9. Dibru-Saikhowa (765) 28.07.1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts in

Assam
10. Dehang Debang (5111.5) 02.09.1998 Part of Upper Siang, West Siang, and Dibang
Valley Districts in Arunachal Pradesh
11. Pachmarhl (4981.72) 03.03.1999 Part of Betul. Hoshangabad and Chhindwara

Districts in Madhya Pradesh
12. Khangchendzonga 07.02.2000 Part of North and West Districts in Sikkim
(2619.92)
13. Agasthyamalai (3500.36) 12.11.2001 Part of Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari Districts

in Tamil Nadu and Thiruvananthapuram.
Kollam and Pathanmthitta districts in Kerala.
14. Achanakmar- 30.03.2005 Part of Anuppur and Dindori Districts of

Amarkantak (3835.51) Madhya Pradesh and Bilaspur district of
Chhattisgarh
15. Kachchh (12.454) 29.01.2008 Part of Kachchh. Rajkot. Surendranagar and

Patan Districts in Gujarat.
16. Cold Desert (7770) 28.08.2009 Pin Valley National Park and surroundings:
Chandratal and Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife
sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh.
17. Seshachalam (4755.997) 20.09.2010 Seshachalam hill ranges in Eastern Ghatsen

compassing part of Chittoor and Kadapa
Districts in Andhra Pradesh.
18. Panna (2998.98) 25.08.2011 Part of Panna and Chhattarpur Districts in
NATURAL VEGETATION
Madhya Pradesh.
Table 5.2: List of Biosphere Reserves in India
Interesting points
· Generally, an international convention is an agreement among member states of the United Nations.
54
6 SOILS
Soil is the most important layer of the earth's crust. It is a valuable resource as it supports trees, grasses,
crops and numerous lifeforms over the earth's surface. The bulk of food and clothing is derived from land-
based crops that grow in the soil.
Formation of Soils:
· Soil is the mixture of rock debris and organic materials which develop on the earth's surface.
· The various agents of weathering and gradation have acted upon the parent rock material to produce
a thin layer of soil.
· The major factors affecting the formation of soil are relief, parent material, climate, vegetation and
other life-forms and time.
· Human activities also influence it to a large extent.
· Components of the soil: Mineral particles, humus, water and air.
Layers of Soils:
Soil has three layers of soil which are called horizons. The arrangement of layers is known as the soil profile.
Following are the layers of Soil:
· Horizon A: It is the topmost zone, where organic materials have got incorporated with the mineral
matter, nutrients and water, which are necessary for the growth of plants.
· Horizon B: It is a transition zone between the 'horizon A' and 'horizon C', and contains matter derived
from below as well as from above. It has some organic matter in it, although the mineral matter is
noticeably weathered.
· Horizon C: It is composed of the loose parent material. This layer is the first stage in the soil formation
process and eventually forms the above two layers.
· Underneath these three horizons is the rock which is also known as the parent rock or the bedrock.
Classification of Soils:
India has varied relief features, landforms, climatic realms and vegetation types. These have contributed to
the development of various types of soils in India.
· In ancient times, soils used to be classified into two main groups – Urvara and Usara, which were
fertile and sterile, respectively.
· In the 16th century A.D., soils were classified on the basis of their inherent characteristics and external
features such as texture, colour, slope of land and moisture content in the soil.
· Based on Texture: The main soil types were identified as sandy, clayey, silty and loam, etc.
· Basis of Colour: They were red, yellow, black, etc.
· Soil Survey of India, established in 1956, made comprehensive studies of soils.
· The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has classified the Indian soils on the basis of their
nature and character as per the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Taxonomy.
SOILS
55
S. No. Order Area (in thousand hectares) Percentage
1. Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
2. Entisols 92131.71 28.08
3. Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
4. Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
5. Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
6. Utisols 8250.00 2.51
7. Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
8. Others 9503.10 2.92
Total 100
Table: 6.1: Soil taxonomy classified by ICAR
Classification of Soil based on Genesis, Colour, Composition and Location:

· Alluvial soils
· Black soils
· Red and Yellow soils
· Laterite soils
· Arid soils
· Saline soils
· Peaty soils
· Forest soils
Alluvial Soils:
· They are widespread in the northern plains and the river valleys and cover about 40 per cent of the
total area of the country.
· They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by rivers and streams.
· Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, they extend into the plains of Gujarat.
· In the Peninsular region, they are found in deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys.
· The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy loam to clay.
· They are generally rich in potash but poor in phosphorous.
SOILS
· In the Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. Khadar
56
and Bhangar.
Ø Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, which enriches the soil by
depositing fine silts.
Ø Bhangar represents a system of older alluvium, deposited away from the flood plains. Both the
Khadar and Bhangar soils contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
· These soils are loamier and more clayey in the lower and middle Ganga plain and the Brahmaputra
valley.
· The sand content decreases from the west to east.
· The colour varies from light grey to ash grey.
· Its shades depend on the depth of the deposition, the texture of the materials, and the time taken for
attaining maturity.
· Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
Black Soil:
· It covers most of the Deccan Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
· In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and the north western part of the Deccan
Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
· These soils are also known as the 'Regur Soil' or the 'Black Cotton Soil'.
· They are generally clayey, deep and impermeable.
· They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
· During the dry season, these soils develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs a kind of 'self-ploughing'.
· Slow absorption and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the moisture for a very long time, which
helps the crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to sustain even during the dry season.
· Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain potash. But
they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
· The colour of the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
Red and Yellow Soil:

· Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part
of the Deccan Plateau. Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied
by red loamy soil.
· Yellow and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the southern parts of the
middle Ganga plain.
· The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
· It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
· The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility.
SOILS
· They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.
57
Laterite Soil:
· Laterite has been derived from the Latin word 'Later' which means brick.
· It develops in areas with high temperature and high rainfall.
· These are the result of intense leaching due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and silica are leached
away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are left behind.
· These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and
potash are in excess. Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures
and fertilisers are required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
· Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
cashewnut.
· Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
· These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau.
· The laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly
areas of Odisha and Assam.
Arid Soils:
· It ranges from red to brown in colour.
· They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature.
· In some areas, the salt content is so high that common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water.
· Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus.
· Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
· Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by 'Kankars' layers because of the increasing calcium content
downwards. The 'Kankars' layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and
as such when irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant
growth.
· Arid soils are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid
topography.
· These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter.
Saline Soils:
· They are also known as Usara soils.
· They contain a larger proportion of sodium, potassium and magnesium, and thus, they are infertile,
and do not support any vegetative growth.
· They have more salts, largely because of dry climate and poor drainage.
· They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, and in waterlogged and swampy areas.
· Saline soils are more widespread in western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sundarban
areas of West Bengal. In the Rann of Kuchchh, the Southwest Monsoon brings salt particles and
deposits there as a crust.
SOILS
· Seawater intrusions in the deltas promote the occurrence of saline soils.
58
· In the areas of intensive cultivation with excessive use of irrigation, especially in areas of green
revolution, the fertile alluvial soils are becoming saline.
· Excessive irrigation with dry climatic conditions promotes capillary action, which results in the
deposition of salt on the top layer of the soil. In such areas, especially in Punjab and Haryana, farmers
are advised to add gypsum to solve the problem of salinity in the soil.
Peaty Soil:
· They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a
rich humus and organic content to the soil. Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per
cent.
· These soils are normally heavy and black in colour. At many places, they are alkaline also.
· It occurs widely in the Northern part of Bihar, Southern part of Uttarakhand and the coastal areas of
West Bengal, Odisha and Tamil Nadu.
Forest Soil:
· They are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.
· The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are
formed.
Ø They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
· In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are acidic with low
humus content.
· The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.
Soil Degradation:
· It can be defined as the decline in soil fertility when the nutritional status declines and depth of the
soil goes down due to erosion and misuse.
· It is the main factor leading to the depleting soil resource base in India.
· The degree of soil degradation varies from place to place according to the topography, wind velocity
and amount of the rainfall.
Soil Erosion:
· The destruction of the soil cover is described as soil erosion.
· The soil forming processes and the erosional processes of running water and wind go on
simultaneously. But there is balance between this two as the rate of removal of fine particles from the
surface is the same as the rate of addition of particles to the soil layer.
· Sometimes, such a balance is disturbed by natural or human factors, leading to a greater rate of
removal of soil.
SOILS
· Wind and water are powerful agents of soil erosion because of their ability to remove soil and
transport it.
59
Ø Wind Erosion: It is significant in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ø Water Erosion: In regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes, erosion by running water is more
significant. It takes place mainly in:
o Sheet Erosion: It takes place on level lands after a heavy shower and the soil removal is not easily
noticeable. But it is harmful since it removes the finer and more fertile top soil.
o Gully Erosion: It is common on steep slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the agricultural
lands into small fragments, and make them unfit for cultivation. A region with a large number of
deep gullies or ravines is called a badland topography. Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal
basin and are also found in Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
Reasons for Soil Erosion and Soil Degradation:

· Soil Degradation in Indian Agriculture: The salt lodged in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the
surface and destroys its fertility. Unless the soil gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and reduce its
fertility in the long run.
· Deforestation effect on soil erosion is more in hilly parts of the country. Plants keep soils bound in locks
of roots, and thus, prevent erosion.
· Over-grazing and shifting cultivation have affected the natural cover of land and given rise to
extensive erosion.
Soil Conservation:
It is a methodology to maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion and exhaustion, and improve the
degraded condition of the soil.
Measure for Soil Conservation: Soil erosion is essentially aggravated by faulty practices therefore
following measures can be applied:
· Check open cultivable lands on slopes from farming. Lands with a slope gradient 15-20 percent should
not be used for cultivation. Making terraces can be possible solution on hilly tracks.
· The issue of over grazing and shifting cultivation can be regulated and controlled by educating
villagers about the consequences.
· Contour bunding, Contour terracing, regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover cropping, mixed farming
and crop rotation are some of the remedial measures which are often adopted to reduce soil erosion.
· Finger gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water may be
reduced by constructing a series of check dams.
· Special attention should be made to control headward extension of gullies. This can be done by gully
plugging, terracing or by planting cover vegetation.
· In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts should be made to protect cultivable lands from encroachment by
sand dunes through developing shelter belts of trees and Agro-forestry.
· The Central Soil Conservation Board, set up by the Government of India, has prepared a number of
plans for soil conservation in different parts of the country.
Ø These plans are based on the climatic conditions, configuration of land and the social behaviour of
SOILS
people.
60
NATURAL HAZARDS AND DISASTERS
7
Disasters in general and natural disasters in particular, are some such changes that are always disliked and
feared by humankind. Disaster is an undesirable occurrence resulting from forces that are largely outside
human control, strikes quickly with little or no warning, which causes or threatens serious disruption of life
and property.
Natural Hazards:
· These are elements of circumstances in the Natural environment that have the potential to cause
harm to people or property or both.
· These may be swift or permanent aspects of the respective environmental settings like currents in the
oceans, steep slope and unstable structural features in the Himalayas or extreme climatic conditions in
deserts or glaciated areas.
Natural Disaster:
· As compared to natural hazards, natural disasters are relatively sudden and cause large scale,
widespread death, loss of property and disturbance to social systems and life over which people have a
little or no control.
· Any event can be classed as disaster when the magnitude of destruction and damage caused by it is
very high.
· Every disaster is unique in terms of the local socio-environmental factors that control it, the social
response it generates, and the way each social group negotiates with it.
Issues regarding Disasters:

· The magnitude, intensity, frequency and damages caused by natural disasters have increased over the
years.
· There is a growing concern among people the world over to deal with the menace created by these so
that the loss of human life and property can be minimised.
· Significant changes have taken place in the pattern of natural disasters over the years.

Classification of Natural Disasters:
Identification and classification of disasters is being considered as an effective and scientific step to deal
promptly and efficiently with the disasters. Broadly, natural disasters can be classified under four
categories.
61
Table 7.1: Classification of Natural Disasters.
Atmospheric Terrestrial Aquatic Biological
Blizzards Earthquakes Floods Plants and Animals as

colonisers (Locusts, etc.).
Thunderstorms Volcanic Tidal Waves Insect infestation-fungal,

Eruptions bacterial and viral diseases
like bird flu, dengue etc.
Lightning Landslides Ocean Currents
Tornadoes Avalanches Storm Surge
Tropical cyclone Subsidence Tsunami
Drought Soil Erosion
Hailstorms
Frosts, Heatwave, or
Loo, Cold wave etc
Natural Disasters and Hazards in India:

India is vast and diverse in terms of its physical and socio-cultural attributes.
Earthquakes:
· Earthquakes are by far the most unpredictable and highly destructive of all the natural disasters.
· Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved to be the most devastating and their area of
influence is also quite large. It is series of earth movements brought about by a sudden release of
energy during the tectonic activities in the earth's crust.
· Earthquakes associated with volcanic eruption, rock fall, landslides, subsidence, particularly in the
mining areas, impounding of dams and reservoirs, etc. have limited area of influence and the scale of
damage.
· The Indian plate is moving at a speed of one centimetre per year towards the north and north-eastern
direction and this movement of plates is being constantly obstructed by the Eurasian plate from the
north. Both the plates are said to be locked with each other resulting in accumulation of energy at
different points of time.
Ø Excessive accumulation of energy results in building up of stress, which ultimately leads to the
62
breaking up of the lock and the sudden release of energy causes earthquakes along the Himalayan
arch.
· Most Vulnerable Areas: Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and
the Darjeeling subdivision of West Bengal, and all the seven states of the northeast.
· The earthquake also occur on stable landmasses of peninsular region as energy build-up along the
fault line represented by the river Bhima (Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad (Maharashtra) and the
possible breaking down of the Indian plate.
Earthquake Zones in India:
National Geophysical Laboratory, Geological Survey of India, Department of Meteorology and National
Institute of Disaster Management divided in following five earthquake zones.
· Very high damage risk zone
· High damage risk zone
· Moderate damage risk zone
· Low damage risk zone
· Very low damage risk zone
Figure 7.1: India: Earthquake Hazard Zones.
63
Out of these, the first two zones had experienced some of the most devastating earthquakes in India.
Very High Damage Risk Zone:

· North-east states, areas to the north of Darbhanga and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in Bihar,
Uttarakhand, Western Himachal Pradesh (around Dharamshala) and Kashmir Valley in the Himalayan
region and the Kuchchh (Gujarat).
High Damage Risk Zone:

· The remaining parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Northern parts of Punjab,
Eastern parts of Haryana, Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Bihar.
Most of the areas that can be considered safe are from the stable landmass covered under the Deccan
plateau.
Socio-Environmental Consequences of Earthquakes:

· It becomes a calamity when it strikes the areas of high density of population.
· It robs the population of their material and socio-cultural gains that they have preserved over
generations.
Effects of the Earthquake:
Earthquakes have all encompassing disastrous effects on the area of their occurrence.
· Surface seismic waves produce fissures on the upper layers of the earth's crust through which water
and other volatile materials gush out, inundating the neighbouring areas.
· Earthquakes are also responsible for landslides and often these cause obstructions in the flow of rivers
and channels resulting in the formation of reservoirs.
· Sometimes, rivers also change their course causing floods and other calamities in the affected areas.
Table 7.2: Effects of Earthquakes

On Ground On Manmade Structures On Water
Fissures Cracking Waves

Se lements Slidings Hydro-Dynamic Pressure
Landslides Overturning Tsunami
Liquefac on Buckling
Earth Pressure Collapse
Possible Possible Possible
Chain-effects Chain-effects Chain-effects
64
Earthquake Hazard Mitigation:
Unlike other disasters, the damages caused by earthquakes are more devastating. It also destroys most of
the transport and communication links, providing timely relief to the victims becomes difficult. The emphasis
should be on disaster preparedness and mitigation rather than curative measures such as:
· Establishing earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast
dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas.
· Use of Geographical Positioning System (GPS) can be of great help in monitoring the movement of
tectonic plates.
· Preparing a vulnerability map of the country and dissemination of vulnerability risk information among
the people and educating them about the ways and means minimising the adverse impacts of
disasters.
· Modifying the house types and building designs in the vulnerable areas and discouraging construction
of high-rise buildings, large industrial establishments and big urban centres in such areas
· Finally, making it mandatory to adopt earthquake-resistant designs and use light materials in major
construction activities in the vulnerable areas.
Tsunami:
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that cause the seafloor to move abruptly resulting in sudden
displacement of ocean water in the form of high vertical waves are called tsunamis (harbour waves) or
seismic sea waves.
· The seismic waves cause only one instantaneous vertical wave; but, after the initial disturbance, a
series of after waves are created in the water that oscillate between high crest and low trough in order
to restore the water level.
· The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the depth of water. It is more in the shallow water than
in the ocean deep. As result the impact of tsunami is less over the ocean and more near the coast
where they cause large-scale devastations.
· It is difficult to detect a tsunami in the deeper parts of sea because over deep water the tsunami has

very long wavelength and limited wave-height.
· When a tsunami enters shallow water, its wavelength gets reduced and the period remains
unchanged, which increases the wave height. Thus, these are also called Shallow Water Waves.
· Tsunamis are frequently observed along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly along the coast of Alaska,
Japan, Philippines, and other islands of Southeast Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and
India etc.
Tropical Cyclones:
· Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure areas confined to the area lying between 30° N and 30° S
latitudes, in the atmosphere around which high velocity winds blow.
· Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000 km and vertically from surface to 12-14 km.
· A tropical cyclone or hurricane is like a heat engine that is energised by the release of latent heat on
65
account of the condensation of moisture that the wind gathers after moving over the oceans and seas.
· Initial conditions for the emergence of a Tropical Cyclone:
Ø Large and continuous supply of warm and moist air that can release enormous latent heat.
Ø Strong Coriolis force that can prevent filling of low pressure at the centre (absence of Coriolis force
near the equator prohibits the formation of tropical cyclone between 0° -5° latitude).
Ø Unstable condition through the troposphere that creates local disturbances around which a
cyclone develops.
Ø Finally, absence of strong vertical wind wedge, which disturbs the vertical transport of latent heat.
Structure of the Tropical Cyclone:

· They are characterised by large pressure gradients.
· The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm and low-pressure, cloudless core known as eye of the
storm.
· Generally, the isobars are closely placed to each other showing high-pressure gradients. Normally, it
varies between 14-17mb/100 km, but sometimes it can be as high as 60mb/100km.
· Expansion of the wind belt is about 10-150 km from the centre.
Spatial-Temporal distribution of the Tropical Cyclone:

· Owing to its Peninsular shape surrounded by the Bay of Bengal in the east and the Arabian Sea in the
west, the tropical cyclones in India also originate in these two important locations.
· The cyclones originate between 10°-15° north latitudes during the monsoon season.
· In case of the Bay of Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the months of October and November.
They originate between 16°-2° N latitudes and to the west of 92° E.
Consequences of Tropical Cyclones:

· In India, the force of the cyclone decreases with increase in distance from the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea. So, the coastal areas are often struck by severe cyclonic storms with an average velocity
of 180 km/h. Often, this results in abnormal rise in the sea level known as Storm Surge.
Surge: A surge is generated due to interac on of air, sea and land. The cyclone provides the
driving force in the form of very high horizontal pressure-gradient and very strong surface
winds. The sea water flows across the coast along with strong winds and heavy downpour.
· This results in inundation of human settlements, agricultural fields, damaging crops and destruction of
structures created by human beings.
Floods:
Inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-over presents the
condition of flooding. The causes of floods are well-established.
66
· They occur commonly when water in the form of surface run-off exceeds the carrying capacity of the
river channels and streams and flows into the neighbouring low-lying flood plains.
· Floods are relatively slow in occurrences and often, occur in well-identified regions and within
expected time in a year.
· Floods can also be caused due to a storm surge (in the coastal areas), high intensity rainfall for a
considerably longer time period, melting of ice and snow, reduction in the infiltration rate and presence
of eroded material in the water due to higher rate of soil erosion.
· Floods in the South, Southeast and East Asian countries, particularly in China, India and Bangladesh,
are frequent and equally disastrous.
· Rastriya Barh Ayog (National Flood Commission) identified 40 million hectares of land as flood-prone
in India.
· High Flood-Prone States: Assam, West Bengal and Bihar.
· The states like Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, are vulnerable to occasional floods.
· The states like Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are also getting inundated in recent decades
due to flash floods.
Spread of Floods by Humans:

Indiscriminate deforestation, unscientific agricultural practices, disturbances along the natural drainage
channels and colonisation of floodplains and river-beds are some of the human activities that play an
important role in increasing the intensity, magnitude and gravity of floods.
Consequence and Control of Floods

Negative Impacts of Floods:
· There is frequent inundation of agricultural land and human settlement and have serious
consequences on the national economy and society.
· Floods destroy valuable crops, damage physical infrastructure such as roads, rails, bridges and human
settlements.

· Millions of people are rendered homeless and are also washed down along with their cattle in the
floods.
Positive Aspect of Floods:

· Every year, floods deposit fertile silt over agricultural fields which is good for the crops.
· Majuli (Assam), the largest riverine island in the world, is the best example of good paddy crops after
the annual floods in Brahmaputra.
Solutions:
· Construction of flood protection embankments in the flood-prone areas, construction of dams,
afforestation and discouraging major construction activities in the upper reaches of most of the flood-
creating rivers, etc.
67
· Removal of human encroachment from the river channels and depopulating the flood plains can be the
other steps.
Droughts:
The term 'drought' is applied to an extended period when there is a shortage of water availability due to
inadequate precipitation, excessive rate of evaporation and over-utilisation of water from the reservoirs and
other storages, including the ground water.
Types of Drought:
· Meteorological Drought: It is a situation when there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall
marked with mal distribution of the same over time and space.
· Agricultural Drought: It is also known as soil moisture drought, characterised by low soil moisture that
is necessary to support the crops, thereby resulting in crop failures. Moreover, if an area has more than
30 per cent of its gross cropped area under irrigation, the area is excluded from the drought-prone
category.
· Hydrological Drought: It results when the availability of water in different storages and reservoirs like
aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
· Ecological Drought: When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage of water and
as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the ecosystem.
Drought Prone Areas in India:

· Nearly 19 per cent of the total geographical area of the country and 12 per cent of its total population
suffer due to drought every year.
· About 30 per cent of the country's total area is identified as drought prone affecting around 50 million
people.
On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the following regions:
· Extreme Drought Affected Areas: Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas to the west of the
Aravali hills, i.e., Marusthali and Kachchh regions of Gujarat fall in this category. The districts like
Jaisalmer and Barmer receive less than 90 mm average annual rainfall.
· Severe Drought Prone Area: Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh, eastern parts
of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau, northern parts of interior
Tamil Nadu and southern parts of Jharkhand and interior Odisha.
· Moderate Drought Affected Area: Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, southern districts of Uttar
Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan, Jharkhand and Coimbatore
plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior Karnataka.
68
Figure 7.2: Drought Prone Areas.
Consequences of Drought:
· Cascading Effects: Crop failure leading to scarcity of food grains (akal), fodder (trinkal), inadequate
rainfall, resulting in shortage of water ( jalkal), and often shortage in all the three (trikal) is most
devastating.
· Large-scale death of cattle and other animals, migration of humans and livestock.
· Scarcity of water compels people to consume contaminated water resulting in spread of many

waterborne diseases like gastro-enteritis, cholera, hepatitis, etc.
Steps to improve Conditions:

· Provision for the distribution of safe drinking water, medicines for the victims and availability of fodder
and water for the cattle and shifting of the people and their livestock to safer places.
· Identification of ground water potential in the form of aquifers, transfer of river water from the surplus
to the deficit areas, and particularly planning for inter-linking of rivers and construction of reservoirs
and dams, etc. should be given a serious thought.
· Remote sensing and satellite imageries can be useful in identifying the possible river-basins that can
be inter-linked and in identifying the ground water potential.
· Rainwater harvesting can also be an effective method in minimising the effects of drought.
69
Landslide:
It is the rapid sliding of large mass of bedrocks. Disasters due to landslides, are in general, far less dramatic
than due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and cyclones but their impact on the natural
environment and national economy is in no way less severe.
· Landslides are largely controlled by highly localised factors.
· The gathering information and monitoring the possibilities of landslide is not only difficult but also
immensely cost-intensive.
· On the basis of past experiences, frequency and certain causal relationships with the controlling
factors like geology, geomorphic agents, slope, land-use, vegetation cover and human activities, India
has been divided into a number of zones.
Landslide Vulnerability Zones:

· Very High Vulnerability Zone: These areas are Highly unstable like, relatively young mountainous
areas in the Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall regions with steep slopes in the
Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern regions, along with areas that experience frequent
ground-shaking due to earthquakes, etc. and areas of intense human activities, particularly those
related to construction of roads, dams, etc.
· High Vulnerability Zone: Areas that have almost similar conditions to those included in the very high
vulnerability zone are also included in this category. The only difference between these two is the
combination, intensity and frequency of the controlling factors. All the Himalayan states and the states
from the north-eastern regions except the plains of Assam are included in the high vulnerability zones.
· Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone: Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans-Himalayan
areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), undulated yet stable relief and low precipitation areas in
the Aravali, rain shadow areas in the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also experience
occasional landslides. Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, Goa and Kerala.
Consequences of Landslides:
· They have relatively small and localised area of direct influence, but roadblock, destruction of railway
lines and channel blocking due to rock-falls have far-reaching consequences.
· Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also lead to flood and loss of life and property.
Mitigation:
· It is always advisable to adopt area-specific measures to deal with landslides.
· Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities such as roads and dams, limiting
agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes, and control on the development of large
settlements in the high vulnerability zones, should be enforced.
· Some positive actions like promoting large-scale afforestation programmes and construction of bunds
70
to reduce the flow of water.
· Terrace farming should be encouraged in the north-eastern hill states where Jhumming (Slash and
Burn/Shifting Cultivation) is still prevalent.
Disaster Management:
· Disasters due to cyclones, unlike the ones caused by earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions are
more predictable in terms of the time and place of their occurrences.
· Construction of cyclone shelters, embankments, dykes, reservoirs and afforestation to reduce the
speed of the winds are some of the steps that can help in minimising the damages.
Steps for Disaster Management:

· All hazards need not turn into disasters since it is difficult to eliminate disasters, particularly natural
disasters. Then the next best option is mitigation and preparedness.
· There are three stages involved in disaster mitigation and management:
Ø Pre-disaster management involves generating data and information about the disasters,
preparing vulnerability zoning maps and spreading awareness among the people about these.
Apart from these, disaster planning, preparedness and preventive measures are other steps that
need to be taken in the vulnerable areas.
Ø During disasters, rescue and relief operations such as evacuation, construction of shelters and
relief camps, supplying of water, food, clothing and medical aids etc. should be done on an
emergency basis.
Ø Post-disaster operations should involve rehabilitation and recovery of victims. It should also
concentrate on capacity building in order to cope up with future disasters.
· Introduction of the Disaster Management Bill, 2005 and establishment of National Institute of Disaster
Management are some examples of the positive steps taken by the Government of India.

Interesting points
· The Disaster Management Bill, 2005, defines disaster as a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence
affecting any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, or by accident or negligence which results in
substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to, and destruction of, environment, and is of such nature
or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of the affected area.
· Establishment of National Institute of Disaster Management, India, Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil, 1993 and Sendai framework for disaster risk reduction was signed in 2015.
71
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
12th Standard
Fundamentals of Human Geography
CONTENTS
Human Geography: Nature and Scope .................................................................................... 1 - 3
The World Population: Distribution, Density and Growth .............................................. 4 - 10
Population Composition .......................................................................................................... 11 - 15
Human Development ............................................................................................................... 16 - 20
Primary Activities ...................................................................................................................... 21 - 30
Secondary Activities ................................................................................................................. 31 - 39
Tertiary and Quaternary Activities ....................................................................................... 40 - 47
Transport and Communication .............................................................................................. 48 - 60
International Trade .................................................................................................................... 61 - 69
Human Settlements ................................................................................................................. 70 - 78

1 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY:
NATURE AND SCOPE
Human geography studies “the relationship between the physical/natural and the human worlds, the spatial
distributions of human phenomena and how they come about, the social and economic differences between
different parts of the world”.
Nomenclature used in Human Geography:

● Regions, villages, towns have been described as 'organisms'.
● German geographers describe the 'state/country' as a 'living organism'.
● Networks of road, railways and water ways have often been described as “arteries of circulation”.
Nature of Human Geography:

● Human geography studies the inter-relationship between the physical environment and socio-
cultural environment created by human beings through mutual interaction with each other.
● Houses, villages, cities, road-rail networks, industries, farms, ports, items of our daily use and all other
elements of material culture have been created by human beings using the resources provided by the
physical environment.
Naturalisation of Humans and Humanisation of Nature:

● Human beings interact with their physical environment with the help of technology. It is not
important what human beings produce and create but it is extremely important 'with the help of what
tools and techniques do they produce and create'.
● Human beings were able to develop technology after they developed better understanding of natural
laws.
● Technology indicates the level of cultural development of society. For example, the understanding of
concepts of friction and heat helped Human beings discover fire.
● Knowledge about Nature is extremely important to develop technology and technology loosens the
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: NATURE AND SCOPE
shackles of environment on human beings. In the early stages of humans, interactions with their
natural environment were greatly influenced by it. They adapted to dictates of nature because the level
of technology was very low, and the stage of human social development was also primitive. This type
of interaction between primitive human society and strong forces of nature was termed as
environmental determinism.
● In primitive human society nature is considered powerful force, worshipped, reversed and conserved.
There is direct dependence of human beings on nature for resources which sustain them. The
physical environment for such societies becomes the “Mother Nature”.
● With social and cultural development, humans develop better and more efficient technology. They
move from a state of necessity to a state of freedom.
● The imprints of human activities are created everywhere; health resorts on highlands, huge urban
sprawls, fields, orchards and pastures in plains and rolling hills, ports on the coasts, oceanic routes on
the oceanic surface and satellites in the space. The earlier scholars termed this as possibilism.
● Nature provides opportunities and human being make use of these and slowly nature gets humanised
1
and starts bearing the imprints of human endeavour.
● A geographer, Griffith Taylor introduced another concept which reflects a middle path (Madhya Marg)
between the two ideas of environmental determinism and possibilism. He termed it as Neo-
determinism or stop and go determinism.
⮚ The concept shows that neither is there a situation of absolute necessity (environmental
determinism) nor is there a condition of absolute freedom (possibilism). It means that human
beings can conquer nature by obeying it.
⮚ They have to respond to the red signals and can proceed in their pursuits of development when
nature permits the modifications. It means that possibilities can be created within the limits which
do not damage the environment.
⮚ There is no free run without accidents. The free run which the developed economies attempted to
take has already resulted in the greenhouse effect, ozone layer depletion, global warming, receding
glaciers and degrading lands.
⮚ The neo-determinism conceptually attempts to bring a balance nullifying the 'either' 'or'
dichotomy.
Evolution of Human Geography:

The process of adaptation, adjustment with and modification of the environment started with the
appearance of human beings over the surface of the earth in different ecological niches.
Period Approaches Broad Features
Early Colonial Exploration Imperial and trade interests prompted the discovery and
period and description exploration of new areas. An encyclopaedic description of the area
formed an important aspect of the geographers account.

Later Colonial Regional Elaborate description of all aspects of a region were undertaken.
period analysis The Idea was that all the regions were part of a whole. i.e. (the
earth): so. understanding the parts In totality would lead to an
understanding of the whole.
1930s through Areal The focus was on identifying the uniqueness of any region and
the Inter-War differentiation understanding how and why it was different from others.
period
Late 1950s to Spatial Marked by the use of computers and sophisticated statistical tools.
the late 1960s organisation Laws of physics were often applied to map and analyse human
phenomena. This phase was called the quantitative revolution. The
main objective was to identify mappable patterns for different
human activities.
2
1970s Emergence of Discontentment with the quantitative revolution and its
humanistic. dehumanised manner of doing geography led to the emergence of
radical and three new schools of thought of human geography in the 1970s.
behavioural Human geography was made more relevant to the socio-political
schools reality by the emergence of these schools of thought. Consult the
box below to know a little bit more about these schools of thought
1990s Post- The grand generalisations and the applicability of universal theories
modernism in to explain the human conditions were questioned. The Importance
geography of understanding each local context in its own right was
emphasised.
Table 1.1: Broad Stages and Thrust of Human Geography
Fields and sub fields of human geography:

● Human geography attempts to explain the relationship between all elements of human life and the
space they occur over.
● Thus, human geography assumes a highly inter-disciplinary nature.
● It develops close interface with other sister disciplines in social sciences in order to understand and
explain human elements on the surface of the earth.
Interesting points
● Various Definitions of the Human Geography:

⮚ “Human geography is the synthetic study of relationship between human societies and earth's
surface” – Ratzel.
⮚ “Human geography is the study of “the changing relationship between the unresting man and
the unstable earth.” - Ellen C. Semple.
● Welfare or humanistic School of thought: In human geography, it was mainly concerned with
the different aspects of social well-being of the people. These included aspects such as housing,
health and education.
● Radical School of thought: It employed Marxian theory to explain the basic cause of poverty,
deprivation and social inequality. Contemporary social problems were related to the
development of capitalism.
● Behavioural School of thought: It laid great emphasis on lived experience and also on the
perception of space by social categories based on ethnicity, race and religion, etc.
3
THE WORLD POPULATION:
2 DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND GROWTH
The people of a country are its real wealth as they are the actual resources and make use of the country's
other resources and decide its policies.
Patterns of Population Distribution in the World:

The Patterns of population distribution and density help us to understand the demographic characteristics
of any area.
Population Distribution:
● It refers to the way people are spaced over the earth's surface.
● Broadly, 90 per cent of the world population lives in about 10 per cent of its land area.
● The 10 most populous countries of the world contribute about 60 per cent of the world's population.
THE WORLD POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY AND GROWTH

Fig. 2.1: Most Populous Countries
Density of Population:
● It is the ratio between the number of people to the size of land.
● It is usually measured in persons per sq km.
Factors influencing the Distribution of Population

Geographic Factors:
● Availability of Water:
⮚ It is important for life and people prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily available.
⮚ Water is used for drinking, bathing and cooking – and also for cattle, crops, industries and
navigation.
4
● Landforms:
⮚ People prefer living on flat plains and gentle slopes because such areas are favourable for the
production of crops and to build roads and industries.
⮚ The mountainous and hilly areas hinder the development of transport network and hence initially
do not favour agricultural and industrial development. So, these areas tend to be less populated.
⮚ The Ganga plains are among the most densely populated areas of the world while the mountains
zones in the Himalayas are scarcely populated.
● Climate:
⮚ An extreme climate such as very hot or cold deserts are uncomfortable for human habitation and
have low population.
⮚ Areas with a comfortable climate, where there is not much seasonal variation attract more people.
For example - Mediterranean regions were inhabited from early periods in history due to their
pleasant climate.
● Soils:
⮚ Fertile soils are important for agricultural and allied activities.
⮚ The areas which have fertile loamy soils have more people as these can support intensive
agriculture.
Economic Factors
● Minerals:
⮚ Areas with mineral deposits attract industries and generate employment.
⮚ The skilled and semi–skilled workers move to these areas and make them densely populated such
as Katanga Zambia copper belt in Africa.
● Urbanisation:
⮚ Cities offer better employment opportunities, educational and medical facilities, better means of
transport and communication.
⮚ Good civic amenities and the attraction of city life draw people to the cities and leads to rural to
urban migration and cities grow in size.
● Industrialisation:
⮚ Industrial belts provide job opportunities and attract large numbers of people which includes not
just factory workers but also transport operators, shopkeepers, bank employees, doctors, teachers
and other service providers.
⮚ The Kobe-Osaka region of Japan is thickly populated because of the presence of a number of
industries.
Social and Cultural Factors:
● Some places attract more people because they have religious or cultural significance.
● People tend to move away from places where there is social and political unrest.
● Sometimes governments offer incentives to people to live in sparsely populated areas or move away
from overcrowded places.
5
Basic Concepts of Population Geography
Growth of Population: Change of population in particular area between two points of time is known
as growth of population.
Growth Rate of Population: This is the change of population expressed in percentage.
Natural Growth of Population:
This is the population increased by difference between births and deaths in a particular region
between two points of time.
Natural Growth = Births – Deaths
Actual Growth of Population: Births – Deaths + In Migration – Out Migration.
Positive Growth of Population: This happens when the birth rate is more than the death rate
between two points of time or when people from other countries migrate permanently to a region.
Negative Growth of Population: If the population decreases between two points of time it is known
as negative growth of population. It occurs when the birth rate falls below the death rate or people
migrate to other countries.

Population Growth:
● The population growth or population change refers to the change in number of inhabitants of a
territory during a specific period of time. This change may be positive or negative.
● It can be expressed either in terms of absolute numbers or in terms of percentage.
● Population change in an area is an important indicator of economic development, social upliftment and
historical and cultural background of the region.
Components of Population Change:

There are three components of population change – births, deaths and migration.
The crude birth rate (CBR):

It is expressed as number of live births in a year per thousand of population. It is calculated as:
Here, CBR = Crude Birth Rate; Bi = live births during the year; P=Mid-year population of the area.
Death Rate:
● Crude Death Rate (CDR): It is a simple method of measuring mortality of any area and is expressed
in terms of number of deaths in a particular year per thousand of population in a particular region.
6
Here, CDR=Crude Death Rate; D= Number of deaths; P=Estimated mid-year population of that year.
● By and large mortality rates are affected by the region's demographic structure, social advancement
and levels of its economic development.
Migration:
● When people move from one place to another, the place they move from is called the Place of Origin
and the place they move to is called the Place of Destination. The place of origin shows a decrease in
population while the population increases in the place of destination.
● Migration may be interpreted as a spontaneous effort to achieve a better balance between population
and resources.
● Migration may be permanent, temporary or seasonal.
● It may take place from rural-to-rural areas, rural to urban areas, urban to urban areas and urban to rural
areas.
● Migrants who move into a new place are called Immigrants.
● Migrants who move out of a place are called Emigrants.
Factors that influence Migration:

● The Push factors: It make the place of origin seem less attractive for reasons like unemployment, poor
living conditions, political turmoil, unpleasant climate, etc.
● The Pull factors: It make the place of destination seem more attractive than the place of origin for
reasons like better job opportunities and living conditions, peace and stability, security of life and
property and pleasant climate.
Trends in Population Growth:

The population on the earth is more than seven billion and has grown to this size over centuries. In the early
periods population of the world grew very slowly. It is only during the last few hundred years that population
has increased at an alarming rate.
● Initially after the evolution and introduction of agriculture about 12,000 to 8,000 years ago, the size
of population was small – roughly 8 million.
● In the first century A.D., it was below 300 million.
● The expanding world trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth century, set the stage for rapid
population growth.
● Around 1750, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, the world population was 550 million.
● World population exploded in the eighteenth century after the Industrial Revolution.
● Technological advancement achieved so far helped in the reduction of death rate and provided a stage
for accelerated population growth.
7
Fig. 2.2: Resource, Technology and Population Growth
Doubling Time of World Population:

● It took more than a million years for the human population to attain the one billion mark. But it took
only 12 years for it to rise from 5 billion to 6 billion.
● Variation among regions in doubling: Developed countries take more time to double their population
as compared to developing countries.
Period Population Time in which

Population Doubles
10.000 B.C. 5 million
1650 A.D. 500 million 1.500 years
1804 A.D. 1.000 million 154 years
1927 A. D. 2.000 million 123 years
1974 A. D. 4.000 million 47 years
51 years
2025 A.D. 8.000 million (projected figure)
Table 2.1: Doubling Time of World Population
8
Spatial Pattern of Population Change:
The growth of population is low in developed countries as compared to developing countries. There is
negative correlation between economic development and population growth.
Although the annual rate of population change seems to be low, but it is actually not so because:
● When a small annual rate is applied to a very large population, it will lead to a large population
change.
● Even if the growth rate continues to decline, the total population grows each year. The infant mortality
rate may have increased as has the death rate during childbirth.
Impact of Population Change:

● A small increase in population is desirable in a growing economy. However, population growth beyond
a certain level leads to problems. The most serious problem is of the depletion of resources.
● It indicates that resources that had supported a population earlier are now insufficient to maintain the
population.
● Population decline is also a matter of concern.
Democratic Transition:
Demographic transition theory can be used to describe and predict the future population of any area. The
theory tells that population of any region changes from high births and high deaths to low births and low
deaths as society progresses from rural agrarian and illiterate to urban industrial and literate society. These
changes occur in stages which are collectively known as the demographic cycle.
Three Stage Model of Demographic Transition

First Stage:
● It has high fertility and high mortality because people reproduce more to compensate for the deaths
due to epidemics and variable food supply.
● The population growth is slow and most of the people are engaged in agriculture where large families
are an asset.
● Life expectancy is low, people are mostly illiterate and have low levels of technology.
● Two hundred years ago all the countries of the world were in this stage.
Second Stage:
● Fertility remains high in the beginning of second stage, but it declines with time which is accompanied
by reduced mortality rate.
9
● The net addition of population is high because improvements in sanitation and health conditions lead
to decline in mortality.
Third Stage:
● Both fertility and mortality decline considerably.
● The population is either stable or grows slowly.
● The population becomes urbanised, literate and has high technical knowhow and deliberately
controls the family size.
● Human beings are extremely flexible and are able to adjust their fertility.

Fig. 2.3: Demographic Transition Theory
Population Control Measures:

● Family planning: It is the spacing or preventing the birth of children. Access to family planning
services is a significant factor in limiting population growth and improving women's health.
● Propaganda, free availability of contraceptives and tax disincentives for large families are some other
measures.
Thomas Malthus in his theory (1798) stated that the number of people would increase faster than the
food supply further increase would result in a population crash caused by famine, disease and war. The
preventive checks are better than the physical checks. For the sustainability of our resources, the world
will have to control the rapid population increase.
Interesting points
● Human population increased more than ten times in the past 500 hundred years.
● In the twentieth century itself the population has increased four times.
● The annual population growth rate in India is 1.64 per cent.
10
POPULATION COMPOSITION
3
People of any country are diverse in many respects. Each person is unique in her/his own way. People can be
distinguished by their age, sex and their place of residence. Some of the other distinguishing attributes of the
population are occupation, education and life expectancy.
Sex Composition:
● The number of women and men in a country is an important demographic characteristic.
● The ratio between the number of women and men in the population is called the Sex Ratio.
● In India, the sex ratio is worked out using the formula:
or the number of females per thousand males.

● The sex ratio is an important information about the status of women in a country.
Reasons for Lower Sex Ratio:
● Gender discrimination: In regions where practice of female foeticide, female infanticide and domestic
violence against women turned poor sex ratio.
● Lower socio-economic status of women in these areas.
Natural Advantage VS Social Disadvantage: Females have a biological advantage over males as they
tend to be more resilient than males, yet this advantage is cancelled out by the social disadvantages and
discriminations that they face.
World Pattern of Sex Ratio:

● On an average, the world population reflects a sex ratio of 102 males per 100 females.
● The highest sex ratio in the world has been recorded in Latvia where there are 85 males per 100
females. In contrast, in Qatar there are 311 males per 100 females.
● The sex ratio is favourable for females in 139 countries of the world and unfavourable for them in the
remaining 72 countries listed by the United Nations.
● In general, Asia has a low sex ratio.
● Greater part of Europe (including Russia): Males are in minority, which is attributed to better status of
women, and an excessively male-dominated out-migration to different parts of the world in the past.
Age Structure:
● Age structure represents the number of people of different age groups.
● It is an important indicator of population composition:
⮚ Working Population: A large size of population in the age group of 15- 59.
⮚ Aging Population: A greater proportion of population above 60 years which requires more
expenditure on health care facilities.
⮚ Youthful Population: High proportion of young population would mean that the region has a high
birth rate.
11
Age-Sex Pyramid:
● The age-sex structure of a population refers to the number of females and males in different age
groups.
● A population pyramid is used to show the age-sex structure of the population.
● The shape of the population pyramid reflects the characteristics of the population.
● The left side shows the percentage of males while the right side shows the percentage of women in
each age group.
Expanding Population - Case of Nigeria:

● The age-sex pyramid is a triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base and is typical of less developed
countries.
● These have larger populations in lower age groups due to high birth rates.
● The pyramids for Bangladesh and Mexico looks the same.
Fig. 3.1: Expanding Population
Constant Population – Case of Australia:

● The age-sex pyramid is bell shaped and tapered towards the top.
● This shows birth and death rates are almost equal leading to a near constant population.
12
Fig. 3.2: Constant Population
Declining Populations – Case of Japan:

● The pyramid has a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth and death rates.
● The population growth in developed countries is usually zero or negative.
Fig. 1.1: Wall decoration in a house, Jharkhand
13
Rural Urban Composition:
This division is based on the residence. It is necessary because rural and urban lifestyles differ from each
other in terms of their livelihood and social conditions. The age-sex-occupational structure, density of
population and level of development vary between rural and urban areas.
● In general terms:
⮚ Rural areas: They are those where people are engaged in primary activities.
⮚ Urban areas: They are those when majority of the working population is engaged in non-primary
activities.
● In Western countries:
⮚ Males outnumber females in rural areas and females outnumber the males in urban areas.
⮚ For example - The excess of females in urban areas of U.S.A., Canada and Europe is the result of
influx of females from rural areas to avail of the vast job opportunities.
● Sex ratio in Asian urban areas:
⮚ It remains male dominated due to the predominance of male migration.
⮚ In countries like India, female participation in farming activity in rural area is fairly high.
⮚ Shortage of housing, high cost of living, paucity of job opportunities and lack of security in cities,
discourage women to migrate from rural to urban areas.
Literacy:
● Proportion of literate population of a country in an indicator of its socio-economic development as it
reveals the standard of living, social status of females, availability of educational facilities and policies
of government.
● Level of economic development is both a cause and consequence of literacy.
● In India – literacy rate denotes the percentage of population above 7 years of age, who is able to
read, write and have the ability to do arithmetic calculations with understanding.
The working population (women and men of the age group – 15 to 59) take part in various occupations
ranging from agriculture, forestry, fishing, manufacturing construction, commercial transport, services,
communication and other unclassified services.
● Types of Economic Activities:
⮚ Primary Activity: Such as agriculture, forestry, fishing and mining.
⮚ Secondary Activities: It relates to manufacturing and industrial activities.
⮚ Tertiary Activities: It includes activities like trade, transport, communication and other services.
⮚ Quaternary Activities: It includes the jobs related to research, information technology and
developing ideas.
● The proportion of working population engaged in these above four sectors is a good indicator of the
levels of economic development of a nation because only a developed economy with industries and
infrastructure can accommodate more workers in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary sector.
14
● If the economy is still in the primitive stages, then the proportion of people engaged in primary
activities world be high as it involves extraction of natural resources.
Interesting points
● Ageing Population: It is the process by which the share of the older population becomes
proportionally larger. This is a new phenomenon of the twentieth century. In most of the
developed countries of the world, population in higher age groups has increased due to increased
life expectancy. With a reduction in birth rates, the proportion of children in the population has
declined.
15
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
4
Human development or the human development approach is about expanding the richness of human life,
rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. It is an approach that is focused
on people and their opportunities and choices.
Growth and Development:

Both growth and development refer to changes over a period of time.
● Growth:
⮚ It is quantitative and value neutral.
⮚ The change may be either positive (showing an increase) or negative (indicating a decrease).
● Development:
⮚ It means a qualitative change which is always value positive. This means that development cannot
take place unless there is an increment or addition to the existing conditions.
⮚ The positive growth does not always lead to development. Development occurs when there is a
positive change in quality. For example – The city has grown if the population of a city grows from
one lakh to two lakhs over a period of time. However, if a facility like housing, provision of basic
services and other characteristics remain the same, then this growth has not been accompanied by
development.
Important aspects of Development:

Some aspects are the quality-of-life people enjoy in a country, the opportunities they have and freedoms
they enjoy.
● These ideas were clearly spelt out for the first time in the late eighties and early nineties.
● The works of two South Asian economists, Mahbub-ul-Haqq and Amartya Sen are important in this
regard.
Concept of Human Development:

● It was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq who has described human development as development
that enlarges people's choices and improves their lives. People are central to all development under
this concept.
● Basic goal of Development: To create conditions where people can live meaningful lives. A
meaningful life is not just a long life, but it means people must be healthy, be able to develop their
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
talents, participate in society and be free to achieve their goals.

● Key areas in Human Development: Access to resources, health and education as leading a long and
healthy life, being able to gain knowledge and having enough means to be able to live a decent life.
● Building people's capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to resources is important in
enlarging their choices. If people do not have capabilities in these areas, their choices also get limited.
For example - An uneducated child cannot make the choice to be a doctor because her choice has got
limited by her lack of education.
16
Four Pillars of Human Development:
The idea of human development is supported by:
Equity:
● Equity refers to making equal access to opportunities available to everybody. The opportunities
available to people must be equal irrespective of their gender, race, income and in the Indian case, caste
too.
● For example, most of the school dropouts in India belong to women, and socially and economically
backward groups. This shows how the choices of these groups get limited by not having access to
knowledge.
Sustainability:
● Sustainability means continuity in the availability of opportunities.
● To have sustainable human development, each generation must have the same opportunities. All
environmental, financial and human resources must be used keeping in mind the future. Misuse of any
of these resources will lead to fewer opportunities for future generations.
● For example - If a community does not stress the importance of sending its girl children to school, many
opportunities will be lost to these young women when they grow up. Their career choices will be
severely curtailed, and this would affect other aspects of their lives.
Productivity:
● Productivity means human labour productivity or productivity in terms of human work. Such
productivity must be constantly enriched by building capabilities in people.
● The Productivity can be increased by putting efforts in increasing their knowledge, providing better
health facilities ultimately leads to better work efficiency.
Empowerment:
● Empowerment means to have the power to make choices. Such power comes from increasing
freedom and capability.
● Good governance and people-oriented policies are required to empower people. The empowerment of
socially and economically disadvantaged groups is of special importance. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human Development Approaches

Income Approach:
● This is one of the oldest approaches to human development. Human development is seen as being
linked to income.
● The idea is that the level of income reflects the level of freedom an individual enjoys.
● Higher the level of income, the higher is the level of human development.
17
Welfare Approach:
● This approach looks at human beings as beneficiaries or targets of all development activities.
● The approach argues for higher government expenditure on education, health, social secondary and
amenities.
● People are not participants in development but only passive recipients. The government is responsible
for increasing levels of human development by maximising expenditure on welfare.
Basic Needs Approach:

● This approach was initially proposed by the International Labour Organisation (ILO). Six basic needs
i.e.: health, education, food, water supply, sanitation, and housing were identified.
● The question of human choices is ignored, and the emphasis is on the provision of basic needs of
defined sections.
Capability Approach:
● This approach is associated with Prof. Amartya Sen. Building human capabilities in the areas of health,
education and access to resources is the key to increasing human development.
Measuring Human Development:

● The human development index (HDI) ranks the countries based on their performance in the key areas
of health, education and access to resources. These rankings are based on a score between 0 to 1 that
a country earns from its record in the key areas of human development.
● Key areas of Assessment:
⮚ Health: It consider the life expectancy at birth. (A higher life expectancy means that people have a
greater chance of living longer and healthier lives)
⮚ Education: The adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio represent access to knowledge.
The number of adults who are able to read and write and the number of children enrolled in schools
show how easy or difficult it is to access knowledge in a particular country.
⮚ Access to resources: It is measured in terms of purchasing power (in U.S. dollars).
● The human development index is a sum total of the weights assigned to all these dimensions.
● Weightage: Each of these dimensions is given a weightage of 1/3.
● The closer a score is to one, the greater is the level of human development. Therefore, a score of 0.983
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
would be considered very high while 0.268 would mean a very low level of human development.
The Human Poverty Index:

● It is related to the human development index and measures the shortfall in human development. It is
non-income measure.
● The probability of not surviving till the age of 40, the adult illiteracy rate, the number of people who do
not have access to clean water, and the number of small children who are underweight are all taken
18
into account to show the shortfall in human development in any region. Often the human poverty
index is more revealing than the human development index.
International Comparisons:
● Size of the territory and per capita income are not directly related to human development.
● Often smaller countries have done better than larger ones in human development. Similarly, relatively
poorer nations have been ranked higher than richer neighbours in terms of human development.
● For example:
⮚ Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago have a higher rank than India in the human development index
despite having smaller economies.
⮚ Similarly, within India, Kerala performs much better than Punjab and Gujarat in human development
despite having lower per capita income.
Level of Human Development

High Level of Human Development Group:
● These countries invested lot in social sector infrastructure like providing education and healthcare
and it has been an important government priority.
● A higher investment in people and good governance has set this group of countries apart from the
others.
Medium Development Group:

● The countries with medium levels of human development form the largest group.
● Most of these are countries which have emerged in the period after the Second World War. Some
countries from this group were former colonies while many others have emerged after the breakup of
the erstwhile Soviet Union in 1990.
● Most of these countries have a much higher social diversity than the countries with higher human
development scores.
Lower Development Groups:

● A large proportion of these are small countries which have been going through political turmoil and
social instability in the form of civil war, famine or a high incidence of diseases.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Steps to improve conditions of countries:

● Improve pattern on government expenditure on social infrastructure and rising standard of living.
● Stable political environment for growth and development.
● Distribution of the country's resources to be more equitable.
● More spending on social sectors: For example - the places with low levels of human development tend
to spend more on defence rather than social sectors.
19
Interesting points
● The Government of India has introduced Beti Bachao Beti Padhao programme to address the
issue of decline in child sex ratio.
● Gross National Happiness (GNH): Bhutan is the only country to use GNH as the measure of the
country's progress. This simply means material progress cannot come at the cost of happiness.
GNH encourages us to think of the spiritual, non-material and qualitative aspects of development.
● Pakistani economist Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq created the Human Development Index in 1990. The
United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human development to
publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.
● The Human Development index and the Human Poverty index are two important indices to
measure human development used by the UNDP.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
20
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
5
Human activities which generate income are known as economic activities. These are broadly grouped
into primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary activities. Primary activities are directly dependent on
environment as these refer to utilisation of earth's resources such as land, water, vegetation, building
materials and minerals.
Features of Hunting Gathering society:
People engaged in primary activities are called Red-Collar workers due to the outdoor nature of their
work.
Hunting and Gathering:

The earliest human beings depended on their immediate environment for their sustenance. They subsisted
on:
● Animals which they hunted.
● The edible plants which they gathered from forests in the vicinity.
The Gathering and hunting are the oldest economic activity known. These are carried out at different levels
with different orientations.
Hunting:
● People located in very cold and extremely hot climates survived on hunting.
● The people in the coastal areas still catch fish though fishing has experienced modernisation due to
technological progress.
● The early hunters used primitive tools which are made of stones, twigs or arrows.
Gathering:
● The Gathering is practised in regions with harsh climatic conditions. So, the number of animals killed
was limited. It often involves primitive societies, who extract, both plants and animals to satisfy their
needs for food, shelter, and clothing.
● This type of activity requires a small amount of capital investment and operates at very low level of
technology. The yield per person is very low and little or no surplus is produced.
● It is practiced in:
⮚ High latitude zones: It includes northern Canada, northern Eurasia and southern Chile.
⮚ Low latitude zones: It includes the Amazon Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and
the interior parts of Southeast Asia.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
● In modern times some gathering is market oriented and has become commercial. Gatherers collect
valuable plants such as leaves barks of trees and medicinal plants and after simple processing sell the
products in the market.
● Uses of various parts of the plants: The bark is used for quinine, tannin extract and cork— leaves
supply materials for beverages, drugs, cosmetics, fibres, thatch, and fabrics; nuts for food and oils and
tree trunk yield rubber, balata, gums, and resins.
21
● Gathering has little chance of becoming important at the global level as products of such an activity
cannot compete in the world market.
Fig. 5.1: Areas of Subsistence Gathering
Pastoralism:
People living in different climatic conditions selected and domesticated animals found in those regions.
Depending on the geographical factors, and technological development, animal rearing today is practised
either at the subsistence or at the commercial level.
Nomadic Herding:
● Nomadic herding or pastoral nomadism is a primitive subsistence activity, in which the herders rely
on animals for food, clothing, shelter, tools and transport. They move from one place to another along
with their livestock, depending on the amount and quality of pastures and water.
● Each nomadic community occupies a well-identified territory as a matter of tradition.
● A wide variety of animals is kept in different regions.
⮚ In tropical Africa, cattle are the most important livestock.
⮚ In Sahara and Asiatic deserts, sheep, goats, and camel are reared.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
⮚ In the mountainous areas of Tibet and Andes, yak and llamas are domesticated.
⮚ In the Arctic and sub-Arctic areas, reindeer is the most important animal.
● Pastoral nomadism is associated with three important regions.
⮚ Core region: It extends from the Atlantic shores of North Africa eastwards across the Arabian
Peninsula into Mongolia and Central China.
⮚ Second region: It extends over the tundra region of Eurasia.
22
⮚ Third region: In the Southern Hemisphere, there are small areas in South-west Africa and on the
island of Madagascar.
● Movement in search of pastures is undertaken either over vast horizontal distances or vertically from
one elevation to another in the mountainous regions.
● The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during summers and again from
mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is known as transhumance.
⮚ In Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotia's migrate from plains to the mountains in
summers and to the plains from the high-altitude pastures in winters.
● In the tundra regions, the nomadic herders move from south to north in summers and from north to
south in winters.
● Number of pastoral nomads has been decreasing due to:
⮚ Imposition of political boundaries
⮚ New settlement plans by different countries.
Fig. 5.2: Areas of Nomadic Herding
Commercial Livestock Rearing:

● Unlike nomadic herding, commercial livestock rearing is more organised and capital intensive.
● Commercial livestock ranching is essentially associated with western cultures and is practised on
permanent ranches.
⮚ These ranches cover large areas and are divided into a number of parcels, which are fenced to
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
regulate the grazing.

● Rearing of animals in ranching is organised on a scientific basis.
● When the grass of one parcel is grazed, animals are moved to another parcel. The number of animals in
a pasture is kept according to the carrying capacity of the pasture.
● This is a specialised activity in which only one type of animal is reared.
● Important animals: sheep, cattle, goats, and horses.
23
● Important Products: Meat, wool, hides, and skin are processed and packed scientifically and exported
to different world markets.
● The main emphasis is on breeding, genetic improvement, disease control and health care of the
animals.
● Important Countries: New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay, and United States of America.
Fig. 5.3: Areas of Commercial Livestock Rearing
Agriculture:
Agriculture is practised under multiple combinations of physical and socio-economic conditions, which
gives rise to different types of agricultural systems.
Main Agriculture Systems

Subsistence Agriculture:
Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally
grown. It can be grouped in two categories — Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive
Subsistence Agriculture.
Primitive Subsistence Agriculture:

● Primitive subsistence agriculture or shifting cultivation is widely practised by many tribes in the
tropics, especially in Africa, south and central America and south east Asia.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
● The vegetation is usually cleared by fire, and the ashes add to the fertility of the soil. Shifting
cultivation is thus, also called slash and burn agriculture.
● The cultivated patches are very small, and cultivation is done with very primitive tools such as sticks
and hoes.
● After sometime (3 to 5 years), the soil loses its fertility and the farmer shifts to another parts and clears
other patch of the forest for cultivation.
24
● Examples:
⮚ Jhuming in North eastern states of India.
⮚ Milpa in Central America and Mexico.
⮚ Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia.
● The cycle of jhum becomes less and less due to loss of fertility in different parcels.
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:

It is largely found in densely populated regions of monsoon Asia.
Two types of intensive subsistence agriculture:
● Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by wet paddy cultivation: It is characterised by
dominance of the rice crop.
⮚ Land holdings are very small due to the high density of population.
⮚ Farmers work with the help of family labour leading to intensive use of land.
⮚ Use of machinery is limited and most of the agricultural operations are done by manual labour.
⮚ Farm-yard manure is used to maintain the fertility of the soil.
⮚ The yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low.
● Intensive subsidence agriculture dominated by crops other than paddy: Due to the difference in
relief, climate, soil and some of the other geographical factors, it is not practical to grow paddy in many
parts of monsoon Asia.
⮚ Crops:
o Wheat, soyabean, barley and sorghum are grown in Northern China, Manchuria, North Korea,
and North Japan.
o In India: Wheat is grown in western parts of the Indo-Gangetic plains and millets are grown in
dry parts of western and southern India.
⮚ Most of the characteristics of this type of agriculture are similar to those dominated by wet paddy
except that irrigation is often used.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Fig. 5.4: Areas of Intensive Subsistence Farming
25
Plantation Agriculture:
● It was introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in tropics.
⮚ The French established cocoa and coffee plantations in west Africa.
⮚ The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber plantations in Malaysia and
sugarcane and banana plantations in West Indies.
⮚ Spanish and Americans invested heavily in coconut and sugarcane plantations in the Philippines.
⮚ The Dutch once had monopoly over sugarcane plantation in Indonesia.
● Important Plantation Crops: Tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas, and
pineapples.
● Characteristic features: Large estates or plantations, large capital investment, managerial and
technical support, scientific methods of cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good
system of transportation which links the estates to the factories and markets for the export of the
products.
● Today, ownership of the majority of plantations has passed into the hands of the government or the
nationals of the countries concerned.
Extensive Commercial Grain Farming:

● Commercial grain cultivation is practised in the interior parts of semi-arid lands of the mid-latitudes.
● Wheat is the principal crop, though other crops like corn, barley, oats, and rye are also grown.
● The size of the farm is very large, therefore entire operations of cultivation from ploughing to
harvesting are mechanised.
● There is low yield per acre but high yield per person.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
Fig. 5.5: Areas of Extensive Commercial Grain Farming
26
Mixed Farming:
● It is found in the highly developed parts of the world such as North-western Europe, Eastern North
America, parts of Eurasia and the temperate latitudes of Southern continents.
● Mixed farms are moderate in size.
● Crops associated: Wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder, and root crops.
● Fodder crops are an important component of mixed farming.
● Crop rotation and intercropping play an important role in maintaining soil fertility.
● Equal emphasis is laid on crop cultivation and animal husbandry. Animals like cattle, sheep, pigs and
poultry provide the main income along with crops.
● It is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm machinery and building, extensive use of
chemical fertilisers and green manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.
Dairy Farming:
● Dairy is the most advanced and efficient type of rearing of milch animals.
● It is highly capital intensive. Animal sheds, storage facilities for fodder, feeding and milching machines
add to the cost of dairy farming.
● Special emphasis is laid on cattle breeding, health care and veterinary services.
● It is highly labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milching.
● There is no off season during the year as in the case of crop raising.
● It is practised mainly near urban and industrial centres which provide neighbourhood market for fresh
milk and dairy products.
● The development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation, and other preservation processes
have increased the duration of storage of various dairy products.
● There are three main regions of commercial dairy farming.
⮚ The largest is North Western Europe.
⮚ The second is Canada.
⮚ The third belt includes South Eastern Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
Mediterranean Agriculture:
● It is highly specialised commercial agriculture.
● It is practised in the countries on either side of the Mediterranean Sea in Europe and in north Africa
from Tunisia to Atlantic coast, southern California, central Chile, south western parts of South Africa
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
and south and south western parts of Australia.

● This region is an important supplier of citrus fruits.
● Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality of the Mediterranean region.
⮚ Best quality wines in the world with distinctive flavours are produced from high quality grapes in
various countries of this region.
⮚ The inferior grapes are dried into raisins and currants.
27
● This region also produces olives and figs.
● Its advantage is that more valuable crops such as fruits and vegetables are grown in winters when
there is great demand in European and North American markets.
Market and Gardening and Horticulture:

● It specialises in the cultivation of high value crops such as vegetables, fruits, and flowers, solely for the
urban markets.
● Farms are small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban centre
where high income group of consumers is located.
● It is both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers,
insecticides, greenhouses, and artificial heating in colder regions.
● It is well developed in densely populated industrial districts of north west Europe, north eastern
United States of America, and the Mediterranean regions.
● The farming is known as truck farming in the regions where farmers specialise in vegetables only. Its
name is truck farming because the distance of truck farms from the market is governed by the distance
that a truck can cover overnight.
In addition to market gardening, a modern development in the industrial regions of Western Europe and
North America is factory farming.
Livestock:
● Livestock, particularly poultry and cattle rearing, is done in stalls and pens, fed on manufactured
feedstuff and carefully supervised against diseases. This requires heavy capital investment in terms of
building, machinery for various operations, veterinary services and heating and lighting.
● One of the important features of poultry farming and cattle rearing is breed selection and scientific
breeding.
Types of farming based on Farming Organisation

Co-operative Farming:
● A group of farmers form a co-operative society by pooling in their resources voluntarily for more
efficient and profitable farming.
● Individual farms remain intact, and farming is a matter of cooperative initiative.
● Advantages: Co-operative societies help farmers:
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
⮚ To procure all important inputs of farming.

⮚ Sell the products at the most favourable terms.
⮚ In processing of quality products at cheaper rates.
● Co-operative movement originated over a century ago and has been successful in many western
European countries like Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Sweden, Italy etc. In Denmark, the movement
has been so successful that practically every farmer is a member of a co-operative.
28
Collective Farming:
● Basic Principle: It is based on social ownership of the means of production and collective labour.
● Collective farming or the model of Kolkhoz was introduced in erstwhile Soviet Union to improve upon
the inefficiency of the previous methods of agriculture and to boost agricultural production for self-
sufficiency.
● The farmers used to pool in all their resources like land, livestock, and labour. However, they were
allowed to retain very small plots to grow crops in order to meet their daily requirements.
Mining:
The discovery of minerals in the history of human development, is reflected in many stages in terms of
copper age, bronze age and iron age. The actual development of mining began with the industrial revolution
and its importance is continuously increasing.
Factors Affecting Mining Activity:

The profitability of mining operations depends on two main factors:
● Physical factors: It include the size, grade, and the mode of occurrence of the deposits.
● Economic factors: Such as the demand for the mineral, technology available and used, capital to
develop infrastructure and the labour and transport costs.
Methods of Mining:
It is of two types: Surface and Underground mining depending on the mode of occurrence and the nature of
the ore.
● Surface Mining:
⮚ It is also known as open-cast mining.
⮚ It is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to the surface. Overhead
costs such as safety precautions and equipment are relatively low.
⮚ The output is both large and rapid.
● Underground Mining:
⮚ The underground mining method (shaft method) has to be used when the ore lies deep below the
surface.
⮚ In this method, vertical shafts have to be sunk, from where underground galleries radiate to reach
the minerals.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
⮚ Minerals are extracted and transported to the surface through these passages.
⮚ It requires specially designed lifts, drills, haulage vehicles, ventilation system for safety and efficient
movement of people and material.
⮚ This method is risky as poisonous gases, fires, floods, and caving in lead to fatal accidents.
29
Fig. 5.6: Methods of Mining
Interesting points
● The Chicle is the name of the part of the chewing gum after the flavour is gone. It is made from the
milky juice of zapota tree.
PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
30
SECONDARY ACTIVITIES
6
Secondary activities add value to natural resources by transforming raw materials into valuable products.
Secondary activities are concerned with manufacturing, processing, and construction (infrastructure)
industries.
Value addition to Natural Resources by Secondary Activities:

● Cotton in the boll has limited use but after it is transformed into yarn becomes more valuable and can be
used for making clothes.
● Iron ore cannot be used directly from the mines but after being converted into steel it gets its value.
Manufacturing:
It involves a full array of production from handicrafts to moulding iron and steel and stamping out plastic
toys to assembling delicate computer components or space vehicles. In each of these processes, the
common characteristics are the application of power, mass production of identical products and specialised
labour in factory settings for the production of standardised commodities.
Characteristics of Modern Large-Scale Manufacturing

Specialisation of skills/ methods of production:
● Under the 'craft' method factories produce only a few pieces which are made-to-order. So, the costs
are high.
● Mass production involves production of large quantities of standardised parts by each worker
performing only one task repeatedly.
Mechanisation:
● Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which accomplish tasks.
● Automation (without aid of human thinking during the manufacturing process) is the advanced stage
of mechanisation. Automatic factories with feedback and closed loop computer control systems
where machines are developed to 'think', have sprung up all over the world.
Technological Innovations:
Technological innovations through research and development strategy are an important aspect of modern
manufacturing for quality control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and combating pollution.
Organisational Structure and Stratification:

Modern manufacturing is characterised by:
● A complex machine technology.
● Extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more goods with less effort, and low costs.
● Vast capital.
31
● Large organisations.
● Executive bureaucracy.
Uneven Geographic Distribution:
● Major concentrations of modern manufacturing have flourished in a few numbers of places. These
nations have become the centres of economic and political power. However, in terms of the total area
covered, manufacturing sites are much less conspicuous and concentrated on much smaller areas than
that of agriculture due to greater intensity of processes.
● Industries maximise profits by reducing costs. Therefore, industries should be located at points where
the production costs are minimum.
Factors Responsible for Location of Industries

Access to Market:
● ‘Market’: It means people who have a demand for these goods and also have the purchasing power
(ability to purchase) to be able to purchase from the sellers at a place.
● The existence of a market for manufactured goods is the most important factor in the location of
industries.
● The developed regions of Europe, North America, Japan and Australia provide large global markets as
the purchasing power of the people is very high.
● The densely populated regions of South and South-east Asia also provide large markets.
● Some industries, such as aircraft manufacturing, have a global market. The arms industry also has
global markets.
Access to Raw Material:

● Raw material used by industries should be cheap and easy to transport.
● Industries based on cheap, bulky, and weight-losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of
raw material such as steel, sugar, and cement industries.
● Perishability is a vital factor for the industry to be located closer to the source of the raw material.
● Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the sources of farm produce or milk
supply, respectively.
Access to Labour Supply:

● Labour supply is an important factor in the location of industries.

● Some types of manufacturing still require skilled labour. E.g., automobile industry.
● Increasing mechanisation, automation and flexibility of industrial processes have reduced the
dependence of industry upon the labours.
32
Access to Source of Energy:
● Industries which use more power are located close to the source of the energy supply such as the
aluminium industry.
● Earlier coal was the main source of energy, today hydroelectricity and petroleum are also important
sources of energy for many industries.
Access to Communication and Transportation Facilities:
● Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry raw materials to the factory and to move finished
goods to the market are essential for the development of industries. The cost of transport plays an
important role in the location of industrial units.
● Western Europe and eastern North America have a highly developed transport system which has
always induced the concentration of industries in these areas.
● Modern industry is inseparably tied to transportation systems.
● Improvements in transportation led to integrated economic development and regional specialisation
of manufacturing.
● Communication is also an important need for industries for the exchange and management of
information.
Government Policy:
● Governments adopt 'regional policies' to promote 'balanced' economic development and hence set up
industries in particular areas.
Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries:

● Many industries benefit from nearness to a leader-industry and other industries. These benefits are
termed as agglomeration economies. Savings are derived from the linkages which exist between
different industries.
Foot loose industries:

They are located in a wide variety of places.
They are not dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise.
They largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere.
They produce in small quantity and also employ a small labour force.
These are generally not polluting industries.

The important factor in their location is accessibility by road network.
Classification of Industries:
Manufacturing industries are classified on the basis of their size, inputs/raw materials, output/products, and
ownership.
33
Industries based on Size:
The amount of capital invested, number of workers employed, and volume of production determine the size of
industry. Accordingly, industries may be classified into household or cottage, small-scale and large-scale.
Household Industries or Cottage Industries:

● It is the smallest manufacturing unit.
● The artisans use local raw materials and simple tools to produce everyday goods in their homes with
the help of their family members or parttime labour.
● Finished products may be for consumption in the same household or, for sale in local (village)
markets, or, for barter.
● Capital and transportation do not wield much influence as this type of manufacturing has low
commercial significance and most of the tools are devised locally.
● Some common everyday products produced in this sector of manufacturing include foodstuffs,
fabrics, mats, containers, tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from wood lot and forest, shoes, thongs
and other articles from leather, etc.
Small Scale Manufacturing:

● It is distinguished from household industries by its production techniques and place of manufacture (a
workshop outside the home/cottage of the producer).
● This type of manufacturing uses local raw material, simple power -driven machines and semi-skilled
labour.
● It provides employment and raises local purchasing power. Therefore, countries like India, China,
Indonesia, and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive small-scale manufacturing in order to
provide employment to their population.
Large Scale Manufacturing:

● It involves a large market, various raw materials, enormous energy, specialised workers, advanced
technology, assembly-line mass production and large capital.
● This kind of manufacturing developed in the last 200 years, in the United Kingdom, north-eastern
U.S.A. and Europe.
● On the basis of the system of large-scale manufacturing, the world's major industrial regions may be
grouped under two broad types, namely:

⮚ Traditional large-scale industrial regions which are thickly clustered in a few more developed
countries.
⮚ High-technology large scale industrial regions which have diffused to less developed countries.
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Fig. 6.1: Classification of Industries
Industries Based on Inputs/Raw material

Agro-based:
● Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into finished
products for rural and urban markets.
● Major Agro-processing Industries: Food processing, sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea,
coffee, and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
● Food Processing: Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and
confectionery. While some preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have been
known since ancient times, these had limited applications to cater to the pre-Industrial Revolution
demands.
Mineral based:
● These industries use minerals as a raw material.
● Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and steel
industries but some use non-ferrous metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper and jewellery
industries.
● Many industries use non-metallic minerals such as cement and pottery industries.
Chemical based:
● Such industries use natural chemical minerals, e.g., mineral oil (petroleum) is used in petrochemical
industry. Salts, sulphur, and potash industries also use natural minerals.
35
● Chemical industries are also based on raw materials obtained from wood and coal.
● Examples of Chemical based industries: Synthetic fibre, plastic, etc.
Forest Based:
The forests provide many major and minor products which are used as raw material. Timber for furniture
industry, wood, bamboo and grass for paper industry, lac for lac industries come from forests.
Animal Based:
Leather for leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from animals. Besides, ivory is also
obtained from elephant's tusks.
Industries Based on Output/Products:

● Basic Industries: These are the industry whose products are used to make other goods by using them
as raw materials. For example - Iron/steel machines for textile industry clothes for use by consumers.
● Consumer Goods Industries: They produced goods which are consumed by consumers directly. For
example, industries producing breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, paper for writing,
televisions, etc. are consumer goods or non-basic industries.
Industries Based on Ownership:

● Public Sector Industries:
⮚ They are owned and managed by governments.
⮚ In India, there are number of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).
⮚ Socialist countries have many state-owned industries.
⮚ Mixed economies have both Public and Private sector enterprises.
● Private Sector Industries:
⮚ They are owned by individual investors and managed by private organisations.
⮚ In capitalist countries, industries are generally owned privately.
● Joint Sector Industries:
⮚ They are managed by joint stock companies or sometimes the private and public sectors together
establish and manage the industries.
Traditional Large-Scale industrial Regions:

● These are based on heavy industry, often located near coalfields, and engaged in metal smelting,
heavy engineering, chemical manufacture, or textile production. These industries are now known as
smokestack industries.
● Traditional industrial regions can be recognised by:
⮚ High proportion of employment in manufacturing industry.
36
⮚ High-density housing, often of inferior type, and poor services.
⮚ Unattractive environment, for example, pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
⮚ Problems of unemployment, emigration and derelict land areas caused by closure of factories because
of a worldwide fall in demand.
The Ruhr Coal field Region (Germany):

● This has been one of the major industrial regions of Europe for a long time. Coal and iron and steel
formed the basis of the economy, but as the demand for coal declined, the industry started shrinking.
Even after the iron ore was exhausted, the industry remained, using imported ore brought by
waterways to the Ruhr.
● The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per cent of Germany's total steel production.
● Changes in the industrial structure have led to the decay of some areas, and there are problems of
industrial waste and pollution.
● The future prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the products of coal and steel and more on the new
industries like the huge Opel car assembly plant, new chemical plants, universities.
● Out-of-town shopping centres have appeared resulting in a 'New Ruhr' landscape.

● It forms the base of all other industries and, therefore, it is called a basic industry. It is basic because it
provides raw material for other industries such as machine tools used for further production.
● It may also be called a heavy industry because it uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and its
products are also heavy.
● Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and limestone. The
molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron which is used for converting into steel by adding
strengthening materials like manganese.
● The large integrated steel industry is traditionally located close to the sources of raw materials – iron
ore, coal, manganese, and limestone – or at places where these could be easily brought, e.g., near ports.
● These are less expensive to build and operate and can be located near markets because of the
abundance of scrap metal, which is the main input.
● Traditionally, most of the steel was produced at large integrated plants, but mini mills are limited to just
one-step process – steel making.
Distribution:
The industry is one of the most complex and capital-intensive industries and is concentrated in the
advanced countries of North America, Europe, and Asia.
U.S.A:
● Most of the production comes from the north Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake region
37
(Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain, Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast (Sparrows Point and
Morrisville).
● Pittsburgh area is now losing ground. It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A.
Europe:
● UK: The important steel centres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot, Birmingham, and Sheffield.
● Germany: Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf, and Essen.
● France: Le Creusot and St. Ettienne in France.
● Russia: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Lipetsk, Tula.
● Ukraine: Donetsk.
● Asia: In Asia, the important centres include:
● Japan: Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama.
● China: Shanghai, Tientsin and Wuhan.
● India: Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, Visakhapatnam and
Sharavati.
Cotton Textile Industry:

● It has three sub-sectors i.e., handloom, power loom and mill sectors.
⮚ Handloom Sector: It is labour-intensive and provides employment to semi-skilled workers. It
requires small capital investment. This sector involves spinning, weaving, and finishing of the
fabrics.
⮚ Power Loom: In this sector, machines are used and becomes less labour intensive and the volume
of production increases.
⮚ Mill Sector: Cotton textile mill sector is highly capital intensive and produces fine clothes in bulk.
● The Cotton textile manufacturing requires good quality cotton as raw material.
● India, China, U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produces more than half of the world's raw cotton. The
U.K, NW European countries and Japan also produce cotton textile made from imported yarn. Europe
alone accounts for nearly half of the world's cotton imports.
● The structure of industries changes with the scientific advancement and technological improvements.
For example - Germany recorded constant growth in cotton textile industry since Second World War
till the seventies but now it has declined. It has shifted to less developed countries where labour costs
are low.
Concept of High Technology Industry:

● High technology, or simply high-tech, is the latest generation of manufacturing activities.It is best
understood as the application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts leading to the
manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and engineering character. For example -
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Robotics on the assembly line, computer -aided design (CAD) and manufacturing, electronic controls
of smelting and refining processes etc.
● Features: The high-tech industrial landscape is marked by neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,
office-plant-lab buildings.
● High-tech industries which are regionally concentrated, self-sustained and highly specialised are
called Technopolis. For example - The Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle.
Interesting points
● ‘Manufacturing’ Industry and 'Manufacturing Industry':

⮚ Manufacturing literally means 'to make by hand' but now it includes goods 'made by
machines'. It is essentially a process which involves transforming raw materials into finished
goods of higher value for sale in local or distant markets.
⮚ As the term industry is comprehensive, it is also used as synonymous with 'manufacturing'.
When one uses terms like 'steel industry' and 'chemical industry' one thinks of factories and
processes. But there are many secondary activities which are not carried on in factories such as
the 'entertainment industry' and Tourism industry, etc.
● Agri-Business:
⮚ It is commercial farming on an industrial scale often financed by business whose main
interests lie outside agriculture, for example, large corporations in tea plantation business.
⮚ Agri-business farms are mechanised, large in size, highly structured, reliant on chemicals, and
may be described as 'Agro-factories'.
39
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY
7 ACTIVITIES
Health, education, law, governance, and recreation etc. require professional skills. These services require
other theoretical knowledge and practical training. Tertiary activities are related to the service sector.
Tertiary Sector:
● Manpower is an important component of the service sector as most of the tertiary activities are
performed by skilled labour, professionally trained experts, and consultants.
● In the initial stages of economic development, larger proportion of people worked in the primary sector.
In a developed economy, the majority of workers get employment in tertiary activity and a moderate
proportion is employed in the secondary sector.
● Tertiary activities include both production and exchange.
⮚ The production involves the 'provision' of services that are 'consumed'. The output is indirectly
measured in terms of wages and salaries.
⮚ Exchange, involves trade, transport and communication facilities that are used to overcome
distance.
● Tertiary activities involve the commercial output of services rather than the production of tangible
goods. Common examples are the work of a plumber, electrician, technician, launderer, etc.
● Difference between Secondary activities and Tertiary activities: The expertise provided by services
relies more heavily on specialised skills, experience, and knowledge of the workers rather than on the
production techniques, machinery, and factory processes.
Types of Tertiary Activities:

Trade, transport, communication, and services are some of the tertiary activities.
Trade and Commerce:

● Trade is essentially buying and selling of items produced elsewhere. All the services in retail and
wholesale trading or commerce are specifically intended for profit.
TERTIARY AND QUATERNARY ACTIVITIES
● The towns and cities where all these works take place are known as trading centres.
● The rise of trading from barter at the local level to money-exchange of international scale has produced
many centres and institutions such as trading centres or collection and distribution points. These
centres can be divided into rural and urban marketing centres.
Rural Marketing Centres:

● Rural marketing centres cater to nearby settlements and are quasi-urban centres.
● They serve as trading centres of the most rudimentary type.
● The personal and professional services are not well-developed.
● These form local collecting and distributing centres.
● Most of these have mandis (wholesale markets) and also retailing areas.
● They are not urban centres per se but are significant centres for making available goods and services
which are most frequently demanded by rural folk.
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● Periodic Market:
⮚ Periodic markets in rural areas are found where there are no regular markets and local periodic
markets are organised at different temporal intervals.
⮚ These may be weekly, biweekly markets from where people from the surrounding areas meet their
temporally accumulated demand.
⮚ These markets are held on specified dates and move from one place to another.
Urban Marketing Centres:

● They have more widely specialised urban services.
● They provide ordinary goods and services as well as many of the specialised goods and services
required by people. Urban centres, therefore, offer manufactured goods as well as many specialised
markets develop, e.g., markets for labour, housing, semi, or finished products.
● Services of educational institutions and professionals such as teachers, lawyers, consultants,
physicians, dentists, and veterinary doctors are available.
Retail Trading:
● This is the business activity concerned with the sale of goods directly to the consumers.
● Most of the retail trading takes place in fixed establishments or stores solely devoted to selling.
● Street peddling, handcarts, trucks, door-to-door, mail-order, telephone, automatic vending machines
and internet are examples of non-store retail trading.
Wholesale Trading:
● It constitutes bulk business through numerous intermediary merchants and supply houses and not
through retail stores.
● Some large stores including chain stores are able to buy directly from the manufacturers. However,
most retail stores procure supplies from an intermediary source.

● Wholesalers often extend credit to retail stores to such an extent that the retailer operates very largely
on the wholesaler's capital.
Refer : Fig. 7.1 Service Sector
Transport:
● Transport is a service or facility by which people, materials and manufactured goods are physically
carried from one location to another.
● It is an organised industry created to satisfy man's basic need of mobility.
● Modern society requires speedy and efficient transport systems to assist in the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods. At every stage in this complex system, the value of the
material is significantly enhanced by transportation.
● Transport distance can be measured as:
⮚ km distance or actual distance of route length
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⮚ time distance or the time taken to travel on particular route.
⮚ cost distance or the expense of travelling on a route.
● Distance, in terms of time or cost, is the determining factor in selecting the mode of transport.
● Isochrone lines are drawn on a map to join places equal in terms of the time taken to reach them.
Factors Affecting Transport:

● Demand for transport is influenced by the size of population. The larger the population size, the
greater is the demand for transport.
● Routes depend on location of cities, towns, villages, industrial centres and raw materials, pattern of
trade between them, nature of the landscape between them, type of climate, and funds available for
overcoming obstacles along the length of the route.
Communication:
● Communication services involve the transmission of words and messages, facts, and ideas.
● The invention of writing preserved messages helped to make communication dependent on means of
transport. These were actually carried by hand, animals, boat, road, rail, and air. All forms of transport
are also referred to as lines of communication.
● Where the transport network is efficient, communications are easily disseminated.
● Certain developments, such as mobile telephony and satellites, have made communications
independent of transport.
Telecommunication:
● The use of telecommunications is linked to the development of modern technology. It has
revolutionised communications because of the speed with which messages are sent.
● The recent advancements like mobile telephony have made communications direct and instantaneous
at any time and from anywhere.
● Radio and television also help to relay news, pictures, and telephone calls to vast audiences around
the world and hence they are termed as Mass Media. They are vital for advertising and entertainment.
Newspapers are able to cover events in all corners of the world.
● Satellite communication relays information of the earth and from space.
● The internet has truly revolutionised the global communication system.
Services:
● Services occur at many different levels. Some are geared to industry, some to people, and some to
both industry and people, e.g., the transport systems. Low-order services, such as grocery shops and
laundries, are more common and widespread than high-order services or more specialised ones like
those of accountants, consultants and physicians.
● Services are provided to individual consumers who can afford to pay for them. For example, the
gardener, the launderers and the barber do primarily physical labour.
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● They are often supervised or performed by governments or companies. For example - Making and
maintaining highways and bridges, maintaining firefighting departments, and supplying or
supervising education etc.
● Professional Services: They are primarily health care, engineering, law, and management.
● Personal Services: They are made available to the people to facilitate their work in daily life. They are
employed in domestic services as housekeepers, cooks, and gardeners.
People Engaged in Tertiary Activities:

In more developed countries a higher percentage of workers is employed in providing services as compared
to less developed countries. The trend in employment in this sector has been rising.
Some examples of Tertiary Sector

Tourism:
● Tourism is travel undertaken for purposes of recreation rather than business.
● It has become the world's single largest tertiary activity in terms of registered jobs and total revenue
contribution global GDP.
● Generation of local employment: Many local persons are employed to provide services like
accommodation, meals, transport, entertainment, and special shops serving the tourists.
● Tourism fosters the growth of infrastructure industries, retail trading, and craft industries (souvenirs).
Tourist Regions:
● The warmer places around the Mediterranean Coast and the West Coast of India are some of the
popular tourist destinations in the world.
● Others include winter sports regions, found mainly in mountainous areas, and various scenic
landscapes and national parks.
● Historic towns also attract tourists because of the monument, heritage sites and cultural activities.

Factors Affecting Tourism:
● Demand:
⮚ The demand for holidays has increased rapidly.
⮚ Improvements in the standard of living and increased leisure time, permit many more people to go
on holidays for leisure.
● Transport:
⮚ The opening-up of tourist areas has been aided by improvement in transport facilities.
⮚ Travel is easier by car with better road systems.
⮚ More significant in recent years has been the expansion in air transport. For example, air travel
allows fast travelling.
Tourist Attractions:
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● Climate:
⮚ Most people from colder regions expect to have warm, sunny weather for beach holidays. This is
one of the main reasons for the importance of tourism in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean
lands.
⮚ The Mediterranean climate offers almost consistently higher temperatures, than in other parts of
Europe, long hours of sunshine and low rainfall throughout the peak holiday season.
⮚ People taking winter holidays have specific climatic requirements, either higher temperatures than
their own homelands, or snow cover suitable for skiing.
● Landscape: Many people like to spend their holidays in an attractive environment, which often means
mountains, lakes, spectacular seacoasts and landscapes not completely altered by man.
● History and Art: The history and art of an area have potential attractiveness. People visit ancient or
picturesque towns and archaeological sites, and enjoy exploring castles, palaces, and churches.
● Culture and Economy: These attract tourists with a penchant for experiencing ethnic and local
customs.
● Cost: If a region provides for the needs of tourists at a cheap cost, it is likely to become very popular. For
example - Homestay has emerged as a profitable business such as heritage homes in Goa, Madikere
and Coorg in Karnataka.
Medical Tourism in India:

Medical tourism: When medical treatment is combined with international tourism activity, it lends itself
to what is commonly known as medical tourism.
● India currently holds around 18% of the global medical tourism market. According to Ministry of
Tourism's figures, medical tourism in India has the potential to cross the $ 9 bn-mark, accounting for
20% of the global market share by 2020.
● World class hospitals located in metropolitan cities of India to cater to patients all over the world.
● Medical tourism brings abundant benefits to developing countries like India, Thailand, Singapore, and
Malaysia.
● Beyond medical tourism, is the trend of outsourcing of medical tests and data interpretation.
⮚ Hospitals in India, Switzerland and Australia have been performing certain medical services –
ranging from reading radiology images, to interpreting Magnetic Resonance Images (MRIs) and
ultrasound tests.
⮚ Outsourcing holds tremendous advantages for patients, if it is focused on improving quality or
providing specialised care.
Quaternary Activities:
● It involves: the collection, production, and dissemination of information or even the production of
information.
● It centres around research, development and may be seen as an advanced form of services involving
specialised iknowledge and technical skills.
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● The Quaternary Sector along with the Tertiary Sector has replaced most of the primary and secondary
employment as the basis for economic growth. Over half of all workers in developed economies are in
the 'Knowledge Sector' and there has been a very high growth in demand for and consumption of
information-based services from mutual fund managers to tax consultants, software developers and
statisticians.
● Personnel working in office buildings, elementary schools and university classrooms, hospitals and
doctors' offices, theatres, accounting, and brokerage firms all belong to this category of services.
● Quaternary activities can also be outsourced like some of the tertiary functions. They are not tied to
resources, affected by the environment, or necessarily localised by market.
Quinary Activities:
● The highest level of decision makers or policy makers perform quinary activities which are subtly
different from the knowledge-based industries.
● They are services that focus on the creation, re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing
ideas, data interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies.
● It is often referred to as 'gold collar' professions. They represent another subdivision of the tertiary
sector representing special and highly paid skills of senior business executives, government officials,
research scientsts, financial and legal consultants, etc.
● Their importance in the structure of advanced economies far outweighs their numbers.
Outsourcing
Outsourcing or contracting out is giving work to an outside agency to improve efficiency and to reduce
costs.
● When outsourcing involves transferring work to overseas locations, it is described by the term off
- shoring, although both off - shoring and outsourcing are used together.
● Business activities that are outsourced include information technology (IT), human resources,
customer support and at times also manufacturing and engineering.

● Data processing is an IT related service easily be carried out in Asian, East European, and African
countries, in these countries IT skilled staff with good English language skills are available at
lower wages than those in the developed countries.
● Overhead costs are also much lower making it profitable to get job-work carried out overseas.
● Creation of Jobs: Outsourcing is coming to those countries where cheap and skilled workers are
available. These are also out-migrating countries.
● New trends in quinary services include knowledge processing outsourcing (KPO) and 'home
shoring'.
● The KPO industry is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) as it involves highly
skilled workers. It is information driven knowledge outsourcing. KPO enables companies to create
additional business opportunities. Examples of KPOs include research and development (R and
D) activities, e-learning, business research, intellectual property (IP) research, legal profession,
and the banking sector.
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Digital Divide:
● Opportunities emerging from the Information and Communication Technology based development is
unevenly distributed across the globe. There are wide ranging economic, political, and social
differences among countries.
● The deciding factor is how quickly countries can provide ICT access and benefits to its citizens.
● While developed countries in general have surged forward, the developing countries have lagged
behind and this is known as the digital divide. For example - In a large country like India or Russia, it is
inevitable that certain areas like metropolitan centres possess better connectivity and access to the
digital world versus peripheral rural areas.
Interesting points
● Stores:
⮚ Consumer cooperatives were the first of the large-scale innovations in retailing.
⮚ Departmental stores delegate the responsibility and authority to departmental heads for
purchasing of commodities and for overseeing the sale in different sections of the stores.
⮚ Chain stores are able to purchase merchandise most economically, often going so far as to
direct the goods to be manufactured to their specification. They employ highly skilled
specialists in many executive tasks. They have the ability to experiment in one store and apply
the results to many.
● Network and Accessibility:
⮚ As transport systems develop, different places are linked together to form a network.
Networks are made up of nodes and links.
⮚ A node is the meeting point of two or more routes, a point of origin, a point of destination or
any sizeable town along a route, every road that joins two nodes is called a link.
⮚ A developed network has many links, which means that places are well-connected.
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47
Fig. 7.1 Service Sector

TRANSPORT AND
8 COMMUNICATION
Natural resources, economic activities and markets are rarely found in one place. Transport, communication,
and trade establish links between producing centres and consuming centres.
Transport:
● Transport is a service or facility for the carriage of persons and goods from one place to the other using
humans, animals, and different kinds of vehicles. Such movements take place over land, water, and air.
● Types of Transport: Land Transport, the shipping and waterways, airways and Pipelines.
● The transportation is an organised service industry created to satisfy the basic needs of society. It
includes transport arteries, vehicles to carry people and goods, and the organisation to maintain
arteries, and to handle loading, unloading and delivery.
● Assured and speedy transportation, along with efficient communication, promote cooperation and
unity among scattered peoples.
Transport Network: Several places (nodes) joined together by a series of routes (links) to form a pattern.
Modes of Transportation:
● The principal modes of world transportation are land, water, air and pipelines. These are used for inter-
regional and intra-regional transport, and each one (except pipelines) carries both passengers and
freight.
● The significance of a mode depends on the type of goods and services to be transported, costs of
transport and the mode available.
⮚ International movement of goods is handled by ocean freighters.
⮚ Road transport is cheaper and faster over short distances and for door-to door services.
⮚ Railways are most suited for large volumes of bulky materials over long distances within a
country.
⮚ High-value, light and perishable goods are best moved by airways.
● In a well-managed transport system, various modes of transportation complement each other.
Land Transport:
Most of the movement of goods and services takes place over land.
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION
● In early days, humans themselves were carrier. The revolution in transport came about only after the
invention of the steam engine in the eighteenth century.
● The first public railway line was opened in 1825 between the Stockton and Darlington in Northern
England and then onwards, railways became the most popular and fastest form of transport in the
nineteenth century.
● The invention of the internal combustion engine revolutionised road transport in terms of road quality
and vehicles (motor cars and trucks) plying over them.
● Among the newer developments in land transportation are pipelines, ropeways, and cableways.
Liquids like mineral oil, water, sludge, and sewers are transported by pipelines.
● The old and elementary forms like the human porter, pack animal, cart or wagon are the most
expensive means of transportation and large freighters are the cheapest.
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Roads:
Road transport is the most economical for short distances compared to railways. Freight transport by road
is gaining importance because it offers door-to-door service. The highest road density and the highest
number of vehicles are registered in North America compared to Western Europe.
Issues in Road Transport:

● Unmetalled roads, though simple in construction, are not effective and serviceable for all seasons.
During the rainy season these become unmotorable and even the metalled ones are seriously
handicapped during heavy rains and floods.
● The rail kilometrage being small cannot serve the needs of vast and developing countries at a low cost.
● The quality of the roads varies greatly between developed and developing countries because road
construction and maintenance require heavy expenditure.
Traffic Flows:
● When the road network cannot cope with the demands of traffic, congestion occurs. City roads suffer
from chronic traffic congestion.
● Peaks (high points) and troughs (low points) of traffic flow can be seen on roads at particular times of
the day, for example, peaks occurring during the rush hour before and after work.
Highways:
● Highways are metalled roads connecting distant places.
● They are constructed in a manner for unobstructed vehicular movement. As such these are 80 m wide,
with separate traffic lanes, bridges, flyovers, and dual carriageways to facilitate uninterrupted traffic
flow.
Pattern of Highways:
● In North America: The highway density is high, about 0.65 km per sq. km. Every place is within 20 km
distance from a highway.

● Trans-Canadian Highway: It links Vancouver in British Columbia (west coast) to St. John's City in
Newfoundland (east coast) and the Alaskan Highway links Edmonton (Canada) to Anchorage
(Alaska).
● Pan-American Highway: It will connect the countries of South America, Central America, and U.S.A.-
Canada.
● Trans Continental Stuart Highway: It connects Darwin (north coast) and Melbourne via Tennant
Creek and Alice Springs in Australia.
● In Russia: A dense highway network is developed in the industrialised region west of the Urals with
Moscow as the hub.
● In China: The highways criss-cross the country connecting all major cities such as Tsungtso (near
Vietnam boundary), Shanghai (central China), Guangzhou (south) and Beijing (north). A new highway
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links Chengdu with Lhasa in Tibet.
● In India:
⮚ There are many highways linking the major towns and cities. For example, National Highway No. 7
(NH 7), connecting Varanasi with Kanya Kumari, is the longest in the country.
⮚ The Golden Quadrilateral (GQ) or Super Expressway is underway to connect the four metropolitan
cities — New Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, and Hyderabad.
Border Roads:
● Roads laid along international boundaries are called border roads. They play an important role in
integrating people in remote areas with major cities and providing defence.
● All the countries have such road to transport goods to border village and military camps.
Railways:
● Railways are a mode of land transport for bulky goods and passengers over long distances.
● The railway gauges classified as broad (more than 1.5 m), standard (1.44 m), metre gauge (1 m) and
smaller gauges.
● The standard gauge is used in the U.K. The commuter trains are very popular in U.K., U.S.A, Japan, and
India as these carry millions of passengers daily to and from in the city.
Railway Network in the World

Europe:
● It has one of the densest rail networks in the world.
● There are about 4,40,000 km of railways, most of which is double or multiple-tracked.
● Belgium has the highest density of 1 km of railway for every 6.5 sq kms area.
● The industrial regions exhibit some of the highest densities in the world.
● Important Rail Heads: London, Paris, Brussels, Milan, Berlin, and Warsaw.
● Passenger transport is more important than freight in many of these countries.
● Underground railways are important in London and Paris.
⮚ Channel Tunnel, operated by Euro Tunnel Group through England, connects London with Paris.
● Trans-continental railway lines have now lost their importance to quicker and more flexible transport
systems of airways and roadways.
Russia:
● The railways account for about 90 per cent of the country's total transport with a very dense network
west of the Urals.
● Moscow is the most important rail head with major lines radiating to different parts of the country's
vast geographical area.
● Underground railways and commuter trains are also important in Moscow.
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North America:
● It has one of the most extensive rail networks accounting for nearly 40 per cent of the world's total
railway line.
● The railways are used more for long-distance bulky freight like ores, grains, timber, and machinery
than for passengers.
● The densest rail network is found in the highly industrialised and urbanised region of East Central
U.S.A. and adjoining Canada.
Canada:
● The railways are in the public sector and distributed all over the sparsely populated areas.
● The transcontinental railways carry the bulk of wheat and coal tonnage.
Australia:
● It has about 40,000 km of railways, of which 25 per cent are found in New South Wales alone.
● The west-east Australian National Railway line runs across the country from Perth to Sydney.
New Zealand:
● Its railways are mainly in the North Island to serve the farming areas.
South America:
● The rail network is the densest in two regions, namely, the Pampas of Argentina and the coffee
growing region of Brazil which together account for 40 per cent of South America's total route length.
● Only Chile, among the remaining countries has a considerable route length linking coastal centres with
the mining sites in the interior.
● Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela have short single-track rail-lines from ports to the
interior with no inter-connecting links.
● There is only one trans-continental rail route linking Buenos Aires (Argentina) with Valparaiso (Chile)
across the Andes Mountains through the Uspallatta Pass located at a height of 3,900 m.

Asia:
● The rail network is the densest in the thickly populated areas of Japan, China, and India.
● Other countries have relatively few rail routes.
● West Asia is the least developed in rail facilities because of vast deserts and sparsely populated
regions.
Africa:
● Africa continent, despite being the second largest, has only 40,000 km of railways with South Africa
alone accounting for 18,000 km due to the concentration of gold, diamond, and copper mining
activities.
51
● Important Continental Routes:
⮚ Benguela Railway: It passes through Angola to Katanga-Zambia Copper Belt.
⮚ Tanzania Railway: It runs from the Zambian Copper Belt to Dar-es-Salaam on the coast.
⮚ The Railway through Botswana and Zimbabwe linking the landlocked states to the South African
network.
⮚ Blue Train: It runs from Cape Town to Pretoria in the Republic of South Africa.
● In Algeria, Senegal, Nigeria, Kenya and Ethiopia, railway lines connect port cities to interior centres but
do not form a good network with other countries.
Trans - Continental Railways:

They run across the continent and link its two ends. They were constructed for economic and political
reasons to facilitate long runs in different directions.
Important Trans – Continental Railways

Trans- Siberian Railways:
● It is a major rail route of Russia runs from St. Petersburg in the west to Vladivostok on the Pacific
Coast in the east passing through Moscow, Ufa, Novosibirsk, Irkutsk, Chita, and Khabarovsk.
● It is the most important route in Asia and the longest (9,332 km) double-tracked and electrified
trans– continental railway in the world.
● It has helped in opening up its Asian region to West European markets.
● It runs across the Ural Mountains. Ob and Yenisei rivers, Chita is an important Agro centre and Irkutsk, a
fur centre.
● There are connecting links to the south, namely, to Odessa (Ukraine), Baku on the Caspian Coast,
Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Ulan Bator (Mongolia), and Shenyang (Mukden) and Beijing in China.
Fig. 8.1: Trans–Siberian Railway
52
Trans- Canadian Railways:
● This 7,050 km long rail-line in Canada runs from Halifax in the east to Vancouver on the Pacific Coast
passing through Montreal, Ottawa, Winnipeg, and Calgary.
● It was constructed in 1886, initially as part of an agreement to make British Columbia on the west
coast join the Federation of States.
● Economic significance: It connected the Quebec-Montreal Industrial Region with the wheat belt of
the Prairie Region and the Coniferous Forest region in the north. This line is the economic artery of
Canada.
● A loop line from Winnipeg to Thunder Bay (Lake Superior) connects this rail-line with one of the
important waterways of the world.
● Wheat and meat are the important exports on this route.
Fig. 8.2: Trans – Canadian Railway
Union and Pacific Railway:

● It connects New York on the Atlantic Coast to San Francisco on the Pacific Coast passing through
Cleveland, Chicago, Omaha, Evans, Ogden, and Sacramento.
● Most valuable Exports: Ores, grain, paper, chemicals, and machinery.
Australian Trans Continental Railways:

● It runs West-East across the southern part of the continent from Perth on the west coast, to Sydney
on the east coast passing through Kalgoorlie, Broken Hill and Port Augusta.
The Orient Express:

● This line runs from Paris to Istanbul passing through Strasbourg, Munich, Vienna, Budapest, and
Belgrade.
53
● The journey time from London to Istanbul by this Express is now reduced to 96 hours as against 10
days by the sea-route.
● Chief Exports: Cheese, bacon, oats, wine, fruits, and machinery.
● There is a proposal to build a Trans–Asiatic Railway linking Istanbul with Bangkok via Iran, Pakistan,
India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar.
Water Transport:
● It does not require route construction.
● It is much cheaper because the friction of water is far less than that of land.
● The energy cost of water transportation is lower.
Water transport is divided into sea routes and inland waterways.

Sea Routes:
● The oceans offer a smooth highway traversable in all directions with no maintenance costs. Its
transformation into a routeway by sea-going vessels is an important development.
● Compared to land and air, ocean transport is a cheaper means of haulage (carrying of load) of bulky
material over long distances from one continent to another.
● Modern passenger liners (ships) and cargo ships are equipped with radar, wireless and other
navigation aids.
● The development of refrigerated chambers for perishable goods, tankers and specialised ships has
also improved cargo transport. The use of containers has made cargo handling at the world's major
ports easier.
Important Sea Routes

North Atlantic Sea Route:
● It links North - Eastern U.S.A. and North - Western Europe, the two industrially developed regions of
the world.
● The foreign trade over this route is greater than that of the rest of the world combined. One fourth of
the world's foreign trade moves on this route. It is, therefore, the busiest in the world and otherwise,
called the Big Trunk Route.
● Both the coasts have highly advanced ports and harbour facilities.
Mediterranean - Indian Ocean Sea Route:

● It passes through the heart of the Old World and serves more countries and people than any other
route.
● Important Ports on this route: Port Said, Aden, Mumbai, Colombo, and Singapore.
● The construction of Suez Canal has greatly reduced the distance and time as compared to the earlier
route through the Cape of Good Hope, which was longer than the route through Suez Canal.
54
Cape of Good Hope:
● It connects the highly industrialised Western European region with West Africa, South Africa, South-
east Asia and the commercial agriculture and livestock economies of Australia and New Zealand.
● The volume of trade and traffic between both East and West Africa is on the increase due to the
development of the rich natural resources such as gold, diamond, copper, tin, groundnut, oil palm,
coffee, and fruits.
Southern Atlantic Sea Route:

● It connects West European and West African countries with Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay in South
America.
● The traffic is far less because of the limited development and population in South America and Africa.
Only south-eastern Brazil and Plata estuary and parts of South Africa have large-scale industries.
● There is also little traffic on the route between Rio de Janeiro and Cape Town because both South
America and Africa have similar products and resources.
North Pacific Sea Route:

● Trade across the vast North Pacific Ocean moves by several routes which converge at Honolulu.
● The direct route on the Great Circle links Vancouver and Yokohama and reduces the travelling
distance (2,480 km) by half.
● It links the ports on the west coast of North America with those of Asia. These are Vancouver, Seattle,
Portland, San Francisco and Los Angeles on the American side and Yokohama, Kobe, Shanghai, Hong
Kong, Manila, and Singapore on the Asian side.
South Pacific Sea Route:

● It connects Western Europe and North America with Australia, New Zealand and the scattered Pacific
islands via the Panama Canal.

Coastal Shipping:
● Coastal shipping is a convenient mode of transportation with long coastlines, e.g., U.S.A, China and
India.
● Shenzhen States in Europe are most suitably placed for coastal shipping connecting one member's
coast with the other.
● If properly developed, coastal shipping can reduce the congestion on the land routes.
Shipping Canals:
The Suez and the Panama Canals are two vital man-made navigation canals or waterways which serve as
gateways of commerce for both the eastern and western worlds.
55
Suez Canal:
● This canal had been constructed in 1869 in Egypt between Port Said in the North and Port Suez in the
South linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea.
Fig. 8.3: Suez Canal
● It gives Europe a new gateway to the Indian Ocean and reduces direct sea-route distance between
Liverpool and Colombo compared to the Cape of Good Hope route.
● It is a sea-level canal without locks which is about 160 km and 11 to 15 m deep.
● About 100 ships travel daily and each ship takes 10-12 hours to cross this canal.
● A railway follows the canal to Suez, and from Ismailia there is a branch line to Cairo.
● A navigable fresh-water canal from the Nile also joins the Suez Canal in Ismailia to supply fresh-water
to Port Said and Suez.
Panama Canal:
● This canal connects the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west.
● It has been constructed across the Panama Isthmus between Panama City and Colon by the U.S.
government which purchased 8 km of area on either side and named it the Canal Zone.
● The Canal is about 72 km. long and involves deep cutting for a length of 12 km.
● It has a six-lock system and ships cross the different levels (26 m up and down) through these locks
before entering the Gulf of Panama.
● It shortens the distance between New York and San Francisco by 13,000 km by sea. Likewise, the
distance between Western Europe and the West-coast of U.S.A.
56
● The economic significance of this Canal is relatively less than that of the Suez. However, it is vital to the
economies of Latin America.
Inland Waterways:
● Rivers, canals, lakes, and coastal areas have been important waterways since time immemorial. Boats
and steamers are used as means of transport for cargo and passengers.
● Factors responsible for developing inland waterways:
⮚ Navigability width and depth of the channel.
⮚ Continuity in the water flow.
⮚ Transport technology in use.
● Rivers are the only means of transport in dense forests. Very heavy cargo like coal, cement, timber, and
metallic ores can be transported through inland waterways.
● Issues with Inland Waterways: Competition from railways, lack of water due to diversion for irrigation,
and their poor maintenance.
The following river waterways are some of the world's important highways of commerce:
Rhine Waterways:
● The Rhine flows through Germany and the Netherlands. It is navigable for 700 km from Rotterdam, at
its mouth in the Netherlands to Basel in Switzerland. Ocean-going vessels can reach up to Cologne.
● The Ruhr river joins the Rhine from the east and flows through a rich coalfield.
● Dusseldorf is the Rhine port for this region.
● Huge tonnage moves along the stretch south of the Ruhr.
● This waterway is the world's most heavily used.
● It connects the industrial areas of Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands with
the North Atlantic Sea Route.
Danube Waterway:
● This important inland waterway serves Eastern Europe.

● The Danube river rises in the Black Forest and flows eastwards through many countries.
● It is navigable up to Taurna Severin.
● Chief Export Items: Wheat, maize, timber, and machinery.
Volga Waterway:
● Volga is one of the most important waterways of Russia.
● It provides a navigable waterway of 11,200 km and drains into the Caspian Sea.
● The Volga-Moscow Canal connects it with the Moscow region and the Volga-Don Canal with the Black
Sea.
57
Great Lakes - St. Lawrence Seaway:
● The Great Lakes of North America Superior, Huron Erie and Ontario are connected by Soo Canal and
Welland Canal to form an inland waterway.
● The estuary of St. Lawrence River, along with the Great Lakes, forms a unique commercial waterway in
the northern part of North America.
● The ports on this route like Duluth and Buffalo are equipped with all facilities of ocean ports.
● The large oceangoing vessels are able to navigate up the river deep inside the continent to Montreal.
● Goods have to be trans-shipped to smaller vessels due to the presence of rapids. Canals have been
constructed up to 3.5 m deep to avoid these.
Mississippi Waterways:
● The Mississippi-Ohio waterway connects the interior part of U.S.A. with the Gulf of Mexico in the south.
● Large steamers can go through this route up to Minneapolis.
Air Transport:
● It is the fastest means of transportation, but it is very costly.
● Being fast, it is preferred by passengers for long-distance travel.
● Valuable cargo can be moved rapidly on a world-wide scale.
● It is often the only means to reach inaccessible areas. The frictions created by mountainous snow
fields or inhospitable desert terrains have been overcome.
● Increase accessibility: For example - The airplane brings varied articles to the Eskimos in Northern
Canada unhindered by the frozen ground.
● The manufacturing of aircrafts and their operations require elaborate infrastructure like hangars,
landing, fuelling, and maintenance facilities for the aircrafts.
● The construction of airports is also very expensive and has developed more in highly industrialised
countries where there is a large volume of traffic.
● Although, U.K. pioneered the use of commercial jet transport, U.S.A. developed largely post-War
international civil aviation.
● Supersonic aircraft cover the distance between London and New York within three and a half hours.
Inter - Continental Routes:

● In the Northern Hemisphere, there is a distinct east-west belt of inter-continental air routes. Dense
network exists in Eastern U.S.A., Western Europe, and Southeast Asia.
● New York, London, Paris, Amsterdam, Frankfurt Rome, Moscow, Karachi, New Delhi, Mumbai,
Bangkok, Singapore, Tokyo, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Chicago are the nodal points where air
routes converge or radiate to all continents.
● Africa, Asiatic part of Russia and South America lack air services.
● There are limited air services between 10-35 latitudes in the Southern hemisphere due to sparser
population, limited landmass and economic development.
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Fig. 8.4: Major Airports
Pipelines:
● Pipelines are used extensively to transport liquids and gases such as water, petroleum and natural
gas for an uninterrupted flow.
● Cooking gas or LPG is supplied through pipelines in many parts of the world.
● It is also used to transport liquefied coal.
● In New Zealand, milk is being supplied through pipelines from farms to factories.
● In U.S.A. there is a dense network of oil pipelines from the producing areas to the consuming areas.
Big Inch is one such famous pipeline, which carries petroleum from the oil wells of the Gulf of Mexico to
the North-eastern States.
● The proposed Iran-India via Pakistan international oil and natural gas pipeline will be the longest in the
world.
Communications:

● Human beings have used different methods long-distance communications like the telegraph and the
telephone. The telegraph was instrumental in the colonisation of the American West.
● During the early and mid-twentieth century, the American Telegraph and Telephone Company (AT&T)
enjoyed a monopoly over U.S.A.'s telephone industry.
● Firms centralised their functioning at city headquarters and located their branch offices in smaller
towns.
● In developing countries, the use of cell phones, made possible by satellites, is important for rural
connectivity.
● Phenomenal pace of development:
⮚ The first major breakthrough is the use of Optic Fiber Cables (OFC).
⮚ Faced with mounting competition, telephone companies all over the world soon upgraded their
59
copper cable systems to include optic fiber cables. These allow large quantities of data to be
transmitted rapidly, securely, and are virtually error-free.
● With the digitisation of information in the 1990s, telecommunication slowly merged with computers
to form integrated networks termed as Internet.
Satellite Communication:
● Today Internet is the largest electronic network on the planet connecting about 1,000 million people in
more than 100 countries.
● Communication through satellites emerged as a new area in communication technology since the
1970s after U.S.A. and former U.S.S.R. pioneered space research.
● These have rendered the unit cost and time of communication invariant in terms of distance. This
means it costs the same to communicate over 500 km as it does over 5,000 km via satellite.
● Strides of India in Satellite Development:
⮚ Aryabhatt was launched on 19 April 1979, Bhaskar-I in 1979 and Rohini in 1980.
⮚ Bhaskar, Challenger and INSAT I-B have made long distance communication.
Cyber Space - Internet:

● Cyberspace is the world of electronic computerised space and is encompassed by the Internet such
as the World Wide Web (www).
● It is the electronic digital world for communicating or accessing information over computer networks
without physical movement of the sender and the receiver. It is also referred to as the Internet.
● The majority of the world's users of internet are in U.S.A., U.K., Germany, Japan, China and India.
● It will expand the contemporary economic and social space of humans through e-mail, e-commerce, e-
learning and e-governance.
● Internet together with fax, television and radio will be accessible to more and more people cutting
across place and time. It is these modern communication systems, more than transportation, that has
made the concept of global village a reality.
Interesting points
● Pack Animals:
⮚ Horses are used as a draught animal even in the Western countries.
⮚ Dogs and reindeer are used in North America, North Europe, and Siberia to draw sledges
over snow-covered ground.
⮚ Mules are preferred in the mountainous regions.
⮚ Camels are used for caravan movement in deserts.
⮚ In India, bullocks are used for pulling carts.
● Urban Transport Solutions: Higher Parking Fee Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) Improved Public Bus
Service Expressways.
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INTERNATIONAL TRADE
9
Trade means the voluntary exchange of goods and services. It is conducted at two levels: International and
National. International trade is the exchange of goods and services among countries across national
boundaries.
History of Trade:
● The initial form of trade in primitive societies was the barter system, where direct exchange of goods
took place.
● In the olden times, before paper and coin currency came into being, rare objects with very high intrinsic
value served as money, like, flintstones, obsidian, cowrie shells, tiger's paws, whale's teeth, dogs'
teeth, skins, small tools, copper, silver, and gold.
History of International Trade:

● In ancient times, transporting goods over long distances was risky, hence trade was restricted to local
markets. People then spent most of their resources on basic necessities and only the rich people
bought jewellery, costly dresses and this resulted in trade of luxury items.
● The Silk Route is an early example of long-distance trade connecting Rome to China – along the 6,000
km route. The traders transported Chinese silk, Roman wool and precious metals and many other high
value commodities from intermediate points in India, Persia, and Central Asia.
● After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, European commerce grew during twelfth and
thirteenth century with the development of ocean-going warships trade between Europe and Asia
grew and the Americas were discovered.
● Fifteenth century onwards, the European colonialism began and along with trade of exotic
commodities, a new form of trade emerged which was called slave trade.
⮚ The Portuguese, Dutch, Spaniards, and British captured African natives and forcefully
transported them to the newly discovered Americas for their labour in the plantations.
⮚ Slave trade was a lucrative business for more than two hundred years till it was abolished in
Denmark in 1792, Great Britain in 1807 and United States in 1808.
● After the Industrial Revolution:
⮚ The demand for raw materials like grains, meat, wool also expanded, but their monetary value
declined in relation to the manufactured goods.
⮚ The industrialised nations imported primary products as raw materials and exported the value-
added finished products back to the non-industrialised nations.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
● In the latter half of the nineteenth century, regions producing primary goods were no more
important, and industrial nations became each other's principal customers.
● During World War I and World War II - The countries-imposed trade taxes and quantitative
restrictions but later on General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (which later became the World Trade
Organisation), helped in reducing tariff.
61
Reasons behind existence of International Trade:
● It benefits the world economy if different countries practise specialisation and division of labour in the
production of commodities or provision of services.
● It is based on the principle of comparative advantage, complementarity and transferability of goods
and services and in principle, should be mutually beneficial to the trading partners.
● In modern times, trade is the basis of the world's economic organisation and is related to the foreign
policy of nations.
Basis of International Trade:

● Difference in National Resources: The world's national resources are unevenly distributed because of
differences in their physical make up i.e., geology, relief soil and climate.
⮚ Geological Structure:
o It determines the mineral resource base and topographical differences ensure diversity of crops
and animals raised.
o Lowlands have greater agricultural potential.
o Mountains attract tourists and promote tourism.
⮚ Mineral Resources:
o They are unevenly distributed the world over.
o The availability of mineral resources provides the basis for industrial development.
⮚ Climate:
o It influences the type of flora and fauna that can survive in a given region.
o It also ensures diversity in the range of various products, e.g., wool production can take place in
cold regions, bananas, rubber, and cocoa can grow in tropical regions.
● Population Factors: The size, distribution, and diversity of people between countries affect the type
and volume of goods traded.
⮚ Cultural Factors:
o Distinctive forms of art and craft develop in certain cultures which are valued all over the world
e.g., China produces the finest porcelains and brocades. Carpets of Iran are famous while North
African leather work and Indonesian batik cloth are prized handicrafts.
⮚ Size of Population:
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
o Densely populated countries have large volume of internal trade but little external trade because
most of the agricultural and industrial production is consumed in the local markets.
o Standard of living of the population determines the demand for better quality imported products
because with low standard of living only a few people can afford to buy costly imported goods.
● Stage of Economic Development:
⮚ At different stages of economic development of countries, the nature of items traded undergo
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changes.
⮚ In agriculturally important countries, Agro products are exchanged for manufactured goods
whereas industrialised nations export machinery and finished products and import food grains and
other raw materials.
● Extent of Foreign Investment:
⮚ Foreign investment can boost trade in developing countries which lack in capital required for the
development of mining, oil drilling, heavy engineering, lumbering and plantation agriculture.
⮚ By developing such capital-intensive industries in developing countries, the industrial nations
ensure import of food stuffs, minerals and create markets for their finished products. This entire
cycle steps up the volume of trade between nations.
● Transport:
⮚ In olden times, lack of adequate and efficient means of transport restricted trade to local areas. Only
high value items, e.g., gems, silk and spices were traded over long distances.
⮚ With expansions of rail, ocean, and air transport, better means of refrigeration and preservation,
trade has experienced spatial expansion.
Important Aspects of International Trade:

It has three very important aspects - Volume, sectoral composition, and direction of trade.
Volume of Trade:
● The actual tonnage of goods traded makes up the volume. However, services traded cannot be
measured in tonnage. Therefore, the total value of goods and services traded is considered to be the
volume of trade.
Composition of Trade:
● The nature of goods and services imported and exported by countries have undergone changes during
the last century.
⮚ Trade of primary products was dominant in the beginning of the last century.
⮚ Later manufactured goods gained prominence.
⮚ Currently, though the manufacturing sector commands the bulk of the global trade, service sector
which includes travel, transportation and other commercial services have been showing an upward
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
trend.
● The volume of imports and exports of the world merchandise has been growing consistently over the
years.
⮚ Manufactured goods contributed to the bulk of world merchandise exports.
⮚ Fuels and mining goods and agricultural goods are also important contributors of merchandise
exports.
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⮚ There is change in the share of continents in the world merchandise trade as Europe's contribution
is declining while the contribution of Asian countries is growing.
Direction of Trade:
● Historically, the developing countries of the present used to export valuable goods and artefacts, etc.
⮚ During the nineteenth century there was a reversal in the direction of trade. European countries
started exporting manufactured goods for exchange of foodstuffs and raw materials from their
colonies.
⮚ Europe and U.S.A. emerged as major trade partners in the world and were leaders in the trade of
manufactured goods. Japan at that time was also the third important trading country.
● The world trade pattern underwent a drastic change during the second half of the twentieth century.
⮚ Europe lost its colonies while India, China and other developing countries started competing with
developed countries.
⮚ The nature of the goods traded has also changed.
Balance of Trade:
● Balance of trade records the volume of goods and services imported as well as exported by a country
to other countries.
● If the value of imports is more than the value of a country's exports, the country has negative or
unfavourable balance of trade.
● If the value of exports is more than the value of imports, then the country has a positive or favourable
balance of trade.
● Implications of Balance of Trade:
⮚ A negative balance would mean that the country spends more on buying goods than it can earn by
selling its goods. This would ultimately lead to exhaustion of its financial reserves.
Types of International Trade:

● Bilateral trade: It is done by two countries with each other. They enter into agreement to trade
specified commodities amongst them. For example, country A may agree to trade some raw material
with agreement to purchase some other specified item to country B or vice versa.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
● Multi-lateral trade: It is conducted with many trading countries. The same country can trade with a
number of other countries. The country may also grant the status of the “Most Favoured Nation” (MFN)
on some of the trading partners.
Free Trade:
The act of opening up economies for trading is known as free trade or trade liberalisation. This is done by
64
bringing down trade barriers like tariffs. Trade liberalisation allows goods and services from everywhere to
compete with domestic products and services.
Issues with Free Trade:

● Globalisation along with free trade can adversely affect the economies of developing countries by not
giving equal playing field by imposing conditions which are unfavourable.
● Free trade should not only let rich countries enter the markets but allow the developed countries to
keep their own markets protected from foreign products.
● Countries also need to be cautious about dumped goods as along with free trade dumped goods of
cheaper prices can harm the domestic producers.
World Trade Organisation (WTO):

● The General Agreement for Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was formed by some countries in 1948 to
liberalise the world from high customs tariffs and various other types of restrictions.
● In 1994, it was decided by the member countries to set up a permanent institution for looking after the
promotion of free and fair trade amongst nation and the GATT was transformed into the World Trade
Organisation from 1st January 1995.
● It is the only international organisation dealing with the global rules of trade between nations.
● It sets the rules for the global trading system and resolves disputes between its member nations.
● It also covers trade in services, such as telecommunication and banking, and other issues such as
intellectual rights.
Criticism on WTO:
● It is argued that free trade does not make ordinary people's lives more prosperous. It is actually
widening the gulf between rich and poor by making rich countries richer because the influential
nations in the WTO focus on their own commercial interests.
● Many developed countries have not fully opened their markets to products from developing countries.
● It is also argued that issues of health, worker's rights, child labour and environment are ignored.
Regional Trade Block:

INTERNATIONAL TRADE
● They have come up in order to encourage trade between countries with geographical proximity,
similarity, and complementarities in trading items and to curb restrictions on trade of the developing
world.
● Today, 120 regional trade blocs generate 52 per cent of the world trade.
● These trading blocs developed as a response to the failure of the global organisations to speed up
intra-regional trade.
65
Regional Head Member Origin Commodities
Blocs Quarter nations Other Areas
of
Cooperation
ASEAN Jakarta, Brunei Darussalam, Aug. Agro products. Accelerate

(Associatio Indonesia Cambodia, 1967 rubber, palm on, economic
n of South Indonesia, Lao s, rice, copra, coffee, growth,
East Asian Malaysia, Myanmar, minerals - copper, cultural
Nations) Philippines, coal, nickel and development,
Singapore, Thailand and tungsten, Energy peace and
Vietnam - petroleum and regional
natural gas and stability
Software products
CIS Minsk, Belarus Armenia, Azerbaijan, — Crude oil, natural Integration

(Common Belarus, Georgia, gas, gold, cotton, and
wealth of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, fibre, aluminium cooperation
Independe Moldova, Russia, on matters of
nt States) Tajikistan Turkmenistan, economics,
Ukraine and Uzbekistan. defence and
foreign policy
EU Brussels, Austria, Belgium, EEC Agro products. Single market

(European Belgium Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, March MUWEIs with single
Union) Czech Republic, 1957 chemicals wood, currency
Denmark, Estonia, EU - Feb. paper, transport
Finland, France, 1992 vehicles, optical
Germany, Greece, instruments,
Hungary, Ireland, Italy, clocks - works of
Latvia, Lithuania, art, antiques
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Luxembourg, Malta,
Poland, Portugal
Romania, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
Netherlands and United
Kingdom
66
LAIA Montevideo, Argentina, Bolivia, 1994
(Latin American Uruguay Brazil, Columbia,
Integration Ecuador, Mexico,
AssocMilan) Paraguay, Peru,
Uruguay and
Venezuela
(NAFTA American U.S.A., Canada and 1940 Agro products, —

(North Mexico motor
Free Trade vehicles,
Association) automotive parts,
computers,
textiles
OPEC Vienna, Algeria, Indonesia, Crude petroleum Coordinate

(Organisation of Austria Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and unify
Petroleum Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, petroleum
Exporting Saudi Arabia, UA.E. policies.
Countries) and Venezuela
SAFTA Bangladesh, Jan-2006 — Reduce tariffs

(South Asian Free Maid/nu, Bhutan, on inter-
Trade Agreement) Nepal, India, regional trade
Pakistan and Sri
Lanka
Table 9.1: Major Regional Trade

Impact to International Trade:
● Positive Aspect: Undertaking international trade is mutually beneficial to nations if it leads to regional
specialisation, higher level of production, better standard of living, worldwide availability of goods and
services, etc.
● Negative Aspect: International trade can prove to be detrimental to nations of it leads to dependence
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
on other countries, uneven levels of development, exploitation, and commercial rivalry leading to wars.
● Other Impacts of Global Trade: Global trade can impact everything from the environment to health
and well-being of the people around the world. As countries compete to trade more, production and
the use of natural resources spiral up, resources get used up faster than they can be replenished.
● Impacts on Environment: The marine life is also depleting fast; forests are being cut down and river
basins sold off to private drinking water companies. Multinational corporations trading in oil, gas
67
mining, pharmaceuticals and agri-business keep expanding their operations at all costs creating more
pollution.
Gateways of International Trade

Ports:
● The chief gateways of the world of international trade are the harbours and ports. Cargoes and
travellers pass from one part of the world to another through these ports.
● The ports provide facilities of docking, loading, unloading and the storage facilities for cargo.
⮚ In order to provide these facilities, the port authorities make arrangements for maintaining
navigable channels, arranging tugs and barges, and providing labour and managerial services.
● The importance of a port is judged by the size of cargo and the number of ships handled. The quantity
of cargo handled by a port is an indicator of the level of development of its hinterland.
Types of Ports
Based on Cargo handled:
● Industrial Ports: These ports specialise in bulk cargo-like grain, sugar, ore, oil, chemicals, and similar
materials.
● Commercial Ports: These ports handle general cargo-packaged products and manufactured good.
These ports also handle passenger traffic.
● Comprehensive Ports: Such ports handle bulk and general cargo in large volumes. Most of the world's
great ports are classified as comprehensive ports.
Based on Location:
● Inland Ports:
⮚ These ports are located away from the seacoast and are linked to the sea through a river or a
canal. For example, Manchester is linked with a canal; Memphis is located on the river Mississippi;
Rhine has several ports like Mannheim and Duisburg; and Kolkata is located on the river Hoogli, a
branch of the river Ganga.
⮚ Such ports are accessible to flat bottom ships or barges.
● Out Ports:
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
⮚ These are deep water ports built away from the actual ports.
⮚ These serve the parent ports by receiving those ships which are unable to approach them due to
their large size. For example - Athens and its out-port Piraeus in Greece.
Based on Specialised Function:

● Oil Ports:
68
⮚ These ports deal in the processing and shipping of oil.
⮚ Some of these are tanker ports and some are refinery ports. For example - Maracaibo in Venezuela,
Esskhira in Tunisia, Tripoli in Lebanon are tanker ports and Abadan on the Gulf of Persia is a refinery
port.
● Ports of Call:
⮚ These are the ports which originally developed as calling points on main sea routes where ships
used to anchor for refuelling, watering, and taking food items. Later, they developed into
commercial ports. For example - Aden, Honolulu, and Singapore.
● Packet Station:
⮚ These are also known as ferry ports. These packet stations are exclusively concerned with the
transportation of passengers and mail across water bodies covering short distances.
⮚ These stations occur in pairs located in such a way that they face each other across the water body.
For example - Dover in England and Calais in France across the English Channel.
● Entrepot Ports:
⮚ These are collection centres where the goods are brought from different countries for export.
⮚ Examples: Singapore is an entrepot for Asia. Rotterdam for Europe, and Copenhagen for the Baltic
region.
● Naval Ports:
⮚ These are ports which have only strategic importance.
⮚ These ports serve warships and have repair workshops for them.
⮚ Kochi and Karwar are examples of such ports in India.
Interesting points
● Every January after the harvest season Jon Beel Mela takes place in Jagiroad, Guwahati and it is
possibly the only fair In India, where barter system is still alive.
● WTO:
⮚ Its headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland.
⮚ 164 countries were members of WTO as of December 2016.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
⮚ India has been one of the founder members of WTO.

⮚ Afghanistan is the newest member joined in 2016.
● Hoogli river is a branch of the river Ganga.
69
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
10
The study of human settlements is basic to human geography because the form of settlement in any
particular region reflects human relationship with the environment.
Human Settlement:
It is defined as a place inhabited more or less permanently. The houses may be designed or redesigned,
buildings may be altered, functions may change but settlement continues in time and space.
Classification of Settlements
Rural Urban Dichotomy:
● It is widely accepted that settlements can be differentiated in terms of rural and urban, but there is no
consensus on what exactly defines a village or a town.
● Although population size is an important criterion, it is not a universal criterion since many villages in
densely populated countries of India and China have population exceeding that of some towns of
Western Europe and United States.
● At one time, people living in villages pursued agriculture or other primary activities, but presently in
developed countries, large sections of urban populations prefer to live in villages even though they
work in the city.
● The basic difference between towns and villages is that in towns the main occupation of the people
is related to secondary and tertiary sectors, while in the villages most of the people are engaged in
primary occupations such as agriculture, fishing, lumbering, mining, etc.
● Differentiations between rural and urban on the basis of functions are more meaningful even though
there is no uniformity in the hierarchy of the functions provided by rural and urban settlements.
Types and Pattern of Settlement:

Settlements may also be classified by their shape, patterns types.
Classification by Shape:
● Compact or Nucleated settlements:
⮚ These settlements are those in which large number of houses are built very close to each other.
Such settlements develop along river valleys and in fertile plains.
⮚ Communities are closely knit and share common occupations.
● Dispersed Settlements:
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
⮚ In these settlements, houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed with fields.
⮚ A cultural feature such as a place of worship or a market, binds the settlement together.
● Rural settlements:
⮚ These are most closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities such
as agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing etc.
⮚ The settlements size is relatively small.
70
Factors affecting the Location of Rural Settlements
Water Supply:
● Usually, rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and springs.
● Sometimes the need for water drives people to settle in otherwise disadvantaged sites such as islands
surrounded by swamps or low-lying riverbanks.
● Most water based 'wet point' settlements have many advantages such as water for drinking, cooking,
and washing. Rivers and lakes can be used to irrigate farmland.
● Water bodies also influence diet of local people like people caught fish for diet.
Land:
● People choose to settle near fertile lands suitable for agriculture.
● In Europe villages grew up near rolling country avoiding swampy, low lying land while people in south
east Asia chose to live near low lying river valleys and coastal plains suited for wet rice cultivation.
Upland:
● Upland which is not prone to flooding was chosen to prevent damage to houses and loss of life. Thus,
in low lying river basins people chose to settle on terraces and levees which are “dry points”.
● In tropical countries people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from
flood, insects, and animal pests.
Building Materials:
● The availability of building materials - wood, stone near settlements is another advantage.
● Early villages were built in forest clearings where wood was plentiful.
● Cave dwellings were important in loess areas of China and Mud bricks were used in African Savanna
and the Eskimos, in polar regions, use ice blocks to construct igloos.
Defence:
● During the times of political instability, war, hostility of neighbouring groups villages was built on
defensive hills and islands.
● In Nigeria, upstanding inselbergs formed good defensive sites.
● In India most of the forts are located on higher grounds or hills.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Planned Settlements:
● Sites that are not spontaneously chosen by villagers themselves, planned settlements are constructed
by governments by providing shelter, water, and other infrastructures on acquired lands.
● The scheme of villagisation in Ethiopia and the canal colonies in Indira Gandhi canal command area in
India are some good examples.
71
Rural Settlement Patterns:
Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the houses are sited in relation to each other. The site of the
village, the surrounding topography and terrain influence the shape and size of a village.
Classification of Rural Settlements:

● On the basis of Setting: The main types are plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages, forest
villages and desert villages.
● On the basis of Functions: There may be farming villages, fishermen's villages, lumberjack villages,
pastoral villages etc.
● On the basis of Forms or Shapes of the Settlements: These may be a number of geometrical forms
and shapes such as Linear, rectangular, circular star like, T-shaped village, double village, cross-
shaped village etc.
⮚ Linear Pattern: In such settlement's houses are located along a road, railway line, river, canal edge
of a valley or along a levee.
⮚ Rectangular Pattern: Such patterns are found in plain areas or wide inter montane valleys. The
roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles.
⮚ Circular Pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned
in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to protect them
from wild animals.
⮚ Star like Pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses
built along the roads.
⮚ T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped or cruciform settlements:
⮚ T -shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of the roads.
⮚ Y-shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the third one and
houses are built along these roads.
⮚ Cruciform settlements develop on the cross-roads and houses extend in all the four direction.
⮚ Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Fig. 10.1: Rural Settlement Patterns
72
Problems of Rural Settlement:
Rural settlements in the developing countries are large in number and poorly equipped with infrastructure.
● Supply of Water: People in villages, particularly in mountainous and arid areas have to walk long
distances to fetch drinking water. Water borne diseases such as cholera and jaundice tend to be a
common problem rural area.
● Draught: The countries of South Asia face conditions of drought very often. In absence of irrigation
cropping pattern get affected.
● Sanitation: Absence of toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
● House: The houses made up of mud, wood, and thatch, remain susceptible to damage during heavy
rains and floods, and require proper maintenance every year.
● Roads: Unmetalled roads and lack of modern communication network creates problems like during
rainy season, the settlements remain cut off and pose serious difficulties in providing emergency
services.
● Health and Education: Inadequate health and educational infrastructure for large rural population is
an issue in developing countries. The problem is particularly serious where proper villagisation has not
taken place and houses are scattered over a large area.
Urban Development:
Rapid urban growth is a recent phenomenon. The first urban settlement to reach a population of one
million was the city of London by around. A.D. 1810. Presently 54 per cent of the world's population lives in
urban settlements compared to only 3 per cent in the year 1800.
Classification of Urban Settlements:

The definition of urban areas varies from one country to another. Some of the common basis of classification
are size of population, occupational structure and administrative setup.
Population Size:
● The lower limit of the population size for a settlement to be designated as urban is 1,500 in Colombia,
2,000 in Argentina and Portugal, 2,500 in U.S.A. and Thailand, 5,000 in India etc.
● Besides the size of population, density of 400 persons per sq. km and share of non-agricultural
workers are taken into consideration in India.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
● In some countries, such as India, the major economic activities in addition to the size of the population
in designating a settlement as urban are also taken as a criterion.
● In Italy, a settlement is called urban, if more than 50 per cent of its economically productive population
is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India has set this criterion at 75 per cent.
73
Administration:
● The administrative setup is a criterion for classifying a settlement as urban in some countries.
● For example, in India, a settlement of any size is classified as urban, if it has a municipality, Cantonment
Board or Notified Area Council.
Location:
● Location of urban centres is examined with reference to their function. For example, the sitting
requirements of a holiday resort are quite different from that of an industrial town, a military centre, or a
seaport.
● Strategic towns require sites offering natural defence; mining towns require the presence of
economically valuable minerals; industrial towns generally need local energy supplies or raw materials;
tourist centres require attractive scenery, or a marine beach, a spring with medicinal water or historical
relics, ports require a harbour etc.
● Apart from site, the situation plays an important role in the expansion of towns. The urban centres
which are located close to an important trade route have experienced rapid development.
Functions of the Urban Centres:

The earliest towns were centres of administration, trade, industry, defence, and religious importance. But
the significance of defence and religion as differentiating functions has declined in general.
● Today, several new functions, such as, recreational, residential, transport, mining, manufacturing and
most recently activities related to information technology are carried on in specialised towns.
● Some cities are classified on their dominant functions for example - Sheffield is an industrial city,
London as a port city, Chandigarh as an administrative city and so on.
● Most of the early nineteenth-century fishing ports in England have now developed tourism. Many of
the old market towns are now known for manufacturing activities.
Classification of Towns and Cities

Administrative Towns:
● National capitals, which house the administrative offices of central governments, such as New
Delhi, Canberra, Beijing, Washington D.C., and London etc. are called administrative towns.
● Provincial (sub-national) towns can also have administrative functions, for example, Victoria (British
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Columbia), Albany (New York), Chennai (Tamil Nadu).
Trading and Commercial Towns:

● Agricultural market towns, such as, Winnipeg and Kansas City; banking and financial centres like
Frankfurt and Amsterdam; large inland centres like Manchester and St Louis; and transport nodes such
as, Lahore, Baghdad and Agra have been important trading centres.
74
Cultural Towns:
● Places of pilgrimage, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, Jagannath Puri and Varanasi etc. are considered
cultural towns. These urban centres are of great religious importance.
Classification of Towns based on Forms:

An urban settlement may be linear, square, star or crescent shaped.
● In fact, the form of the settlement, architecture and style of buildings and other structures are an
outcome of its historical and cultural traditions.
● Towns and cities of developed and developing countries reflect marked differences in planning and
development like in developed countries are planned, most urban settlements of developing countries
have evolved historically with irregular shapes. For example, Chandigarh and Canberra are planned
cities, while smaller town in India have evolved historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.
Addis Ababa (The New Flowers):

● The name of Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa, as the name indicates (Addis-New, Ababa-Flower) is a
'new' city which was established in 1878.
● The whole city is located on a hill-valley topography.
● The road pattern bears the influence of the local topography.
Types of Urban Settlement:

It depends on the size and the services available, and functions rendered.
Town:
● The concept of 'town' can best be understood with reference to 'village'.
● Population size is not the only criterion. Functional contrasts between towns and villages may not
always be clear cut, but specific functions such as, manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and
professional services exist in towns.
City:
● A city may be regarded as a leading town, which has outstripped its local or regional rivals.
● Cities are much larger than towns and have a greater number of economic functions.
● They tend to have transport terminals, major financial institutions, and regional administrative offices.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
● When the population crosses the one million mark it is designated as a million city.
Conurbation:
● The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915 and applied to a large area of urban
development that resulted from the merging of originally separate towns or cities.
● Greater London, Manchester, Chicago, and Tokyo are examples.
75
Million Cities:
● There were 162 million cities in mid-70's and there was threefold increase in 2005 and the number
reached to 438.
● In 2016, there were 512 cities with at least 1 million inhabitants globally.
● By 2030, a projected 662 cities will have at least 1 million residents.
● London, Paris, New York were some of the first million cities.
Megalopolis:
● This Greek word meaning “great city”, was popularised by Jean Gottman (1957) and signifies 'super-
metropolitan' region extending, as union of conurbations.
● The urban landscape stretching from Boston in the north to south of Washington in U.S.A. is the best-
known example of a megalopolis.
Distribution of Mega Cities:

A mega city or megalopolis is a general term for cities together with their suburbs with a population of more
than 10 million people. New York was the first mega city.
Problems of Human Settlements in Developing Countries:

● They lack infrastructure such as, electricity, sewage disposal, health, and education facilities.
● They suffer from various problems, such as unsustainable concentration of population, congested
housing and streets, lack of drinking water facilities.
Problems of Urban Settlement:
● In developing Countries cities are Unplanned, it creates severe congestion.
● Shortage of housing, vertical expansion and growth of slums are characteristic features of modern
cities of developing countries.
● In many cities an increasing proportion of the population lives in substandard housing, e.g., slums and
squatter settlements.
● In most million plus cities in India, one in four inhabitants lives in illegal settlements, which are growing
twice as fast as the rest of the cities.
Economic Problems:
● There is large scale rural to urban migration in search of jobs.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
● The enormous migrant population generates a pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour force, which
is already saturated in urban areas.
Socio Cultural problems:

● Cities fail to create adequate social infrastructure due to insufficient financial resources.
● Poor outreach of available educational and health facilities to the urban poor.
● Lack of employment and education tends to aggravate the crime rates.
76
● Male selective migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.
Environmental Problems:
● Solid and liquid waste problems is now becoming very serious issue in cities of developing countries.
● Many cities face difficulty to provide the minimum required quantity of potable water for domestic
and industrial uses.
● Massive use of traditional fuel in the domestic as well as the industrial sector severely pollutes the air.
The domestic and industrial wastes are either let into the general sewerages or dumped without
treatment at unspecified locations.
● Huge concrete structures erected to accommodate the population and economic play a very conducive
role to create heat islands.
Importance of Urbanisation:
● Cities, towns, and rural settlements are linked through the movements of goods, resources, and
people.
● Urban-rural linkages are of crucial importance for the sustainability of human settlement.
Solutions for Urban Issues:

● It is urgent to eradicate rural poverty and to improve the quality of living conditions, as well as to create
employment and educational opportunities in rural settlements.
● Full advantage must be taken of the complementary contributions and linkages of rural and urban
areas by balancing their different economic, social, and environmental requirements.
Interesting points
● Sub-Urbanisation: It is a new trend of people moving away from congested urban areas to
cleaner areas outside the city in search of a better quality of living.
● Urbanisation: It means the increase in the proportion population of a country who live in urban
areas.
● As per census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is a place having a minimum population
of 5,000 of density 400 persons per square kilometre (1,000/sq. mi) or higher, and 75% plus of the
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
male working population employed in non-agricultural activities.

● Developed countries experienced rapid urbanisation during the nineteenth century. Developing
counties experienced rapid urbanisation during the second half of the twentieth century.
● Health City: World Health Organisation (WHO) suggests that, among other things, a 'healthy
city' must have:
⮚ A 'Clean' and 'Safe' environment.
77
⮚ Meets the 'Basic Needs' of 'All' its inhabitants.
⮚ Involves the 'Community' in local government.
⮚ Provides easily accessible 'Health' service.
● Urban Strategy: The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has outlined these
priorities as part of its 'Urban Strategy':
⮚ Increasing 'Shelter' for the urban poor. Provision of basic urban services such as 'Education',
'Primary Health care', 'Clean Water and Sanitation'.
⮚ Improving women's access to 'Basic Services' and government facilities.
⮚ Upgrading 'Energy' use and alternative 'Transport' systems.
⮚ Reducing 'Air Pollution'.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
78
NCERT NOTES
FOR GEOGRAPHY
12th Standard
India People and Economy
CONTENTS
Population: Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition ............................................ 1 - 8
Migration: Types, Causes and Consequences ..................................................................... 9 - 12
Human Development ............................................................................................................... 13 - 17
Human Settlements .................................................................................................................. 18 - 22
Land Resources and Agriculture .......................................................................................... 23 - 36
Water Resources ....................................................................................................................... 37 - 42
Mineral and Energy Resources .............................................................................................. 43 - 51
Manufacturing Industries ........................................................................................................ 52 - 65
Planning and Sustainable Development in Indian Context .......................................... 66 - 69
Transport and Communication .............................................................................................. 70 - 77
International Trade ..................................................................................................................... 78- 83
Geographical Perspective on Selected Issues and Problems ...................................... 84 - 88

POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY,
1 GROWTH AND COMPOSITION
India is the second most populous country after China in the world with its total population of 1,210 million
(2011). India's population is larger than the total population of North America, South America and Australia
put together.
Distribution of Population:
India has a highly uneven pattern of population distribution:
· Uttar Pradesh has the highest population followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal.
· The share of population is very small in the states like Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%), Arunachal Pradesh
(0.11%) and Uttarakhand (0.84%) in spite of these states having fairly large geographical area.
· Close relationship between population and physical, socioeconomic, and historical factors.
Ø The North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of population than the
interior districts of southern and central Indian States, Himalayas, some of the north eastern and
the western states.
· Reasons for moderate to high Population in areas which were previously very thinly populated:
Ø The development of irrigation (Rajasthan).
Ø Availability of mineral and energy resources (Jharkhand).
Ø Development of transport network (Peninsular States).
POPULATION: DISTRIBUTION, DENSITY, GROWTH AND COMPOSITION
Socio- Economic and Historical factors of Population Distribution:

Evolution of settled agriculture and agricultural development; pattern of human settlement; development of
transport network, industrialisation, and urbanisation.
· Though resources like land and water degraded in northern plains of India the concentration of
population remains high because of history of human settlement and development.
· Urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai and Jaipur have high
concentration of population due to industrial development and urbanisation drawing a large numbers
of rural-urban migrants.
Density of Population:
It is expressed as number of persons per unit area. It helps in getting a better understanding of the spatial
distribution of population in relation to land.
· As per 2011 Census, the density of population is 382 person/sq. km.
· Very High-Density UT's: The Union Territories (excluding Andaman and Nicobar Islands) have very
high densities of population.
· High Density States:
Ø Among Northern States: Bihar (1102), West Bengal (1029) and and Uttar Pradesh (828).
Ø Among Peninsular States: Kerala (859) and Tamil Nadu (555).
· Moderate Density States: Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha.
· Low Density: The hill states of the Himalayan region and North eastern states of India (excluding
Assam).
· The physiological and the agricultural densities should be found out to get a better insight into the
human-land ratio in terms of pressure of population on total cultivable land.
1
Physiological Density = Total population / net cultivated area.
Agricultural Density = Total agricultural population / net cultivable area.
Agricultural Population includes cultivators and agricultural labourers and their family
members.
Growth of Population:
· It is the change in the number of people living in a particular area between two points of time. Its rate is
expressed in percentage.
· Population growth has two components:
Ø Natural Growth: It is analysed by assessing the crude birth and death rates.
Ø Induced Growth: They are explained by the volume of inward and outward movement of people in
any given area.
· The decadal and annual growth rates of population in India are both very high and steadily increasing
over time. The annual growth rate of India's population is 1.64 per cent (2011).
· The growth rate of population in India over the last one century has been caused by annual birth rate
and death rate and rate of migration and thereby shows different trends.

Four distinct Phases of Growth in India
Phase One:
· The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of growth of
India's population, since in this period growth rate was very low, even recording a negative growth
rate during 1911-1921.
· Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low.
Ø Reasons: Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution
system of food and other basic necessities.
Phase Two:
· The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth.
· An overall improvement in health and sanitation brought down the mortality rate.
· Better transport and communication system improved distribution system.
· The crude birth rate remained high leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
· The performance was impressive at the backdrop of Great Economic Depression, 1920s and World
War II.
Phase Three:
· The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India which was
caused by a rapid fall in the mortality rate but a high fertility rate of population.
· The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent.
· During this period developmental activities were introduced through a centralised planning process
and economy started showing up ensuring the improvement of living condition of people at large.
Consequently, there was a high natural increase and higher growth rate.
2
· International migration bringing in Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalies and Pakistanis contributed to
the high growth rate.
Phase Four:
· In the post 1981 till present, the growth rate of population remained high but has started slowing
down gradually.
· A downward trend of crude birth rate is held responsible for such a population growth which was
affected by an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of
females in the country.
The growth rate of population is, however, still high in the country, and it has been projected by World
Development Report that population of India will touch 1,350 million by 2025.
Regional Variation in Population Growth:

The growth rate of population during 1991- 2001 in Indian States and UTs gives following information.
· The States like Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry, and Goa show a
low rate of growth not exceeding 20 per cent over the decade.
· Kerala registered the lowest growth rate (9.4) in India.
· During 2001-2011, the growth rates of almost all States and UTs have registered a lower figure
compared to the previous decade, namely, 1991-2001.

· The percentage decadal growth rates of the six most populous States: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen during 2001-2011
compared to 1991-2001.
Ø The fall being the lowest for Andhra Pradesh (3.5% percentage points).
Ø Highest for Maharashtra (6.7 percentage points).
· Tamil Nadu (3.9 percentage points) and Puducherry (7.1 percentage points) have registered some
increase during 2001-2011 over the previous decade.
Adolescent Population:
· An important aspect of population growth in India is the growth of its adolescents.
· At present the share of adolescents i.e., up to the age group of 10-19 years is about 20.9 per cent
(2011).
Ø The male adolescents constitute 52.7 per cent.
Ø The female adolescents constitute 47.3 per cent.
Challenges of Adolescents:
· Lower age at marriage.
· Illiteracy – particularly female illiteracy.
· School dropouts.
· Low intake of nutrients.
· High rate of maternal mortality of adolescent mothers.
· High rate of HIV and AIDS infections.
· Physical and mental disability or retardness.
3
· Drug abuse and alcoholism.
· Juvenile delinquency and commitence of crimes, etc.
The Indian government has undertaken certain policies to impart proper education to the adolescents:
· National Youth Policy (NYP-2014):
Ø It was launched in February 2014 proposes a holistic vision for the youth of India.
Ø The NYP–2014 has defined 'youth' as persons in the age group of 15–29 years.
· National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2015):
Ø It was formulated to provide an umbrella framework to all skilling activities and to align these to
common standards and link skilling with demand centres.
Population Composition:
It is a distinct field of study within population geography with a vast coverage of analysis of age and sex,
place of residence, ethnic characteristics, tribes, language, religion, etc.
Rural-Urban Composition:
· Composition of population by their respective places of residence is an important indicator of social
and economic characteristics. It is very significant in country like India as 68.8 per cent of its total
population lives in village (2011).

· India has 640,867 villages according to the Census 2011 out of which 597,608 (93.2 per cent) are
inhabited villages.
· States like Bihar and Sikkim have very high percentage of rural population.
· Goa and Maharashtra have only little over half of their total population residing in villages.
· The Union Territories have smaller proportion of rural population, except Dadra and Nagar Haveli
(53.38 per cent).
· Variation of size of villages: It is less than 200 persons in the hill states of north-eastern India,
Western Rajasthan and Rann of Kuchchh and as high as 17 thousand persons in the states of Kerala
and in parts of Maharashtra.
· The proportion of urban population (31.16 per cent) in India is quite low but it is showing a much
faster rate of growth over the decades.
Ø The growth rate of urban population has accelerated due to enhanced economic development and
improvement in health and hygienic conditions.
· It is noticed that in almost all the states and UTs, there has been a considerable increase of urban
population.
· The rural-urban migration is conspicuous in the case of urban areas along the main road links and
railroads in the North Indian Plains, the industrial areas around Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru – Mysuru,
Madurai – Coimbatore, Ahmedabad – Surat, Delhi – Kanpur and Ludhiana – Jalandhar.
· Low Degree of Urbanisation: In the agriculturally stagnant parts of the middle and lower Ganga
Plains, Telengana, non-irrigated Western Rajasthan, remote hilly, tribal areas of northeast, along the
flood prone areas of Peninsular India and along eastern part of Madhya Pradesh.
Linguistic Composition:
4
· According to Grierson (Linguistic Survey of India, 1903 – 1928), there were 179 languages and as
many as 544 dialects in the country.
· In the context of modern India, there are about 22 scheduled languages and a number of non-
scheduled languages.
· Among the Scheduled Languages:
Ø The speakers of Hindi have the highest percentage.
Ø The smallest language groups are Sanskrit, Bodo and Manipuri speakers (2011).
Table 1.1: Classification of Modern Indian Languages
Family Sub Family Branch / Group Speech Areas
Austric Austro – Astatic Mon-Khmer Meghalaya, Nicobar Islands

(NIshadal) Munda West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Assam,
1.38% Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra Outside
Austro-Neslan
India
Dravidian South-Dravidian Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala

(Dravida) Central Dravidian A n d h r a P r a d e s h , M . P. , O r i s s a ,
20% Maharashtra
North Dravidian
Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Madhya
Pradesh
Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Myanmart Tibeto-Himalayan Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh

(Kirata) North Assam Sikkim
Assam-Myanmari Arunachal Pradesh
0.85% Slamese-Chinese
Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram,
Tripura, Meghalya
Indo Indo-Aryan Iranian Outside India

European Dardic Jammu & Kashmir
(Aryan) 73% Indo-Aryan Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Himachal
Pradesh, U.P., Rajasthan, Haryana, M.P.,
Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa.
Religious Composition:
· The spatial distribution of religious communities in India shows that there is uneven distribution of
people of different religions in different states and districts.
5
Table 1.2: Religious Communities of India, 2011
Religious Group 2011
Population (in million) % of Total
Hindus 966.3 79.8

Muslims 172.3 14.2
Christians 27.8 2.3
Sikhs 20.8 1.7
Buddhists 8.4 0.7
Jains 4.5 0.4
Other Religious and Persuasions
(ORP) 7.9 0.7
Religion Not Stated 2.9 0.2

· Hindus are distributed as a major group in many states (ranging from 70-90 per cent and above)
except the districts of states along Indo-Bangladesh border, Indo-Pak border, Jammu & Kashmir, Hill
States of North-East and in scattered areas of Deccan Plateau and Ganga Plain.
· Muslims, the largest religious minority, are concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, certain districts of
West Bengal and Kerala, many districts of Uttar Pradesh, in and around Delhi and in Lakshadweep.
Ø They form majority in Kashmir valley and Lakshadweep.
· Christian population is distributed mostly in rural areas of the country.
Ø The main concentration is observed along the Western coast around Goa, Kerala and also in the
hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur area and Hills of Manipur.
· Sikhs are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states of
Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.
· Jains and Buddhists, the smallest religious groups in India have their concentration only in selected
areas of the country.
Ø Jains have major concentration in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
Ø The Buddhists are concentrated mostly in Maharashtra.
o The other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh in Jammu &
Kashmir, Tripura, and Lahul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh.
· The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs.
Composition of Working Population:

The population of India according to their economic status is divided into three groups, namely, main
6
workers, marginal workers, and non-workers.
· It is observed that in India, the proportion of workers (both main and marginal) is only 39.8 per cent
(2011) leaving a vast majority of about 60 per cent as non-workers.
Ø This indicates an economic status in which there is a larger proportion of dependent population,
further indicating possible existence of large number of unemployed or under employed people.
· States with larger Percentages of Workers: Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Meghalaya.
· Among the UTs: Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu have higher participation rate.
Occupational Composition:
· The occupational composition of India's population which actually means engagement of an individual
in farming, manufacturing, trade, services or any kind of professional activities.
Occupational Categories: The 2011 Census has divided the working population of India into four
major categories:
· Cultivators
· Agricultural Labourers.
· Household Industrial Workers.

· Other Workers.
· About 54.6 per cent of total working population are cultivators and agricultural labourers.
· Only 3.8% of workers are engaged in household industries and 41.6 % are other workers including
non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction and repair and other services.
· The male workers out-number female workers in all the three sectors.
Promoting Gender Sensitivity through 'Beti Bachao - Beti Padhao':
· The division of the society into male, female and transgender is believed to be natural and biological.
But there are social constructs and roles assigned to individuals which are reinforced by social
institutions.
Ø These biological differences become the basis of social differentiations, discriminations, and
exclusions.
· The gender issue is a global challenge, which has been acknowledged by the United Nation
Development Program (UNDP) when it mentioned that “If development is not engendered it is
endangered” (HDR UNDP 1995).
· All efforts need to be made to address the denial of opportunities of education, employment, political
representation, low wages for similar types of work, disregard to their entitlement to live a dignified
life, etc.
· The Government of India has duly acknowledged the adverse impacts of these discriminations and
launched a nationwide campaign called 'Beti Bachao – Beti Padhao'.
7
Female Labour Force Participation:
The number of female workers is relatively high in primary sector, though in recent years there has been
some improvement in work participation of women in secondary and tertiary sectors.
Occupational Trend:
· The proportion of workers in agricultural sector in India has shown a decline over the last few
decades (58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011). Consequently, the participation rate in secondary and
tertiary sector has registered an increase.
· Sectoral Shift: There is a shift of dependence of workers from farm-based occupations to non-farm-
based ones.
· Spatial Variation of Work Participation Rate: The highly urbanised areas like Delhi, Chandigarh and
Puducherry have a very large proportion of workers being engaged in other services.
Ø This indicates that large-scale urbanisation and industrialisation requires more workers in non-
farm sectors.
Interesting points

· Population Doubling Time: It is the time taken by any population to double itself at its current
annual growth rate.
· Population Data:
Ø They are collected through Census operation held every 10 years in India.
Ø The first population Census in India was conducted in 1872 but its first complete Census was
conducted only in 1881.
· Religion and Landscape:
Ø Its formal expression is manifested through sacred structures, use of cemeteries and
assemblages of plants and animals, groves of trees for religious purposes.
Ø These may range from inconspicuous village shrines to large Hindu temples, monumental
masjids, or ornately designed cathedrals in large metropolitan cities.
· Standard Census Definition:
Ø Main Worker is a person who works for at least 183 days (or six months) in a year.
Ø Marginal Worker is a person who works for less than 183 days (or six months) in a year.
8
MIGRATION: TYPES, CAUSES
2 AND CONSEQUENCES
Migration has been an integral part and a very important factor in redistributing population over time and
space. The history of India is a history of waves of migrants coming and settling one after another in different
parts of the country.
Indian Diaspora:
During Colonial Period (British Period):
· Millions of the indentured labourers were sent to Mauritius, Caribbean islands (Trinidad, Tobago
and Guyana), Fiji and South Africa by British from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
· To Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique and Surinam by French and Dutch.
· By Portuguese, People were sent from Goa, Daman and Diu to Angola, Mozambique to work as
plantation workers.
· All such migrations were covered under the time-bound contract known as Girmit Act (Indian
Emigration Act).
Second Wave of Migrants:
· They ventured out into the neighbouring countries in recent times as professionals, artisans,
traders, and factory workers, in search of economic opportunities to Thailand, Malaysia,
Singapore, Indonesia, and African countries, etc. and the trend still continues.
· There was a steady outflow of India's semi-skilled and skilled labour in the wake of the oil boom in
West Asia in the 1970s.
· There was also some outflow of entrepreneurs, storeowners, professionals, businessmen to
Western Countries.
Third Wave of Migrant:
· It was comprised professionals like doctors, engineers (1960s onwards), software engineers,
MIGRATION: TYPES, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
management consultants, financial experts, media persons (1980s onwards), and others
migrated to countries such as USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Germany, etc.
· After liberalisation, in the 90s education and knowledge–based Indian emigration has made
Indian Diaspora one of the most powerful diasporas in the world.
Migration
The Census of India gives information about migration in the country.
· Migration was recorded beginning from the first Census of India conducted in 1881 which was
recorded on the basis of place of birth.
· The first major modification was introduced in 1961 Census by bringing in two additional
components: place of birth i.e., village or town and duration of residence (if born elsewhere).
· Further in 1971, additional information on place of last residence and duration of stay at the place of
enumeration were incorporated.
· Information on reasons for migration were incorporated in 1981 Census and modified in consecutive
Censuses.
Basis of Enumeration of Migration in Census of India:
9
· Place of birth, if the place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (life-time migrant)
· Place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of enumeration (migrant by
place of last residence).
As per 2011 census, out of 1,210 million people in the country, 455.8 million (about 37%) were reported as
migrants of place of last residence.
Streams of Migration:
A few facts pertaining to the internal migration (within the country) and international migration (out of the
country and into the country from other countries) are presented.
Streams under the Internal Migration:
· Rural to Rural (R-R)
· Rural to Urban (R-U)
· Urban to Urban (U-U)
· Urban to Rural (U-R)
Trends in Migration:
· In India, during 2011, out of 455.0 million migrants, enumerated on the basis of the last residence,
141.9 million had changed their place of residence in the last ten years.
Ø Out of these, 118.7 million were intra-state migrants.
Ø The stream was dominated by female migrants. Most of these were migrants related to marriage.
· Females predominate the streams of short distance rural to rural migration in both types of
migration.
Ø Contrary to this, men predominate the rural to urban stream of inter-state migration due to
economic reasons.
· Indian Census 2011 has recorded that more than 5 million persons have migrated to India from other

countries.
Ø Out of these, about 88.9 per cent came from the neighbouring countries, Bangladesh has highest
share followed by Nepal and Pakistan.
Spatial Variations:
· Some states like Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat and Haryana attract migrants from other states such as
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, etc.
· Maharashtra occupied first place in migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana.
· On the other hand, Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of net out-migrants from the state.
Causes of Migration:
Push factor: They cause people to leave their place of residence or origin.
· In India people migrate from rural to urban areas mainly due to poverty, high population pressure on
the land, lack of basic infrastructural facilities like health care, education, etc.
· The natural disasters such as, flood, drought, earthquake, tsunami, wars and local conflicts also give
extra push to migrate.
Pull factors: They attract the people from different places.
· The rural migrants move to urban areas in search of better opportunities, availability of regular work
10
and relatively higher wages.
· Better opportunities for education, better health facilities and sources of entertainment, etc., are also
quite important pull factors.
Consequences of Migration:
Migration is a response to the uneven distribution of opportunities over space. Migration creates both
benefits and problems for the areas, people migrate from and migrate to.
Economic Consequences:
· Remittance sent by migrants: Remittances from the international migrants are one of the major
sources of foreign exchange. As per World Bank report in 2019, India received $83.1 billion. Top
states receiving remittances are Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh
· The amount of remittances sent by the internal migrants is very meagre as compared to international
migrants but it plays an important role in the growth of economy of the source area.
· Negative consequences:
Ø The unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities of India has caused overcrowding.
Ø Development of slums in industrially developed states such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated migration.
Demographic Consequences:
· Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country.
Ø Rural urban migration is one of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities.
· Age and skill selective out migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic
structure.
· Negative:
Ø The high out migration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern Maharashtra
have brought serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states.
Ø Similar imbalances are also brought in the recipients' states.
Social Consequences:
· Agents of Social Change: The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning, girl's education,
etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them.
· Migration leads to intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It led to evolution of composite culture
and breaking through the narrow considerations.
· Negative Consequences:
Ø Anonymity creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals.
Ø Continued feeling of dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like
crime and drug abuse.
Environmental Consequences:
· Overcrowding of people due to rural-urban migration has put pressure on the existing social and
physical infrastructure in the urban areas.
· It leads to unplanned growth of urban settlement and formation of slums shanty colonies.
11
· Due to over-exploitation of natural resources, cities are facing the acute problem of depletion of ground
water, air pollution, disposal of sewage and management of solid wastes.
Other Consequences:
· Migration (even excluding the marriage migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly.
· In the rural areas, male selective out migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well
mental pressure on the women.
· Migration of 'women' either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the
economy.
12
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
3
Human development is a process of enlarging the range of people's choices, increasing their opportunities
for education, health care, income and empowerment and covering the full range of human choices from a
sound physical environment to economic, social and political freedom.
Aspects of Development:
· In the present context, computerisation, industrialisation, efficient transport and communication
network, large education system and security of individuals, etc. are considered as the symbols of
development.
· Every individual, community and government measure its performance or levels of development in
relation to the availability and access to some of these things. But this may be partial and one-sided
view of development. It is often called the western or euro-centric view of development.
Development in India:
· The development is a mixed bag of opportunities as well as neglect and deprivations.
Ø There are a few areas like the metropolitan centres that have all the modern facilities available to a
small section of its population.
Ø At the other extreme of it, there are large slums in the urban areas that do not have basic amenities
like potable water, education, and health infrastructure etc.
· Distribution of development is more alarming when it comes to distribution of development between
various sections like scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, landless agricultural labourers, poor farmers,
and slums dwellers, etc.
· The poor are being subjected to three inter-related processes of declining capabilities, i.e.
Ø Social Capabilities: Due to displacement and weakening social ties (social capital),
Ø Environmental Capabilities: Due to pollution.
Ø Personal Capabilities: Due to increasing incidence of diseases and accidents.
· The present development has not been able to address the issues of social injustice, regional
imbalances, and environmental degradation.
It was thought to take up human development as a separate issue against the prevalent western views of
development.
· Most systematic effort towards this was the publication of the First Human Development Report by
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990.
· According to the Human Development Report 1993, “progressive democratisation and increasing
empowerment of people are seen as the minimum conditions for human development”.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human Development in India:

· India's ranking in human development index is 13 out of 189 countries in 2019 HDI report.
· India's HDI score is 0.645 (medium category).
· There is 50% increase in HDI value of India from 1990 level.
Aspects not covered while calculating HDI: (Criticism of HDI)
· Historical Factors: Like Colonisation, imperialism and neo-imperialism.
13
· Socio-Cultural Factors: Like human rights violation.
· Social Discrimination: It is based on race, religion, gender and caste.
· Social Problems: Like crimes, terrorism, and war.
· Political Factors: Like nature of the state, forms of the government (democracy or dictatorship) level of
empowerment.
These are some factors that are very crucial in determining the nature of human development. These
aspects have special significance in case of India.
· The Planning Commission of India also prepared the Human Development Report for India using the
indicators selected by the UNDP.
· Subsequently, each state government also started preparing the state level Human Development
Reports, using districts as the units of analysis.
· The planning commission's report also discussed other indicators like economic attainment, social
empowerment, social distributive justice, accessibility, hygiene, etc.
Indicators for Economic Attainments:
· Rich resource base and access to these resources is the key to productivity, well-being, and human
development.
· Gross National Product (GNP) and its per capita availability are taken as measures to assess the
resource base/ endowment of any country.
· Economic attainment and the well-being of individuals depend on economic growth, employment
opportunities and access to assets.
· Over the years the per capita income and consumption expenditure in India has increased.
· The percentage of persons below the poverty line in 2011-12 has been estimated as 25.7% in rural
areas, 13.7% in urban areas and 21.9% for the country as a whole.
Poverty:
Poverty is a state of deprivation. In absolute terms it reflects the inability of an individual to satisfy
certain basic needs for a sustained, healthy, and reasonably productive living.
· The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of a country does not fully reflect the quality of life of a
country. There are other factors like housing, access to public transport, air, quality and access
to drinking water which also determine the standard of living.
· Jobless growth and rampant unemployment are some of the important reasons for higher
incidences of poverty in India.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Indicators of a Healthy Life:

Life free from illness and ailment and living a reasonably long-life span are indicative of a healthy life.
· Availability of pre and post-natal healthcare facilities in order to reduce infant mortality and post-
delivery deaths among mothers.
· Old age health care, adequate nutrition and safety of individual are some important measures of a
healthy and reasonably long life.
14
· India has done reasonably well in some of the health indicators like decline in death rate from 25.1 per
thousand in 1951 to 6.5 per thousand in 2015 and infant mortality from 148 per thousand to 37
during the same period.
· India has recorded declining female sex ratio.
Indicators of Social Empowerment:
· “Development is freedom”: Freedom from hunger, poverty, servitude, bondage, ignorance, illiteracy,
and any other forms of domination.
· Freedom in real sense is possible only with the empowerment and participation of the people in the
exercise of their capabilities and choices in the society.
· Literacy is the beginning of access to such a world of knowledge and freedom.
· Overall literacy in India is approximately 74.04 per cent (2011) while female literacy is 65.46 per cent.
· Total literacy as well as female literacy is higher than the national average in most of the states from
south India.
· Wide regional disparities in Literacy Rate:
Ø State like Bihar has very low (63.82 per cent) literacy.
Ø States like Kerala and Mizoram have literacy rates of 93.91 and 91.58 % respectively.
· Percentage of literates in the rural areas and among the marginalised sections of our society such
as females, scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, agricultural labourers, etc. is very low.
· The gap between the richer and the marginalised sections of the population has increased over the
years.
Human Development Index in India:

· Kerala is at top with the composite index value of 0.790 and is followed by Delhi, Himachal Pradesh,
Goa and Punjab.
Ø Kerala record the highest value in the HDI largely due to its impressive performance in
achieving near hundred per cent literacy.
· The states like Bihar, Odisha and Chhattisgarh are at the bottom among the 23 major states.
· Economically developed states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Punjab and Haryana have higher
value of HDI as compared to states like Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
· Regional distortions and social disparities which developed during the colonial period continue to play
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
an important role in the Indian economy, polity, and society.

Population, Environment and Development:
CRAFTS
Development in general and human development in particular is a complex concept used in social
sciences.
THEATRE
· It is complex because for ages it was thought that development is a substantive concept and once it is
achieved it will address all the socio-cultural and environmental ills of the society.
15
· Though, development has brought in significant improvement in the quality of life but increasing
regional disparities, social inequalities, discriminations, and undermining human values and
environmental degradation have also increased.
· In its 1993 report, UNDP tried to amend some of the implicit biases and prejudices which were
entrenched in concept of development.
Ø People's participation and their security were the major issues in the Human Development
Report of 1993.
Ø Recognised greater constructive role of 'Civil Societies' in bringing about peace and human
development.
Development and Environment:
Views expressed by the Neo-Malthusians, environmentalists, and radical ecologists.
· They believe that for a happy and peaceful social life proper balance between population and
resources is a necessary condition.
· According to these thinkers, the gap between the resources and population has widened after
eighteenth century.
· Development has only contributed to increasing the multiple uses of the limited resources and it led to
enormous increase in the demand of these resources.
· Sir Robert Malthus was the first one to voice his concern about the growing scarcity of resources as
compared to the human population.
· Unending pursuit for the control of more and more resources by the powerful and use of the same for
exhibiting one's prowess is the prime cause of conflicts as well as the apparent contradictions
between population-resource and development.
Evolution of Sustainable Resource use in India:
· Indian culture and civilisation have been very sensitive to the issues of population, resource, and
development for a long time.
Ø The ancient scriptures were essentially concerned about the balance and harmony among the
elements of nature.
· Mahatma Gandhi in the recent times advocated the reinforcement of the harmony and balance
between the development and environment.
Ø He was quite apprehensive about the on-going development particularly the way
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
industrialisation has institutionalised the loss of morality, spirituality, self-reliance, nonviolence

and mutual co-operation and environment.
· Gandhi's views were also re-echoed in the Club of Rome Report “Limits to Growth” (1972),
Schumacher's book “Small is Beautiful” (1974), Brundtland Commission's Report “Our Common
Future” (1987) and finally in the “Agenda-21 Report of the Rio Conference” (1993).
16
Interesting points
· Swachh Bharat Mission:

Ø The release of toxic and non-biodegradable wastes from industries and urban sewerages, and
open defecation, etc, have created many health hazards. The Government of India has
initiated many steps to address these problems and the Swachh Bharat Mission is one of
these.
Ø Major Source of Pollution in Urban India: Municipal waste, industrial effluents and pollutants
generated by transport, etc.
Ø Open defecation in rural areas and in urban slums are a major source of pollution.
Ø It aims at a pollution-free environment with following objectives:
o Making India open defecation-free and achieving 100 per cent scientific management of
municipal solid waste, construction of individual household latrines (IHHL), community
toilet (CT) seats and public toilet (PT) seats.
o Making provisions for the supply of clean energy fuel LPG to all households in rural India to
reduce domestic pollution.
o Providing potable drinking water to every household to control the spread of water-borne
diseases.
o Promoting the use of non-convention energy resources, like wind and solar energy.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
17
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
4
Human Settlement means cluster of dwellings of any type or size where human beings live. For this purpose,
people may erect houses and other structures and command some area or territory as their economic
support base. Thus, the process of settlement inherently involves grouping of people and apportioning of
territory as their resource base.
Settlements:
With size, the economic character and social structure of settlements changes and so do its ecology and
technology. Settlements could be small and sparsely spaced and they may also be large and closely
spaced.
· The sparsely located small settlements are called villages, specialising in agriculture or other primary
activities.
· There are fewer but larger settlements which are termed as urban settlements specialising in
secondary and tertiary activities.
Basic differences between Rural and Urban Settlements:
· The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land based primary
economic activities whereas urban settlements depend on processing of raw materials and
manufacturing of finished goods and a variety of services.
· Cities act as nodes of economic growth, provide goods and services not only to urban dwellers but
also to the people of the rural settlements in their hinterlands in return for food and raw materials. This
functional relationship between the urban and rural settlements takes place through transport and
communication network.
· Rural and urban settlements differ in terms of social relationship, attitude, and outlook.
Ø Rural people are less mobile and therefore, social relations among them are intimate.
Ø In urban areas, the way of life is complex and fast, and social relations are formal.
Rural Settlements:
They are determined by the extent of the built-up area and inter-house distance.
· In India compact or clustered village of a few hundred houses is a rather universal feature, particularly
in the northern plains.
· There are various factors and conditions responsible for having different types of rural settlements in
India. These include:
Ø Physical Factors – nature of terrain, altitude, climate, and availability of water.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Ø Cultural and Ethnic Factors – social structure, caste, and religion.

Ø Security Factors – defence against thefts and robberies.
Types of Rural Settlements in India
Clustered Settlement:
· The clustered rural settlement is a compact or closely built-up area of houses.
· In this type of village, the general living area is distinct and separated from the surrounding farms,
barns and pastures.
18
· The closely built-up area and its intervening streets present some recognisable pattern or
geometric shape, such as rectangular, radial, linear, etc.
· Such settlements are generally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the north-eastern states.
· Sometimes, people live in compact village for security or defence reasons, such as in the Bundelkhand
region of central India and in Nagaland.
· In Rajasthan, scarcity of water has necessitated compact settlement for maximum utilisation of
available water resources.
Semi - Clustered Settlement:
· Semi-clustered or fragmented settlements may result from tendency of clustering in a restricted area
of dispersed settlement.
· Such a pattern may also result from segregation or fragmentation of a large compact village. In this
case, one or more sections of the village society choose or is forced to live a little away from the main
cluster or village.
· In such cases, generally, the land-owning and dominant community occupies the central part of the
main village, whereas people of lower strata of society and menial workers settle on the outer flanks of
the village.
· Such settlements are widespread in the Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.
Hamleted Settlement:
· Sometimes settlement is fragmented into several units physically separated from each other
bearing a common name. These units are locally called panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc. in various
parts of the country.
· The segmentation of a large village is often motivated by social and ethnic factors.
· Such villages are more frequently found in the middle and lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower
valleys of the Himalayas.
Dispersed Settlement:
· Dispersed or isolated settlement pattern appears in the form of isolated huts or hamlets of few huts in
remote jungles, or on small hills with farms or pasture on the slopes.
· Extreme dispersion of settlement is often caused by extremely fragmented nature of the terrain and
land resource base of habitable areas.
· This settlement is found in many areas of Meghalaya, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala.
Urban Settlement:
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
· Unlike rural settlements, urban settlements are generally compact and larger in size.
· They are engaged in a variety of non-agricultural, economic and administrative functions.
· An exchange of goods and services is performed sometimes directly and sometimes through a series
of market towns and cities. Thus, cities are connected directly as well as indirectly with the villages and
also with each other.
Evolutions of Towns in India:
Towns flourished since prehistoric times in India. Even at the time of Indus valley civilisation, towns like
19
Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were in existence. It continued with periodic ups and downs until the
arrival of Europeans in India in the eighteenth century.
Classification of Towns based on their Evolution in Different Periods

Ancient Towns:
· There are number of towns in India having historical background spanning over 2000 years.
· Most of them developed as religious and cultural centres. Varanasi is one of the important towns
among these. Prayag (Allahabad), Pataliputra (Patna), Madurai are some other examples of ancient
towns in the country.
Medieval Towns:
· About 100 of the existing towns have their roots in the medieval period.
· Most of them developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms. These are fort towns
which came up on the ruins of ancient towns. Important among them are Delhi, Hyderabad, Jaipur,
Lucknow, Agra, and Nagpur.
Modern Towns:
· The British and other Europeans have developed a number of towns in India. Starting their foothold
on coastal locations, they first developed some trading ports such as Surat, Daman, Goa, Pondicherry,
etc.
· The British later consolidated their hold around three principal nodes – Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai
(Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta) – and built them in the British style.
· Rapidly extending their domination either directly or through control over the princely states, they
established their administrative centres, hill towns as summer resorts, and added new civil,
administrative, and military areas to them. Towns based on modern industries also evolved after 1850.
Jamshedpur can be cited as an example.
· After Independence: A large number of towns have been developed as administrative
headquarters, e.g., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur, etc., and industrial centres, such
as Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni.
· Some old towns also developed as satellite towns around metropolitan cities, such as Ghaziabad,
Rohtak, Gurugram around Delhi.
· With increasing investment in rural areas, a large number of medium and small towns have developed
all over the country.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Urbanisation in India:
· The level of urbanisation is measured in terms of percentage of urban population to total population.
The level of urbanisation in India in 2011 was 31.16 per cent, which is quite low in comparison to
developed countries.
· Enlargement of urban centres and emergence of new towns have played a significant role in the
growth of urban population and urbanisation in India.
Classification of Towns base on Population Size:
20
· Urban centre with population of more than one lakh is called a city or class I town.
· Cities accommodating population size between one to five million are called metropolitan cities.
· More than five million are mega cities.
· Majority of metropolitan and mega cities are urban agglomerations.
· An urban agglomeration may consist of any one of the following three combinations:
Ø A town and its adjoining urban outgrowths.
Ø Two or more contiguous towns with or without their outgrowths.
Ø A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths together forming a contiguous
spread.
Table 4.1: India — Class-wise number of towns and cities and their population, 2011
Class Population Size Number of cities Total Urban Population % of total

(in thousand) population
I 1,00,000 and more 468 2,27,899 60.45
II 50,000-99,999 474 41,328 10.96
III 20,000-49-,999 1,373 58,174 15.43
IV 10,000-19,999 1,683 31,866 8.45
V 5,000-9,999 1,749 15,883 4.21
VI Less than 5,000 424 1,956 0.51
Population in Urban Areas:

· More than 60 per cent of urban population in India lives in Class I towns.
· Out of 468 cities, 53 cities/ urban agglomerations are metropolitan cities. Six of them are mega cities
with population over five million each.
· More than one-fifth (21.0%) of urban population lives in these mega cities.
· Greater Mumbai is the largest agglomeration with 18.4 million people. Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai,
Bengaluru, and Hyderabad are other mega cities in the country.
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
Functional Classification of Town:

Many towns and cities perform specialised services. Some towns and cities specialise in certain functions
and they are known for some specific activities, products, or services. On the basis of dominant or
specialised functions, Indian cities and towns can be broadly classified as follows:
· Administrative Towns and Cities: Towns supporting administrative headquarters of higher order are
administrative towns, such as Chandigarh, New Delhi, Bhopal, Shillong, Guwahati, Imphal, Srinagar,
Gandhinagar, Jaipur, Chennai, etc.
21
· Industrial Towns: Industries constitute prime motive force of these cities, such as Mumbai, Salem,
Coimbatore, Modinagar, Jamshedpur, Hugli, Bhilai, etc.
· Transport Cities: They may be ports primarily engaged in export and import activities such as Kandla,
Kochchi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam, etc., or hubs of inland transport, such as Agra, Dhulia,
Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni, etc.
· Commercial Towns: Towns and cities specialising in trade and commerce are kept in this class.
Kolkata, Saharanpur, Satna, etc., are some examples.
· Mining Towns: These towns have developed in mineral rich areas such as Raniganj, Jharia, Digboi,
Ankaleshwar, Singrauli, etc.
· Garrisson Cantonment towns: These towns emerged as garrisson towns such as Ambala, Jalandhar,
Mhow, Babina, Udhampur, etc.
· Educational Towns: Starting as centres of education, some of the towns have grown into major
campus towns, such as Roorki, Varanasi, Aligarh, Pilani, Allahabad, etc.
· Religious and Cultural Towns: Varanasi, Mathura, Amritsar, Madurai, Puri, Ajmer, Pushkar, Tirupati,
Kurukshetra, Haridwar, Ujjain came to prominence due to their religious/cultural significance.
· Tourist Towns: Nainital, Mussoorie, Shimla, Pachmarhi, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Udagamandalam (Ooty),
Mount Abu are some of the tourist destinations.
The cities are not static in their function. The functions change due to their dynamic nature. Even
specialised cities, as they grow into metropolises become multifunctional wherein industry, business,
administration, transport, etc., become important.
Interesting points
· Smart Cities Mission:

Ø Objective: To promote cities that provide core infrastructure, a clean and sustainable
environment and give a decent quality of life to its citizens.
Ø One of the features of Smart Cities is to apply smart solutions to infrastructure and services
in order to make them better. For example, making areas less vulnerable to disasters, using
fewer resources, and providing cheaper services.
Ø The focus is on sustainable and inclusive development and the idea is to look at compact areas,
HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
create a replicable model, which will act like a lighthouse to other aspiring cities.
22
LAND RESOURCES AND
5 AGRICULTURE
The land is put to different uses. Some land is occupied by rivers, some may have trees and, on some parts
roads, and buildings have been built. Different types of lands are suited to different uses. Human beings use
land as a resource for production as well as residence and recreation.
Land Use:
· Land-use records are maintained by land revenue department.
· The land use categories add up to reporting area, which is somewhat different from the geographical
area.
· The Survey of India is responsible for measuring geographical area of administrative units in India.
· The difference between the two concepts is that while the former changes somewhat depending on
the estimates of the land revenue records, the latter does not change and stays fixed as per Survey of
India measurements.
The land-use categories as maintained in the Land Revenue Records are as follows:
· Forests: It is important to note that area under actual forest cover is different from area classified as
forest.
Ø The latter is the area which the Government has identified and demarcated for forest growth.
Ø The land revenue records are consistent with the latter definition.
Ø Thus, there may be an increase in this category without any increase in the actual forest cover.
· Barren and Wastelands: The land which may be classified as a wasteland such as barren hilly terrains,
desert lands, ravines, etc. normally cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.
· Land put to Non-agricultural Uses: Land under settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads,
canals, etc.), industries, shops, etc., are included in this category. An expansion in the secondary and
tertiary activities would lead to an increase in this category of land-use.
· Area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Most of this type of land is owned by the village
'Panchayat' or the Government. Only a small proportion of this land is privately owned. The land
owned by the village panchayat comes under 'Common Property Resources'.
· Area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net sown Area): The land under
LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE
orchards and fruit trees are included in this category. Much of this land is privately owned.
· Culturable Wasteland: Any land which is left fallow (uncultivated) for more than five years is included
in this category. It can be brought under cultivation after improving it through reclamation practices.
· Current Fallow: This is the land which is left without cultivation for one or less than one agricultural
year. Following is a cultural practice adopted for giving the land rest. The land recoups the lost fertility
through natural processes.
· Fallow other than Current Fallow: This is also a cultivable land which is left uncultivated for more than
a year but less than five years. If the land is left uncultivated for more than five years, it would be
categorised as culturable wasteland.
· Net Area Sown: The physical extent of land on which crops are sown and harvested is known as net
sown area.
23
Land-Use Changes in India:
Land-use in a region, to a large extent, is influenced by the nature of economic activities carried out in that
region. However, while economic activities change over time, land, like many other natural resources, is
fixed in terms of its area. At this stage, one needs to appreciate three types of changes that an economy
undergoes, which affect land-use.
· The size of the economy (measured in terms of value for all the goods and services produced in the
economy) grows over time as a result of increasing population, change in income levels, available
technology, and associated factors.
Ø As a result, the pressure on land will increase with time and marginal lands would come under
use.
· The composition of the economy would undergo a change over time. The secondary and the tertiary
sectors usually grow much faster than the primary sector, specifically the agricultural sector. This
type of change is common in developing countries, like India.
Ø This process would result in a gradual shift of land from agricultural uses to non-agricultural
uses.
· Though the contribution of the agricultural activities reduces over time, the pressure on land for
agricultural activities does not decline. The reasons for continued pressure on agricultural land are:
Ø In developing countries, the share of population dependent on agriculture usually declines much
more slowly compared to the decline in the sector's share in GDP.
Ø The number of people that the agricultural sector has to feed is increasing day by day.
India has undergone major changes within the economy over the past four or five decades, and this has
influenced the land-use changes in the country. Share of area under forest, area under non-agricultural
uses, current fallow lands, and net area sown have shown an increase. The following observations can be
made about these increases:
· The rate of increase is the highest in case of area under non-agricultural uses.
Ø This is due to the changing structure of Indian economy, which is increasingly depending on the
contribution from industrial and services sectors and expansion of related infrastructural

facilities.
Ø An expansion of area under both urban and rural settlements has added to the increase. Thus,
the area under non-agricultural uses is increasing at the expense of wastelands and
agricultural land.
· The increase in the share under forest, accounted by increase in the demarcated area under forest
rather than an actual increase in the forest cover in the country.
· The trend of current fallow fluctuates a great deal over years, depending on the variability of rainfall
and cropping cycles.
· The increase in net area sown is a recent phenomenon due to use of culturable waste land for
agricultural purpose. Before which it was registering a slow decrease.
Ø There are indications that most of the decline had occurred due to the increases in area under
non-agricultural use.
24
The four categories that have registered a decline are barren and wasteland, culturable wasteland, area
under pastures and tree crops and fallow lands. Reasons behind decline are:
· As the pressure on land increased, the wastelands and culturable wastelands have witnessed decline
over time.
· The decline in land under pastures and grazing lands can be explained by pressure from agricultural
land. Illegal encroachment due to expansion of cultivation on common pasture lands is largely
responsible for this decline.
Common Property Resources:
Land, according to its ownership can broadly be classified under two broad heads:
· Private land: It is owned by an individual or group of individuals.
· Common property resources (CPRs): This land is meant for use of the community. Such as
Community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies etc.
CPRs provide fodder for the livestock and fuel for the households along with other minor forest products
like fruits, nuts, fibre, medicinal plants, etc.
· In rural areas, such land is of particular relevance for the livelihood of the landless and marginal farmers
and other weaker sections since many of them depend on income from their livestock due to the fact
that they have limited access to land.
· CPRs also are important for women as most of the fodder and fuel collection is done by them in rural
areas.
· CPRs can be defined as community's natural resource, where every member has the right of access
and usage with specified obligations, without anybody having property rights over them.
Agricultural Land Uses in India:

Land resource is more crucial to the livelihood of the people depending on agriculture:
· Agriculture is purely land based activity. The contribution of land in agricultural output is more
compared to its contribution in the outputs in the other sectors. Thus, lack of access to land is directly
correlated with incidence of poverty in rural areas.
· Quality of land has a direct bearing on the productivity of agriculture, which is not true for other
activities.
· In rural areas, aside from its value as a productive factor, land ownership has a social value and serves
as a security for credit, or life contingencies, and also adds to the social status.
An estimation of the total stock of agricultural land resources (i.e. total cultivable land) can be arrived at by
adding up net sown area, all fallow lands and culturable wasteland.
· It may be observed that over the years, there has been a marginal decline in the available total stock of
cultivable land as a percentage to total reporting area.
· There has been a greater decline of cultivated land, in spite of a corresponding decline of cultivable
wasteland.
25
Table 5.1: Composition of Total Cultivable Land
Agricultural Land – use As a percentage of Repor ng Area As a percentage of total

Categories cul vable land
1950-51 2014-15 1950-51 2014-15
Culturable Waste land 8.0 4.0 13.4 6.8
Fallow other than 6.1 3.6 10.2 6.2

Current Fallow
Current Fallow 3.7 4.9 6.2 8.4
Net Area Sown 41.7 45.5 70.0 78.4
Total Cul vable Land 59.5 58.0 100.00 100.00
· The scope for bringing in additional land under net sown area in India is limited. There is, thus, an
urgent need to evolve and adopt land-saving technologies. Such technologies can be classified under
two heads:
Ø Those which raise the yield of any particular crop per unit area of land.
Ø Those which increase the total output per unit area of land from all crops grown over one
agricultural year by increasing land-use intensity.
· The cropping intensity (CI) is calculated as follows:
Cropping Seasons in India:

There are three distinct crop seasons in the northern and interior parts of country.
· Kharif Season: It largely coincides with Southwest Monsoon under which the cultivation of tropical
crops, such as rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra and tur is possible.
· Rabi Season: It begins with the onset of winter in October-November and ends in March-April. The
low temperature conditions facilitate the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops such as wheat,
gram, and mustard.
26
Table 5.2: Cropping Seasons in India
Cropping Season Major Crops Cultivated
Northern States Southern States
Kharif Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Rice, maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut
June - September Jowar, Tur
Rabi Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Rice, Maize, Ragi, Groundnut, Jowar
October-March Mustard, Barley
Zaid Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder Rice, Vegetables, Fodder

April - June
· Zaid Season: It is a short duration summer cropping season beginning after harvesting of rabi crops.
The cultivation of watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder crops during this season is done
on irrigated lands.
This type of distinction in the cropping season does not exist in southern parts of India. The temperature
is high enough to grow tropical crops during any period in the year provided the soil moisture is available.
Therefore, in this region same crops can be grown thrice in an agricultural year.
Types of Farming:
On the basis of main source of moisture for crops, the farming can be classified as irrigated and rainfed
(barani). There is difference in the nature of irrigated farming, as well as based on the objective of
irrigation, i.e., protective, or productive.
· Protective Irrigation: It protect the crops from adverse effects of soil moisture deficiency. The strategy
of this kind of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to maximum possible area.
· Productive Irrigation: It is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture in the cropping season to achieve
high productivity. The water input per unit area of cultivated land is higher than protective irrigation.
Classification of Rainfed Farming based on adequacy of soil moisture during cropping season:
· Dryland Farming:
Ø It is largely confined to the regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
Ø These regions grow hardy and drought resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong, gram and
guar (fodder crops) and practise various measures of soil moisture conservation and rainwater
harvesting.
· Wetland Farming:
Ø The rainfall is in excess of soil moisture requirement of plants during rainy season. Such regions
27
may face flood and soil erosion hazards.
Ø These areas grow various water intensive crops such as rice, jute and sugarcane and practise
aquaculture in the freshwater bodies.
Food Grains:
· These crops occupy about two-third of total cropped area in the country.
· Food grains are dominant crops in all parts of India whether they have subsistence or commercial
agricultural economy.
· On the basis of the structure of grain the food grains are classified as cereals and pulses.
Cereals:
They occupy about 54 per cent of total cropped area in India.
· India produces about 11 per cent cereals of the world and ranks third in production after China and U.S.A.
· India produces a variety of cereals, which are classified as fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains
( jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), etc.
Rice:
· Rice is a staple food for the overwhelming majority of population in India.
· Though, it is considered to be a crop of tropical humid areas, it has about 3,000 varieties which are
grown in different Agro-climatic regions.
· These are successfully grown from sea level to about 2,000 m altitude and from humid areas in eastern
India to dry but irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, western U.P. and northern Rajasthan.
· In southern states and West Bengal, the climatic conditions allow the cultivation of two or three crops
of rice in an agricultural year.
· In West Bengal farmers grow three crops of rice called 'aus', 'aman' and 'boro'.
· In Himalayas and North-Western parts of India, it is grown as a kharif crop during southwest Monsoon
season.
· India contributes 21.6 per cent of rice production in the world and ranked second after China in
2016. About one-fourth of the total cropped area in the country is under rice cultivation. West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are the leading rice producing states in the country.

· The yield level of rice is high in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West
Bengal, and Kerala.
· In the first four of these states almost the entire land under rice cultivation is irrigated. Punjab and
Haryana are not traditional rice growing areas.
· Rice cultivation in the irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana was introduced in 1970s following the
Green Revolution. Genetically improved varieties of seed, relatively high usage of fertilizers and
pesticides and lower levels of susceptibility of the crop to pests due to dry climatic conditions are
responsible for higher yield of rice in this region. The yield of this crop is very low in rainfed areas of
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
Wheat:
· Wheat is the second most important cereal crop in India after rice.
· India has maximum area under wheat cultivation in world.
28
· It is primarily a crop of temperate zone. Hence, its cultivation in India is done during winter i.e., rabi
season.
· Concentration of Crop: About 85 per cent of total area is concentrated in north and central regions of
India i.e., Indo Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau and Himalayas up to 2,700 m altitude.
· It is mostly grown under irrigated conditions as it is a rabi crop. But it is a rainfed crop in Himalayan
highlands and parts of Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh.
· About 14 per cent of the total cropped area in India is under wheat cultivation.
· Leading Wheat Producing States: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.
· The yield level of wheat is very high (above 4,000 k.g. per ha) in Punjab and Haryana whereas, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar have moderate yields.
· The states like Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir growing wheat under
rainfed conditions have low yield.
Jowar:
· The coarse cereals together occupy about 16.50 per cent of total cropped area in India. Among these,
jowar or sorghum alone accounts for about 5.3 per cent of total cropped area.
· It is main food crop in semi-arid areas of central and southern India.
· Maharashtra alone produces more than half of the total jowar production of India. Other leading
producer states are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
· It is sown in both kharif and rabi seasons in southern states.
· It is a kharif crop in northern India where it is mostly grown as a fodder crop. South of Vindhyachal it is
a rainfed crop and its yield level is very low in this region.
Bajra:
· Bajra is sown in hot and dry climatic conditions in northwestern and western parts of India.
· It is a hardy crop which resists frequent dry spells and drought in this region.
· It is cultivated alone as well as part of mixed cropping.
· This coarse cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
· Leading Producers of Bajra: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
· Being a rainfed crop, the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan and fluctuates a lot from year to
year.
· Yield of this crop has increased during recent years in Haryana and Gujarat due to introduction of
drought resistant varieties and expansion of irrigation under it.
Maize:
· Maize is a food as well as fodder crop grown under semi-arid climatic conditions and over inferior
soils. This crop occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area.
· Maize cultivation is not concentrated in any specific region. It is sown all over India except Punjab and
eastern and North-Eastern regions.
· Leading Producers of Maize: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
· Yield level of maize is higher than other coarse cereals. It is high in southern states and declines
29
towards central parts.
Pulses:
· Pulses are a very important ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich sources of proteins.
· These are legume crops which increase the natural fertility of soils through nitrogen fixation.
· India is a leading producer of pulses in the world.
· The cultivation of pulses in India is largely concentrated in the drylands of Deccan and central plateaus
and northwestern parts of the country.
· Pulses occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
· Being the rainfed crops of drylands, the yields of pulses are low and fluctuate from year to year.
· Gram and tur are the main pulses cultivated in India.
Gram:
· Gram is cultivated in subtropical areas.
· It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated during rabi season in central, western and NorthWestern parts of
India.
· Just one or two light showers or irrigations are required to grow this crop successfully.
· It has been displaced from the cropping pattern by wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern Rajasthan
following the green revolution.
· Gram covers only about 2.8 per cent of the total cropped area in the country.
· Main Producers: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and
Rajasthan.
· The yield of this crop continues to be low and fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated areas.
Tur (Arhar):
· Tur is the second important pulse crop in India and is also known as red gram or pigeon pea.
· It is cultivated over marginal lands and under rainfed conditions in the dry areas of central and southern
states of India.
· It occupies only about 2 per cent of total cropped area of India.
· Maharashtra alone contributes about one-third of the total production of tur.

· Other Leading Producers: Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.
· Per hectare output of this crop is very low and its performance is inconsistent.
Oilseeds:
· The oilseeds are produced for extracting edible oils.
· Oilseeds Growing Regions: Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana,
Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau.
· These crops together occupy about 14 per cent of total cropped area in India.
· Main oilseeds crops grown in India: Groundnut, rapeseed, and mustard, soyabean and sunflower.
Groundnut:
· India produces about 16.6 per cent of the total groundnut production in the world (2016).
· It is largely a rainfed kharif crop of drylands. But in southern India, it is also cultivated during rabi
season.
30
· It covers about 3.6 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
· Leading Producers: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Maharashtra.
· The yield of groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yield is
low in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.
Rapeseed and Mustard:
· Rapeseed and mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, sarson, toria and taramira.
· These are subtropical crops cultivated during rabi season in north-western and central parts of India.
· These are frost sensitive crops and their yields fluctuate from year to year. But with the expansion of
irrigation and improvement in seed technology, their yields have improved and stabilised to some
extent.
· About two-third of the cultivated area under these crops is irrigated.
· These oilseeds together occupy only about 2.5 per cent of total cropped area in the country.
· Leading Producers: Rajasthan contributes about one-third production while other leading producers
are Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.
· Yields of these crops are comparatively high in Haryana and Rajasthan.
Other Oilseeds:
· Soyabean and sunflower are other important oilseeds grown in India.
· Soyabean:
Ø It is mostly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These two states together produce
about 90 per cent of total output of soyabean in the country.
· Sunflower:
Ø Its cultivation is concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and adjoining areas of
Maharashtra.
Ø It is a minor crop in Northern parts of India where its yield is high due to irrigation.
Fiber Crops:
These crops provide us fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a number of other items. Cotton and jute
are two main fibre crops grown in India.

Cotton:
· Cotton is a tropical crop grown in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the country.
· India grows short staple (Indian) cotton and long staple (American) cotton called 'narma' in north-
western parts of India.
· Cotton requires clear sky during flowering stage.
· India ranks second in the world in the production of cotton after China.
· Cotton Growing areas in India:
Ø Parts of Punjab, Haryana and northern Rajasthan in north-west.
Ø Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west.
Ø Plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in south.
· Leading Producers: Gujarat, Maharashtra and Telangana .
31
· Per hectare output of cotton is high under irrigated conditions in north-western region of India.
· Its yield is very low in Maharashtra where it is grown under rainfed conditions.
Jute:
· Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items.
· It is a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining eastern parts of India.
· At present, India produces about three-fifth of jute production of the world.
· West Bengal accounts for about three-fourth of the production in the country.
· Bihar and Assam are other jute growing areas.
· This crop accounts for only about 0.5 per cent of total cropped area in India.
Other Crops: Sugarcane, tea and coffee are other important crops grown in India.
Sugarcane:
· Sugarcane is a crop of tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it is cultivated in sub-humid and humid
climates. But it is largely an irrigated crop in India.
· In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh.
· Sugarcane growing area in western India is spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.
· In southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra
Pradesh.
· It accounts for about 19 per cent of the world production of sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per
cent of total cropped area in the country.
· Uttar Pradesh produces about two-fifth of sugarcane of the country.
· Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh are other leading producers of this crop
where yield level of sugarcane is high.
· Its yield is low in northern India.
Tea:
· Tea is a plantation crop used as beverage.
· Black tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
· Tea leaves have rich content of caffeine and tannin.

· It is an indigenous crop of hills in northern China.
· Conditions: It is grown over undulating topography of hilly areas and well drained soils in humid and
sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics.
· In India:
Ø Tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra valley of Assam which still is a major tea growing
area in the country.
Ø Later on, its plantation was introduced in the sub-Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling,
Jalpaiguri and Cooch Behar districts).
Ø Tea is also cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in Western Ghats.
· India is a leading producer of tea and accounts for about 21.1 per cent of total production in the world
2016.
· India's share in the international market of tea has declined substantially. It ranks second among tea
32
exporting countries in the world after China (2016).
· Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent of the total cropped area and contributes more than half of
total production of tea in the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the other leading producers of
tea.
Coffee:
· Coffee is a tropical plantation crop.
· Its seeds are roasted, ground and are used for preparing a beverage.
· There are three varieties of coffee i.e. arabica, robusta and liberica.
· India mostly grows superior quality coffee, arabica, which is in great demand in International market.
· India produces only about 3.7 per cent coffee of the world and ranks seventh after Brazil, Vietnam,
Colombia, Indonesia, Ethiopia, and Honduras in 2016.
· Cultivated Areas: Coffee is cultivated in the highlands of Western Ghats in Karnataka, Kerala, and
Tamil Nadu. Karnataka alone accounts for more than two-third of total production of coffee in India.
Agriculture Development in India

Before Independence:
· Indian agricultural economy was largely subsistence in nature. It had dismal performance in the first
half of twentieth century.
· This period witnessed severe droughts and famines.
During Partition:
· About one-third of the irrigated land in undivided India went to Pakistan. This reduced the proportion
of irrigated area in Independent India.
After Independence:
· The immediate goal of the Government was to increase food grains production by, switching over
from cash crops to food crops; intensification of cropping over already cultivated land; and increasing
cultivated area by bringing cultivable and fallow land under plough.
· Initially, this strategy helped in increasing food grains production. But agricultural production
stagnated during late –1950s.

Ø To overcome this problem, Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive
Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched.
· But two consecutive droughts during mid-1960s resulted in food crisis in India.
Ø Consequently, food grains were imported from other countries.
· New seed varieties of wheat (Mexico) and rice (Philippines) known as high yielding varieties (HYVs)
were available for cultivation by mid-1960s.
Ø India took advantage of this and introduced package technology comprising HYVs, along with
chemical fertilisers in irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
and Gujarat.
· Assured supply of soil moisture through irrigation was a basic pre-requisite for the success of this new
agricultural technology. This strategy of agricultural development paid dividends instantly and
33
increased the food grains production at very fast rate. This spurt of agricultural growth came to be
known as 'Green Revolution'.
Ø This also gave fillip to the development of a large number of Agro-inputs, Agro-processing
industries, and small-scale industries.
Ø This made the country self-reliant in food grain production.
· But Green Revolution was initially confined to irrigated areas only.
Ø This led to regional disparities in agricultural development in the country till 1970s, after which the
technology spread to the Eastern and Central parts of India.
· The Planning Commission of India focused its attention on the problems of agriculture in rainfed
areas in 1980s.
Ø It initiated Agro-climatic planning in 1988 to induce regionally balanced agricultural development
in India.
Ø It also emphasised on the need for diversification of agriculture and harnessing of resources for the
development of dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing and aquaculture.
· Initiation of the policy of liberalisation and free market economy in 1990s influenced the course of
development of Indian agriculture.
Growth of Agriculture Output and Technology:
There has been a significant increase in agricultural output and improvement in technology during the last 50 years.
· Production and yield of many crops such as rice and wheat has increased at an impressive rate. Among
the other crops, the production of sugarcane, oilseeds and cotton has also increased appreciably.
· Expansion of Irrigation:
Ø It has played a crucial role in enhancing agricultural output in India.
Ø It provided basis for introduction of modern agricultural technology, such as high yielding varieties
of seeds, chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and farm machinery.
Ø The net irrigated area in the country has also increased.
· Modern agricultural technology has diffused very fast in various areas of the country.
Ø Consumption of chemical fertilizers has increased by 15 times since mid-sixties.

Ø Since the high yielding varieties are highly susceptible to pests and diseases, the use of pesticides
has increased significantly since 1960s.
Problems of Indian Agriculture:

It varies according to agro-ecological and historical experiences of its different regions. There are some
problems which are common and range from physical constraints to institutional hindrances.
Dependence of Erratic Monsoon:
· Irrigation covers only about 33 per cent of the cultivated area in India. The crop production in rest of the
cultivated land directly depends on rain.
Ø Poor performance of south-west monsoon also adversely affects the supply of canal water for
irrigation.
Ø Even the areas receiving high annual rainfall experience considerable fluctuations.
34
· Drought is a common phenomenon in the low rainfall areas, which may also experience occasional
floods. Droughts and floods continue to be the twin menace in Indian agriculture.
Low Productivity:
· The yield of the crops in the country is low in comparison to the international level.
Ø Per hectare output of most of the crops such as rice, wheat, cotton, and oilseeds in India is much
lower than that of the U.S.A., Russia, and Japan.
Ø The vast rainfed areas of the country, particularly drylands which mostly grow coarse cereals,
pulses and oilseeds have low yields.
· The labour productivity in Indian agriculture is very low because of the very high pressure on the land
resources.
Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness:
· The modern agriculture inputs are very expensive. This resource intensive approach has become
unmanageable for marginal and small farmers as they have very meagre or no saving to invest in
agriculture.
· To tide over these difficulties, most of such farmers have resorted to availing credit from various
institutions and moneylenders.
· Crop failures and low returns from agriculture have forced them to fall in the trap of indebtedness.
Lack of Land Reforms:
· Indian peasantry had been exploited as there had been unequal distribution of land.
· Among the three revenue systems operational during British period, i.e., Mahalwari, Ryotwari and
Zamindari, the Zamindari was most exploitative for the peasants.
· After Independence, land reforms were accorded priority, but these reforms were not implemented
effectively due to lack of strong political will.
Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings:
· There are a large number of marginal and small farmers and the average size of land holding is
shrinking under increasing population pressure.
· There are some states where consolidation of holding has not been carried out even once.
· The small size fragmented landholdings are uneconomic.

Lack of Commercialisation:
· A large number of farmers produce crops for self-consumption and these farmers do not have enough
land resources to produce more than their requirement.
· Modernisation and commercialisation of agriculture have taken place in the irrigated areas.
Vast Underemployment:
· There is a massive underemployment in the agricultural sector in India, particularly in the unirrigated
tracts.
Ø In these areas, there is a seasonal unemployment ranging from 4 to 8 months.
Ø Even in the cropping season, work is not available throughout as agricultural operations are not
labour intensive.
35
Degradation of Cultivable Land:
· The problem of degradation of land resources arises out of faulty strategy of irrigation and
agricultural development. This may lead to depletion of soil fertility.
· The situation is particularly alarming in irrigated areas. A large tract of agricultural land has lost its
fertility due to alkalisation and salinisation of soils and waterlogging.
· Excessive use of chemicals such as insecticides and pesticides has led to their concentration in toxic
amounts in the soil profile.
· Leguminous crops have been displaced from the cropping pattern in the irrigated areas and duration of
fallow has substantially reduced owing to multiple cropping.
· Rainfed areas in humid and semi-arid tropics also experience degradation of several types like soil
erosion by water and wind erosion which are often induced by human activities.
Interesting points
· National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

Ø It is to make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient by
promoting location specific integrated/composite farming systems and to conserve natural
resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation measures.
Ø The Government has been promoting organic farming in the country through the scheme such
as Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Rastriya Vikas Yojana (RKVY).
· Farmer's Portal of India:
Ø It gives detailed information on farmers' insurance, agriculture storage, crops, extension
activities, seeds, pesticides, farm machineries, etc.
Ø Block level details related to soil fertility, storage, insurance, training, etc. are available in an
interactive map.
36
WATER RESOURCES
6
Water is a cyclic resource with abundant supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per cent of the earth's
surface is covered with it but freshwater constitutes only about 3 per cent of the total water. In fact, a very
small proportion of freshwater is effectively available for human use. The efficient use and conservation of
water become necessary to ensure development.
Water Resources of India:

· India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of the world's surface area, 4 per cent of the world's water
resources and about 16 per cent of the world's population.
· The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year is about 4,000 cubic km.
· The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
Ø Out of this, only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
Surface Water Resources:
· There are four major sources of surface water - rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.
· In India, there are about 10,360 rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.
· The mean annual flow in all the river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 cubic km.
Ø Due to topographical, hydrological, and other constraints, only about 690 cubic km (32 per cent)
of the available surface water can be utilised.
· Water flow in a river depends on size of its catchment area or river basin and rainfall within its
catchment area.
Ø The precipitation is relatively high in the catchment areas of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra and
the Barak rivers and they account for only about one-third of the total area in the country, have
60 per cent of the total surface water resources.
· Much of the annual water flow in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the Krishna, and the Kaveri has
been harnessed, but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.
Ground Water Resources:
· The total replenishable groundwater resources in the country are about 432 cubic km.
· The level of groundwater utilisation is relatively high in the river basins lying in north-western region
and parts of south India. For example - Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
· Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small proportion of their groundwater
potentials.
· States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura, and Maharashtra are utilising their groundwater
resources at a moderate rate.
Lagoons and Backwaters:
WATER RESOURCES
· India has a vast coastline, and the coast is very indented in some states. Due to this, a number of
lagoons and lakes have formed. The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have vast surface
water resources in these lagoons and lakes.
· Although, water is generally brackish in these water bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain
varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
37
Water Demand and Utilisation:
· India has traditionally been an agrarian economy, and about two-third of its population have been
dependent on agriculture.
· The agricultural production has been assigned a very high priority in the five years plans for developing
irrigations increase.
· Multipurpose river valleys projects, like the Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna
Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project, etc., have been taken up.
· Agriculture accounts for most of the surface and groundwater utilisation:
Ø It accounts for 89 per cent of the surface water.
Ø It accounts for 92 per cent of the groundwater utilisation.
· While the share of industrial sector is limited to 2 per cent of the surface water utilisation and 5 per
cent of the groundwater.
· The share of domestic sector is higher (9 per cent) in surface water utilisation as compared to
groundwater.
Demand of Water for Irrigation:
· In agriculture, water is mainly used for irrigation.
Ø Irrigation is needed because of spatio-temporal variability in rainfall in India.
· The large tracts of the country are deficient in rainfall and are drought prone.
Ø North-western India and Deccan plateau constitute such areas.
· Winter and summer seasons are more or less dry in most part of India.
Ø It is difficult to practise agriculture without assured irrigation during dry seasons.
· Even areas of ample rainfall like west Bengal and Bihar breaks in monsoon or its failure creates dry
spells which not good for crops.
· Water need of certain crops also makes irrigation necessary. For example - water requirement of rice,
sugarcane, jute, etc. is very high which can be met only through irrigation.
Significance of Irrigations:
· Provision of irrigation makes multiple cropping possible.
· The irrigated lands have higher agricultural productivity than unirrigated land.
· The high yielding varieties of crops need regular moisture supply.
Irrigation in India:
· In Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, more than 85 per cent of their net sown area is under
irrigation.
· Of the total net irrigated area 76.1 per cent in Punjab and 51.3 per cent in Haryana are irrigated
WATER RESOURCES
through wells and tube wells. This shows that these states utilise large proportion of their
groundwater potential which has resulted in groundwater depletion in these states.
· Problems of Irrigation: Over withdrawals in some states, like Rajasthan and Maharashtra, has
increased fluoride concentration in groundwater, and this practice has led to increase in concentration
of arsenic in parts of West Bengal and Bihar.
Emerging Water Problems:
38
· The per capita availability of water is dwindling day-by-day due to increase in population.
· The available water resources are also getting polluted due to industrial, agricultural and domestic
effluents.
Deterioration of Water Quality:

Water Quality refers to purity of water, or water without unwanted foreign substances.
· Water gets polluted by foreign matters, such as micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial and other
wastes.
Ø Such matters deteriorate the quality of water and render it unfit for human use.
· When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, ocean, and other water bodies, they get
dissolved or lie suspended in water.
Ø This results in pollution of water, whereby quality of water deteriorates affecting aquatic systems.
Ø Sometimes, these pollutants also seep down and pollute groundwater.
Water Conservation and Management:
· The need has arisen to conserve and effectively manage this precious life-giving resource for
sustainable development due to declining availability of freshwater and increasing demand.
· India has to take quick steps and make effective policies and laws and adopt effective measures for its
conservation as water availability from sea/ocean, due to high cost of desalinisation, is considered
negligible.
· The attempts are to be made to prevent the pollution besides developing water-saving technologies
and methods.
· There is need to encourage watershed development, rainwater harvesting, water recycling and reuse,
and conjunctive use of water for sustaining water supply in long run.
Water Pollution:
· The available water resources are degrading rapidly.
· The major rivers generally retain better water quality in less densely populated upper stretches in hilly
areas.
· The drains carrying agricultural (fertilizers and insecticides), domestic (solid and liquid wastes), and
industrial effluents join the rivers.
· The concentration of pollutants in rivers, especially remains very high during the summer season
when flow of water is low.
· The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards has
been monitoring water quality of national aquatic resources at 507 stations.
WATER RESOURCES
· The data obtained from these stations show that:

Ø Organic and bacterial contamination continues to be the main source of pollution in rivers.
· Polluted Rivers:
Ø The Yamuna river is the most polluted river in India between Delhi and Etawah.
Ø Other Severely Polluted Rivers: The Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at Lucknow, the Kali, the
Adyar, the Cooum (entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and the Musi of Hyderabad and the
39
Ganga at Kanpur and Varanasi.
· Groundwater pollution has occurred due to high concentrations of heavy/toxic metals, fluoride, and
nitrates at different parts of India.
Ineffectiveness of Legislative Provisions:

· The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act 1986 have
not been implemented effectively.
· The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to reduce pollution has also made marginal. Impacts.
There is a strong need to generate public awareness about importance of water and impacts of water
pollution.
Recycle and Reuse of Water:

Fresh water availability can be improved by recycle and reuse.
· Use of water of lesser quality such as reclaimed wastewater would be an attractive option for
industries for cooling and firefighting to reduce their water cost.
· For example - In urban areas water after bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening. This
would conserve better quality of water for drinking purposes.
· There is enormous scope for replenishing water through recycling.
Watershed Management:
· Watershed management basically refers to efficient management and conservation of surface and
groundwater resources.
· It involves prevention of runoff and storage and recharge of groundwater through various methods like
percolation tanks, recharge wells, etc.
· In broad sense:
Ø Watershed management includes conservation, regeneration and judicious use of all resources –
natural (like land, water, plants and animals) and human with in a watershed.
· Aims: At bringing about balance between natural resources on the one hand and society on the other.
· Programmes for Watershed Development:
Ø Haryali: It is a watershed development project sponsored by the Central Government which aims at
enabling the rural population to conserve water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and afforestation.
Ø The Project is being executed by Gram Panchayats with people's participation.
· Neeru-Meeru (Water and You) programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Pani Sansad (in Alwar,
WATER RESOURCES
Rajasthan):
Ø They have taken up constructions of various water-harvesting structures such as percolation
tanks, dug out ponds (Johad), check dams, etc., through people's participation.
· Tamil Nadu has made water harvesting structures in the house's compulsory.
40
The Salient Features of National Water Policy (2012) are as follows:
· Emphasis on the need for a national water framework law, comprehensive legislation for
optimum development of inter-State rivers and river valleys.
· Water, after meeting the pre-emptive needs for safe drinking water and sanitation, achieving
food security, supporting poor people dependent on agriculture for their livelihood and high
priority allocation for minimum eco-system needs, be treated as economic good so as to promote
its conservation and efficient use.
· Ecological needs of the river should be determined recognizing that river flows are characterized
by low or no flows, small floods (freshets), large floods and flow variability and should
accommodate development needs.
· A system to evolve benchmarks for water uses for different purposes, i.e., water footprints, and
water auditing be developed to ensure efficient use of water. Project financing has been
suggested as a tool to incentivize efficient & economic use of water.
· Setting up of Water Regulatory Authority has been recommended. Incentivization of recycle and
re-use has been recommended.
· Water Users Associations should be given statutory powers to collect and retain a portion of
water charges, manage the volumetric quantum of water allotted to them and maintain the
distribution system in their jurisdiction.
Rainwater Harvesting
· Rainwater harvesting is a method to capture and store rainwater for various uses.
· It is also used to recharge groundwater aquifers.
· It is a low cost and eco-friendly technique for preserving every drop of water by guiding the rainwater
to borewell, pits and wells.
· Traditional rainwater harvesting in rural areas is done by using surface storage bodies, like lakes,
ponds, irrigation tanks, etc.
· In Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures locally known as Kund or Tanka (a covered
underground tank) are constructed near or in the house or village to store harvested rainwater.
Significance of Rainwater Harvesting:

· Rainwater harvesting increases water availability, checks the declining groundwater table, improves
WATER RESOURCES
the quality of groundwater through dilution of contaminants, like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil
erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge aquifers.
· It also decreases the community dependence on groundwater for domestic use.
· It can also save energy to pump groundwater as recharge leads to rise in groundwater table.
· Urban areas can specially benefit from rainwater harvesting as water demand has already outstripped
supply in most of the cities and towns.
41
Interesting points
· Jal Kranti Abhiyaan:

Ø It was launched by the Government of India in 2015–16.
Ø Aim: To ensure water security through per capita availability of water in the country. It aims at
involving local bodies, NGOs and citizens, at large, in creating awareness regarding its
objectives.
Ø The following activities have been proposed under the Jal Kranti Abhiyan:
o Selection of one water stressed village in each 672 districts of the country to create a 'Jal
Gram'.
o Identification of model command area of about 1000 hectares in different parts of India, for
example, UP, Haryana (North), Karnataka, Telangana, Tamil Nadu (South), Rajasthan,
Gujarat (West), Odisha (East), Meghalaya (North-East).
o Abatement of pollution:
§ Water conservation and artificial recharge.
§ Reducing groundwater pollution.
§ Construction of Arsenic-free wells in selected areas of the country
o Creating mass awareness through social media, radio, TV, print media, poster, and essay
writing competitions in schools.
Ø Jal Kranti Abhiyan is designed to provide livelihood and food security through water security.
WATER RESOURCES
42
MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES
7
India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure. The vast
alluvial plain tract of north India is devoid of minerals of economic use. The mineral resources provide the
country with the necessary base for industrial development.
Mineral:
A mineral is a natural substance of organic or inorganic origin with definite chemical and physical
properties.
Types of Mineral Resources:
· On the basis of Chemical and Physical Properties: Minerals may be grouped under metallics and non-
Metallics:
· Metallic Minerals: They are the sources of metals. It includes Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal.
Metallic minerals are further divided into:
Ø Ferrous: All those minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself.
Ø Non-Ferrous: Those which do not have iron content such as copper, bauxite, etc.
· Non-metallic minerals:
Ø They are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which are derived
from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum.
Ø Other type of non-metallic minerals is inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.
43
Characteristics of Minerals:
· These are unevenly distributed over space.
· There is inverse relationship in quality and quantity of minerals i.e., good quality minerals are less in
quantity as compared to low quality minerals.
· All minerals are exhaustible over time as these take long to develop geologically, and they cannot be
replenished immediately at the time of need.
Distribution of Minerals in India:
· Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the Peninsular Plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.
· Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari.
· Petroleum reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e., offshore
region in the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.
· Most of the major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangalore and Kanpur.
Concentration of Minerals in three broad belts in India

The North- Eastern Plateau Region:
· It covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, West Bengal, and parts of Chhattisgarh.
· It has variety of minerals viz. iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica.
The Southern-Western Plateau Region:

· This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
· This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite and also contains high grade iron ore, manganese, and limestone.
· This belt lacks in coal deposits except Neyveli lignite.
· This belt does not have as diversified mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
· Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium, bauxite clay and Goa has iron ore deposits.
The North-Western Region:

· This belt extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part of Gujarat and minerals are associated with
Dharwar system of rocks.

· Major Minerals: Copper, zinc.
· Rajasthan is rich in building stones i.e., sandstone, granite, marble.
· Gypsum and Fuller's earth deposits are also extensive.
· Dolomite and limestone provide raw materials for cement industry.
· Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.
· Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources of salt.
The Himalayan belt is another mineral belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten are known to occur.
They occur on both the eastern and western parts. Assam valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides oil
resources are also found in off-shore-areas near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
44
Ferrous Mineral:
Ferrous minerals such as iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc., provide a strong base for the development
of metallurgical industries.
Iron Ore:
· India has the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.
· The two main types of ore found in India are haematite and magnetite which has great demand in
international market due to its superior quality.
· The iron ore mines occur in close proximity to the coal fields in the North-Eastern plateau region of
India which adds to their advantage.
· About 95 per cent of total reserves of iron ore is located in the States of Odisha, Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.
· In Odisha:
Ø Iron ore occurs in a series of hill ranges in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj and Jhar.
Ø Important Mines: Gurumahisani, Sulaipet, Badampahar (Mayurbhaj), Kiruburu (Kendujhar) and
Bonai (Sundergarh).
· In Jharkhand:
Ø It has some of the oldest iron ore mines and most of the iron and steel plants are located around them.
Ø Important Mines: Noamundi and Gua are located in Poorbi and Pashchimi Singhbhum districts.
This belt further extends to Durg, Dantewara and Bailadila.
Ø Dalli, and Rajhara in Durg are the important mines of iron ore in India.
· In Karnataka:
Ø The iron ore deposits occur in Sandur -Hospet area of Ballari district, Baba Budan hills and
Kudremukh in Chikkamagaluru district and parts of Shivamogga, Chitradurg and Tumakuru districts.
· In Maharashtra:
Ø Iron Mining Regions: The districts of Chandrapur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri.
· In Telangana:
Ø Iron Mining Region: Karimnagar and Warangal district of Telangana,
· In Andhra Pradesh:
Ø Iron Mining Region: Kurnool, Cuddapah and Anantapur districts.

· In Tamil Nadu:
Ø Iron Mining Region: Salem and Nilgiris districts.
Manganese:
· Manganese is an important raw material for smelting of iron ore and also used for manufacturing
ferro alloys.
· Manganese deposits are found in almost all geological formations and it is mainly associated with
Dharwar system.
· Odisha is the leading producer of Manganese.
45
Ø Major mines are located in the central part of the iron ore belt of India, particularly in Bonai,
Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi and Bolangir.
· Karnataka is another major producer.
Ø The mines are located in Dharwar, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga,
Chitradurg and Tumakuru.
· Maharashtra is also an important producer of manganese.
Ø They are mined in Nagpur, Bhandara and Ratnagiri districts.
Ø The disadvantage to these mines is that they are located far from steel plants.
· The manganese belt of Madhya Pradesh extends in a belt in Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla
and Jhabua districts.
· Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand are other minor producers of manganese.
Fig. 7.2: India – Metallic Minerals (Ferrous)
46
Non- Ferrous Minerals:
India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite.
Bauxite:
· Uses: Bauxite is the ore used in manufacturing of aluminium.
· It is found mainly in tertiary deposits and is associated with laterite rocks occurring extensively either
on the plateau or hill ranges of peninsular India and also in the coastal tracts of India.
· Odisha happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite.
Ø Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading producers. The other two areas which have been
increasing their production are Bolangir and Koraput.
· The patlands of Lohardaga in Jharkhand have rich deposits.
· Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh (M.P.) and Maharashtra are other major producers.
Ø Bhavanagar, and Jamnagar in Gujarat have the major deposits.
Ø Chhattisgarh has bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau.
Ø Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have important deposits of bauxite.
Ø Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Maharashtra are important producers.
· Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Goa are minor producers of bauxite.
Copper:
· Copper is an indispensable metal in the electrical industry for making wires, electric motors,
transformers, and generators.
· Properties:
Ø It is alloyable, malleable and ductile.
Ø It is also mixed with gold to provide strength to jewellery.
· Copper Deposits: It occur in Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh and
Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.
· Minor Producers of Copper: Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh), Chitradurg and Hasan
districts (Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).
Non-Metallic Minerals:
Mica is the important non-metallic minerals produced in India. The other minerals extracted for local
consumption are limestone, dolomite and phosphate.
Mica:
· It is mainly used in the electrical and electronic industries.
· Properties: It can be split into very thin sheets which are tough and flexible.
· Producing Areas: Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan followed by Tamil Nadu,
West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh.
Ø In Jharkhand, high quality mica is obtained in a belt extending over a distance of about 150 km,
in length and about 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau.
Ø In Andhra Pradesh, Nellore district produces the best quality mica.
47
Ø In Rajasthan, mica belt extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.
· Mica deposits also occur in Mysuru and Hasan districts of Karanataka, Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli,
Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu, Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra, Purulia and
Bankura in West Bengal.
Energy Resources:
Mineral fuels are essential for generation of power, required by agriculture, industry, transport, and other
sectors of the economy.
Conventional Resources:
· Mineral fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas (known as fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are
the conventional sources of energy.
· These conventional sources are exhaustible resources.
Coal:
· Uses: Coal is a one of the important minerals which is mainly used in the generation of thermal power
and smelting of iron ore.
· Coal occurs in rock sequences mainly of two geological ages, namely Gondwana and tertiary deposits.
· About 80 per cent of the coal deposits in India is of bituminous type and is of non-coking grade.
· The most important Gondwana coal fields of India are located in Damodar Valley.
· They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt and the important coal fields in this region are Raniganj, Jharia,
Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.
Ø Jharia is the largest coal field followed by Raniganj.
· The other river valleys associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi, and Sone.
· Important Coal Mining Centres: Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar
Pradesh), Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur in Odisha, Chanda–Wardha, Kamptee and
Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni in Telangana and Pandur in Andhra Pradesh.
· Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Nagaland.
Ø It is extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur and

Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik – Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot (Jammu and
Kashmir).
· The brown coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat and Jammu and
Kashmir.
Petroleum:
· Crude petroleum consists of hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states varying in chemical
composition, colour, and specific gravity.
· It is an essential source of energy for all internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways, and
aircraft.
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· Its numerous by-products are processed in petrochemical industries, such as fertiliser, synthetic
rubber, synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap, and cosmetics.
· Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary rocks of the tertiary period.
· Oil exploration and production was systematically taken up after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission
was set up in 1956.
Ø Till then, Digboi in Assam was the only oil producing region.
· In recent years, new oil deposits have been found at the extreme western and eastern parts of India.
Ø In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and Moran are important oil producing areas.
Ø The major oilfields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and Lunej.
Ø Mumbai High which lies 160 km off Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and production commenced
in 1976.
Ø Oil and natural gas have been found in exploratory wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin on
the east coast.
· Oil extracted from the wells is crude oil and contains many impurities. It cannot be used directly. It
needs to be refined. There are two types of refineries in India:
Ø Field-based: For example – Digboi.
Ø Market-based: For example – Barauni.
Naturals Gas:
· The Gas Authority of India Limited was set up in 1984 to transport and market natural gas.
· It is obtained along-with oil in all the oilfields, but exclusive reserves have been located along the
eastern coast as well as (Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh), Tripura, Rajasthan and off-shore
wells in Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Non-Conventional Energy Sources:
· Fossil fuel sources, such as coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy use exhaustible raw
materials.
· Sustainable energy resources are only the renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydro-
geothermal and biomass.
· These energy sources are more equitably distributed and environment friendly.
· These will provide more sustained, eco-friendly cheaper energy after the initial cost is taken care of.
Nuclear Energy Resources:

· Nuclear energy has emerged as a viable source in recent times.
· Important minerals used for the generation of nuclear energy are uranium and thorium.
· Uranium Deposits:
Ø They occur in the Dharwar rocks.
Ø Geographically, uranium ores are known to occur in several locations along the Singbhum Copper
belt.
Ø It is also found in Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu districts of Rajasthan, Durg district of
Chhattisgarh, Bhandara district of Maharashtra and Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh.
· Thorium Deposits:
49
Ø These are mainly obtained from monazite and ilmenite in the beach sands along the coast of Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
Ø World's richest monazite deposits occur in Palakkad and Kollam districts of Kerala, near
Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh and Mahanadi river delta in Odisha.
· Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1948 but the progress could be made only after the
establishment of the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay in 1954 which was renamed as the Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre in 1967.
· Important Nuclear Power Projects: Tarapur (Maharashtra), Rawatbhata near Kota (Rajasthan),
Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kaiga (Karnataka) and Kakarapara (Gujarat).
Solar Energy:
· Sun rays tapped in photovoltaic cells can be converted into energy, known as solar energy.
· The two effective processes considered to be very effective to tap solar energy are photovoltaics and
solar thermal technology.
· Advantages of Solar thermal technology: It is cost competitive, environment friendly and easy to
construct.
· Solar energy is 7 per cent more effective than coal or oil-based plants and 10 per cent more effective
than nuclear plants.
· Uses: It is generally used more in appliances like heaters, crop dryers, cookers, etc.
· The western part of India has greater potential for the development of solar energy in Gujarat and
Rajasthan.
Wind Energy:
· Wind energy is absolutely pollution free, inexhaustible source of energy.
· Mechanism of Energy Conversion from blowing Wind:
Ø The kinetic energy of wind, through turbines is converted into electrical energy.
· The permanent wind systems such the trade winds, westerlies and seasonal wind like monsoon have
been used as source of energy.
Ø The local winds, land, and sea breezes can also be used to produce electricity.
· In Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable conditions for wind energy exist.
Tidal and Wave Energy:

· Ocean currents are the storehouse of infinite energy. The ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current can
be used to generate energy.
· Large tidal waves are known to occur along the west coast of India. Hence, India has great potential for
the development of tidal energy along the coasts.
Geothermal Energy:
· When the magma from the interior of earth, comes out on the surface, tremendous heat is released.
This heat energy can successfully be tapped and converted to electrical energy.
· The hot water that gushes out through the geyser wells is also used in the generation of thermal
energy.
· It is popularly known as Geothermal energy.
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· In India, a geothermal energy plant has been commissioned at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.
Bio-energy:
· Bio-energy refers to energy derived from biological products which includes agricultural residues,
municipal, industrial, and other wastes.
· Bioenergy is a potential source of energy conversion.
Ø It can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy or gas for cooking.
Ø It will also process the waste and garbage and produce energy.
· Advantages: This will improve economic life of rural areas in developing countries, reduce
environmental pollution, enhance self-reliance, and reduce pressure on fuel wood.
· One such project converting municipal waste into energy is Okhla in Delhi.
Conservation of Mineral Resource:

· The challenge of sustainable development requires integration of quest for economic development
with environmental concerns.
· Traditional methods of resource use result into generating enormous quantity of waste as well as
create other environmental problems.
· There is an urgent need to conserve the resources.
· The inexhaustible resources should be developed to replace the exhaustible resources.
· In case of metallic minerals, use of scrap metals will enable recycling of metals.
· Use of scrap is specially significant in metals like copper, lead and zinc in which India's reserves are
meagre.
· Use of substitutes for scarce metals may also reduce their consumption.
· Export of strategic and scarce minerals must be reduced, so that the existing reserve may be used for a
longer period.
Interesting points
· Petroleum is referred to as liquid gold because of its scarcity and diversified uses. According to a
newspaper report (The Hindu, 05.09.2006) the Oil and Natural Gas Commission has found
potential zones of natural gas reserves in Ramanathapuram district.
· The first successful (1890) attempt to tap the underground heat was made in the city of Boise,
Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water pipe network was built to give heat to the surrounding
buildings. This plant is still working.
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8
In modern times industries have become very important part of an economy. They provide employment to
large labour force and contribute significantly in the total national wealth/income.
Types of Industries
On the basis of Size, Capital Investment and Labour Force employed:
Industries are classified as large, medium, small scale, and cottage industries.
On the basis of Ownership:
· Public Sector: Public sector enterprises are government/state-controlled companies or corporations
funded by governments. Industries of strategic and national importance are usually in the public
sector.
· Private Sector: They are controlled by private individuals.
· Joint and Cooperative Sector.
On the basis of the use of their Products:

· Basic goods industries.
· Capital goods industries.
· Intermediate goods industries.
· Consumer goods industries.
On the basis of Raw Materials used by them.

· Agriculture based industries.
· Forest-based industries.
· Mineral-based industries.
· Industrially processed raw material-based industries.
On the Nature of the Manufactured Products:

Eight classes of industries thus identified are:
· Metallurgical Industries.
· Mechanical Engineering Industries.
· Chemical and Allied Industries.
· Textile Industries
· Food Processing Industries.
· Electricity Generation.
· Electronics.
· Communication Industries.
Location of Industries:
Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw materials, power, market, capital,
transport, and labour, etc.
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· Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place.
· There is strong relationship between raw material and type of industry.
· It is economical to locate the manufacturing industries at a place where cost of production and delivery
cost of manufactured goods to consumers are the least.
· Transport costs, to a great extent, depend on the nature of raw materials and manufactured products.
Factors influencing the Location of Industries

Raw Material:
· Industries using weight-losing raw materials are located in the regions where raw materials are
located.
· Also, the locations of pulp industry, copper smelting and pig iron industries are located near their raw
materials.
· Both the Coal and iron ore are weight-losing raw materials in iron and steel industries. Hence, an
optimum location for iron and steel industries should be near raw material sources.
· Similarly, industries based on perishable raw materials are also located close to raw material sources.
Power:
· Power provides the motive force for machines, and therefore, its supply has to be ensured before the
location of any industry.
· However, certain industries, like aluminium and synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industries tend to be
located near sources of power because they are power intensive and require huge quantum of
electricity.
Market:
· Markets provide the outlets for manufactured products.
· Heavy machine, machine tools, heavy chemicals are located near the high demand areas as these are
market orientated.
· Cotton textile industry uses a non-weight-losing raw material and is generally located in large urban
centre, e.g., Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc.
· Petroleum refineries are also located near the markets as the transport of crude oil is easier and
several products derived from them are used as raw material in other industries. For example - Koyali,
Mathura and Barauni refineries.
Transport:
· The transport links helps to develop areas as nodal point. The industries shifted to interior locations,
only when railway lines were laid.
· All major industrial plants are located on the trunk rail routes.
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Labour:
· Industries require skilled labour. In India, labour is quite mobile and is available in large numbers due to
our large population.
Historical Factors:
· The locations like Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai were greatly influenced by our colonial past.
· During the initial phase of colonisation, manufacturing activities received new impetus provided by
the European traders.
Ø Places like Murshidabad, Dhaka, Bhadohi, Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode, Coimbatore, Mysuru etc.,
emerged as important manufacturing centres.
· In the subsequent industrial phase of colonialism:
Ø The manufacturing centres experienced rapid growth due to competition from the goods
manufactured in Britain and the discriminatory policies of colonial power.
· In the last phase of colonialism:
Ø The British promoted few industries in selected areas which led to larger spatial coverage by
different types of industries in the country.
Industrial Policy:
· India, being a democratic country aims at bringing about economic growth with balanced regional
development.
· Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on decision to develop
backward tribal areas of the country.
· At present, government of India provides lots of incentives to industries locating in backward areas.
Major Industries
The Iron and Steel Industry:
· The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial development in
India.
· Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on this industry for their basic infrastructure.
· The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential for iron and steel industry are
limestone, dolomite, manganese, and fire clay.
· The best location for the iron and steel plants is near the source of raw materials as all the raw
materials are gross (weight losing).
· In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha,
Jharkhand, and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good quality
coking coal and other supplementing raw materials.
· The Indian iron and steel industry consists of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel mills. It
also includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.
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Integrated Steel Plant
Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO):
· The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km
away from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export of steel.
· The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai provide water to the plant.
· The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi and Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda
mines in Odisha.
· Coking coal comes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.
Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO):

· The IISCO set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on another at Kulti.
· In 1937, the Steel corporation of Bengal was constituted in association with IISCO and set up another
iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur (West Bengal).
· All the three plants under IISCO are located very close to Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj, Jharia,
and Ramgarh).
· Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
· Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar.
· All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line.
· Unfortunately, steel production from IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the plants were taken
over by the government.
Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL):

· The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially called the Mysore Iron
and Steel Works, is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills.
· Limestone and manganese are also locally available.
· This region has no coal.
Ø At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was used as fuel till
1951.
Ø Afterwards, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls hydel
power project.
· The Bhadravati river supplies water to the plant.
· This plant produces specialised steels and alloys.
After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated steel plants were
set up with foreign collaboration: Rourkela in Odisha, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
· These were public sector plants under Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL).
· In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was created to manage these plants.
Rourkela Steel Plant:

· It was set up in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Odisha in collaboration with Germany.
55
· The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials, thus, minimising the cost of
transporting weight losing raw material.
· This plant has a unique locational advantage, as it receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore
from Sundargarh and Kendujhar.
· The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and water is obtained from the Koel and
Sankh rivers.
Bhilai Steel Plant:

· It was established with Russian collaboration in Durg district of Chhattisgarh and started production
in 1959.
· Iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine and coal from Korba and Kargali coal fields.
· Water comes from the Tanduladam and the power from the Korba Themal Power Station.
· This plant also lies on the Kolkata-Mumbai railway route.
· The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Vishakhapatnam.
Durgapur Steel Plant:

· Durgapur Steel Plant in West Bengal was set up in collaboration with the government of the United
Kingdom and started production in 1962.
· This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi.
· Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route.
· Hydel power and water is obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Bokaro Steel Plant:

· This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration.
· It was set up on the principle of transportation cost minimisation by creating Bokaro-Rourkela
combine.
· It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons on return take coal to Rourkela. Other raw
materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km.
· Water and hydel power is supplied by the Damodar Valley Corporation.
Other- Steel Plants:
· New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the main raw material
sources. All three plants are located in South India.
· The Vizag Steel Plant, in Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port-based plant which
started operating in 1992. Its port location is of advantage.
· The Vijaynagar Steel Plant at Hosapete in Karnataka was developed using indigenous technology.
This uses local iron ore and limestone.
· The Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.
Apart from these major steel plants, there are more than 206 units located in different parts of the country.
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Most of these use scrap iron as their main raw material and process it in electric furnaces.
The Cotton Textile Industry:

· It is one of the traditional industries of India. In the ancient and the medieval times, it used to be only a
cottage industry.
· India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos,
chintz, and other different varieties of fine cotton cloth.
Factors responsible for development of Cotton Textile Industry in India:

· India is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and humid climate.
· A large quantity of cotton was grown in India.
· Abundant skilled labour required for this industry was available in India.
Initially, the British did not encourage the development of the indigenous cotton textile industry.
· They exported raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool and brought back the finished
products to be sold in India.
· This cloth was cheaper because it was produced at mass scale in factories in U.K. as compared to the
cottage-based industries of India.
· In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai. This city had several advantages as a
cotton textile manufacturing centre.
Ø It was very close to the cotton producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
Ø Availability of Cotton: Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai port to be transported to
England.
Ø Availability of Capital: Mumbai was the financial centre and the it had the capital needed to start an
industry.
Ø Availability of Labour: The cheap and abundant labour was available locally.
Ø The machinery required for a cotton textile mill could be directly imported from England.
· Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Ahmedabad.
· Division of Cotton Textile Industry: The organised sector and the unorganised sector.
· The production of the organised sector has drastically fallen from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth
century to only about 6 per cent in 2000.

· At present, the power looms on the decentralised sector produce more than the handloom sector.
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Fig. 8.1: Cotton Textile Industries
Location of Cotton industry:

· Cotton is a “pure” raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process. So other
factors, like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the location of the
industry.
· At present the trend is to locate the industry at or close to markets:
Ø As it is the market that decides what kind of cloth is to be produced.
Ø Also, the market for the finished products is extremely variable, therefore, it becomes important
to locate the mills close to the market.
Development of Cotton Industry in India:

· After the first mills were set up in Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half of the nineteenth
century, the cotton textile industry expanded very rapidly.
58
· After 1921, with the development of the railway network other cotton textile centres expanded rapidly.
· In Southern India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai, and Bengaluru.
· In Central India, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur, and Vadodara became cotton textile centres.
· The development of hydroelectricity also favoured the location of the cotton textile mills away from
the cotton producing areas.
· Lower labour costs at centres like Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also
caused industries to be located away from cotton producing areas.
· Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur,
Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore, and Ujjain.
Ø All these centres are the traditional centres and are located close to the cotton producing regions.
· Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton producing states.
Sugar Industry:
· It is the second most important agro-based industry in the country.
· India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes about 8 per cent of
world. khandasari and gur or jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane.
· Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw materials.
· Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar mill was started in Bihar.
Location of the Sugar Industry:

Sugar factories are located within the cane producing regions.
· Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12 per cent
depending on its variety.
· Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field.
· Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting.
· Leading Producers of Sugar:
Ø Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in India and produces more than one-
third of the total production of the sugar in the country.
Ø Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar. The sugar factories are concentrated in
two belts – the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the tarai region.

Ø In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and
Tiruchchirappalli districts.
Ø Belagavi, Ballari, Mandya, Shivamogga, Vijayapura and Chitradurg districts are the major
producers in Karnataka.
Ø The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari,
Vishakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh and Nizamabad and Medak districts of Telangana.
· The other States which produce sugar are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
Petrochemical Industry:
59
Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which provide raw materials for many new industries, these
are collectively known as petrochemical industries.
· This group of industries is divided into four sub-groups: polymers, synthetic fibres, elastomers, and
surfactant intermediate.
· Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries.
· Location of Cracker units: Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira (Gujarat),
Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia (West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
Three organisations are working in the petrochemical sector under the administrative control of the
Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals.
· Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL):
Ø It is responsible for the manufacture and distribution of the various petrochemicals like polymers,
chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates.
· Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL):
Ø It is a joint venture of the Government of India and Weaver's Cooperative Societies.
Ø It produces polyester filament yarn and ny2lon chips at its two plants located at Vadodara and
Naldhari in Gujarat.
· Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology (CIPET):
Ø It involved in imparting training in petro-chemical industry.
Polymers:
· Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene.
· These materials are obtained in the process of refining crude oil.
· Polymers are used as raw materials in the plastic industry.
· Among polymers, polyethylene is a widely used thermoplastic.
· Plastic is first converted into sheets, powder, resin and pellets, and then used in manufacturing plastic products.
· Plastic products are preferred because of their strength, flexibility, water and chemical resistance and low prices.
· The National Organic Chemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL), established in private sector in 1961,
started the first naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai.
Synthetic Fibres:
· They are widely used in the manufacturing of fabrics because of their inherent strength, durability,
washability, and resistance to shrinkage.
· Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna.
Knowledge Based Industries:
· The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new possibilities of economic and social transformation.
· The IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing (ITESBPO) services continue to be on a robust growth path.
· Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy.
· The software industry has surpassed electronic hardware production.
Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation (LPG) and Industrial Development:
60
The new Industrial Policy was announced in 1991.
· Major Objectives of Policy: To build on the gains already made, correct the distortions or weaknesses
that have crept in, maintain a sustained growth in productivity and gainful employment and attain
international competitiveness.
· Measures initiated under the policy:
Ø Abolition of industrial licensing.
Ø Free entry to foreign technology.
Ø Foreign investment policy.
Ø Access to capital market.
Ø Open trade.
Ø Abolition of phased manufacturing programme,
Ø Liberalised industrial location programme.
· The policy has three main dimensions: liberalisation, privatisation, and globalisation.
· The industrial licensing system has been abolished for all except six industries related to security,
strategic or environmental concerns.
Ø Industries related to atomic energy; substances specified in the Schedule of the Department of
Atomic Energy and Railways have remained under the public sector.
· The government also has decided to offer a part of the shareholdings in the public enterprises to
financial institutions, general public and workers.
· The threshold limits of assets have been scrapped and no industry requires prior approval for investing
in the delicensed sector.
· Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been seen as a supplement to the domestic investment for
achieving a higher level of economic development.
Ø FDI benefits the domestic industry and the consumers by providing technological upgradation,
access to global managerial skills and practices, optimum use of natural and human resources, etc.
· The government has also announced changes in the industrial location policies. Industries are
discouraged in or very close to large cities due to environmental reasons.
· The industrial policy has been liberalised to attract private investor both domestic and multi-nationals.
Ø New sectors like, mining, telecommunications, highway construction and management have been
thrown open to private companies.
Critical Analysis of FDI:

There has been a big gap between approved and actual foreign direct investment, even though the number
of foreign collaborations is increasing.
Globalisation:
· Globalisation means integrating the economy of the country with the world economy.
Ø Under this process, goods, and services along with capital, labour and resources can move freely
from one nation to another.
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· Thrust of Globalisation: To increase the domestic and external competition through extensive
application of market mechanism and facilitating dynamic relationship with the foreign investors and
suppliers of technology.
· In the Indian context:

Ø Opening of the economy to foreign direct investment by providing facilities to foreign companies
to invest in different fields of economies activity in India.
Ø Removing restrictions and obstacles to the entry of multinational companies in India.
Ø Allowing Indian companies to enter into foreign collaboration in India and also encouraging them
to set up joint ventures abroad.
Ø Carrying out massive import liberalisation programmes by switching over from quantitative
restrictions to tariffs in the first place, and then bringing down the level of import duties
considerably.
Ø Instead of a set of export incentives, opting for exchange rate adjustments for promoting export.
Industrial Regions in India:

· Industries are not evenly distributed in the country.
Ø They tend to concentrate on certain locations because of the favourable locational factors.
· Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries:
Ø The number of industrial units.
Ø Number of industrial workers.
Ø Quantum of power used for industrial purposes.
Ø Total industrial output.
Ø Value added by manufacturing.
Table 8.1: Major Industrial Regions of the Country
Industrial Regions and Districts

Major Industrial Regions (8)
1. Mumbai-Pune Region 2. Hugli Region, 3. Bengaluru-Tamil Nadu Region, 4. Gujarat Region 5.
Chotanagpur Region, 6. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region, 7.Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region, MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
and 8. Kollam-Thiruvanathapuram Region
Minor Industrial Regions (13)

1. Ambala-Amritsar, 2. Sharanpur-Muzaffarnagar-Bijnor, 3. Indore-Dewas-Ujjain, 4.Jaipur-
Ajmer, 5. Kolhapur-South Kannada, 6. Northern Malabar, 7. Middle Malabar, 8. Adilabad-
Nizamabad,9. Allahabad-Varanasi-Mirzapur, 10. Bhojpur-Munger, 11. Durg-Raipur, 12. Bilaspur-
Korba, and 13. Bramaputra Valley.
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Industrial Districts (15)
1. Kanpur, 2. Hyderbad, 3. Agra, 4. Nagpur, 5. Gwalior, 6. Bhopal, 7. Lucknow, 8.Jalpaiguri, 9.
Cu ak, 10. Gorakhpur, 11. Aligarh, 12. Kota, 13. Purnia, 14. Jabalpur, and 15. Bareilly
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region:
· It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur.
· With the development of cotton textile industry, chemical industry also developed.
· Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants added additional
pull to this region.
· Besides, engineering goods, petroleum refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic and plastic goods,
drugs, fertilisers, electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport equipment and food
industries also developed.
· Important Industrial Centres: Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik,
Manmad, Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
Hugli Industrial Region:

· It is located along the Hugli river and extends from Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar in the south
for a distance of about 100 km.
Ø Industries also have developed in Mednipur in the west.
Ø Kolkata-Haora from the nucleus of this industrial region.
· Historical, geographical, economic and political factors have contributed much to its development.
Ø Kolkata was connected with interior parts by railway lines and road routes.
Ø Development of tea plantations in Assam and northern hills of West Bengal, the processing of
indigo earlier and jute later coupled with the opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron
ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau.
Ø Cheap labour available from thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha also
contributed to its development.
Ø Kolkata, being the capital city of British India (1773-1911), attracted the British capital.
Ø The establishment of first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modern industrial
clustering in this region.
· Cotton textile industry also grew along with jute industry, paper, engineering, textile machinery,
electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and petrochemical industries.
· Landmarks of Region: Factory of the Hindustan Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel engine factory
at Chittaranjan.
· Important Industrial Centres: Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara,
Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
Bengaluru-Chennai Industrial Region:

· Till 1960, industries were confined to Bengaluru, Salem and Madurai districts but now they have
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spread over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.
Ø Since, this region is away from the coalfields, its development is dependent on the Pykara
hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932.
Ø Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas.
Ø Along with cotton mills, loom industry spread very rapidly.
Ø Several heavy engineering industries converged at Bengaluru.
· Industrial Landmarks of Region: Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics.
· Important Industries: textiles, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber
goods, medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, match box,
leather goods, etc.
Gujarat Industrial Region:

· The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and Vadodara, but this region extends upto
Valsad and Surat in the south and to Jamnagar in the west.
· Development of this Region:
Ø It is associated with the location of the cotton textile industry since 1860s.
Ø Located in cotton growing area, this region has double advantage of the proximity of raw materials
as well as of market.
Ø The discovery of oilfields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar,
Vadodara and Jamnagar.
Ø The port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of this region.
Ø Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided raw materials to a host of petrochemical industries.
· Diverse Industrial Structure: Besides, textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical
industries, other industries are heavy and basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel engines, textile
machinery, engineering, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairy products and food processing.
· Recently, largest petroleum refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.
· Important Industrial Centres: Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
Rajkot, Surat, Valsad and Jamnagar.
Chotanagpur Region:
· This region extends over Jharkhand, northern Odisha and western West Bengal and is known for the
heavy metallurgical industries.
· Reasons for development:
Ø Proximity of coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries in this
region.
Ø The thermal and hydroelectric plants have been constructed in the Damodar Valley to meet the
power requirement.
Ø Densely populated surrounding regions provide cheap labour.
Ø Hugli region provides vast market for its industries.
· Important Industries: Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilisers, cement, paper, locomotives, and
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heavy electricals.
· Important Centres: Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela,
Durgapur, Asansol and Dalmianagar.
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region:
· This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts in
the south.
· Reasons for Development:
Ø Industrial development of this region hinges upon Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and
developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals in their hinterlands.
Ø Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy.
Ø Petroleum refinery based on imported petroleum facilitated the growth of several petrochemical
industries.
· Ship building industry was started at Vishakhapatnam in 1941.
· Principal Industries: Sugar, textile, jute, paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and light engineering.
· Important Centres: Vishakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijaynagar, Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and
Kurnool.
Gurugram-Delhi -Meerut Region:

· This region is located far away from the mineral and power resources, and therefore, the industries are
light and market oriented.
· Major Industries: Electronics, light engineering and electrical goods. Besides, there are cotton, woollen
and synthetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements,
chemical and vanaspati industries.
· To the south lies the Agra-Mathura industrial area, which specialises in glass and leather goods.
Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical complex.
Kollam-Thiruvanantpuram Region:
· This industrial region is spread over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Always, Ernakulam and Alappuzha
districts.
· Plantation, agriculture, and hydropower provide industrial base to this region.
· Agricultural products processing and market-oriented light industries predominate the region and its
is located far from the mineral belt of the country.
· Location of petroleum refinery at Kochchi has added a vista of new industries to this region.
· Important Industries: cotton textile, sugar, rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser and fish-based
industries are important. Food processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement
industries are also significant.
· Important Industrial Centres: Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochchi, Alappuzha and Punalur.
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PLANNING AND SUSTAINABLE
9 DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAN CONTEXT
The word 'planning' has been used with reference to the process of economic development. It is different
from the traditional hit-and-miss methods by which reforms and reconstruction are often undertaken.
Approach of Planning:
There are two approaches to planning, i.e., sectoral planning and regional planning.
Sectoral Planning:
It means formulation and implementation of the sets of schemes or programmes aimed at development of
various sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, irrigation, manufacturing, power, etc.
Regional Planning:
The uneven pattern of development over space necessitates that the planners have a spatial perspective and
draw the plans to reduce regional imbalance in development. This type of planning is termed as regional
planning.
Target Area Planning:

· The planning process has to take special care of those areas which have remained economically
backward.
PLANNING AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN INDIAN CONTEXT

· Economic development of a region depends upon its resource base but sometimes resource-rich
region also remains backward.
· Economic development requires technology, as well as investment besides resources.
· In order to arrest the accentuation of regional and social disparities, the Planning Commission
introduced the 'target area' and target group approaches to planning.
· Examples of Programmes towards the development of Target Areas: Command Area Development
Programme, Drought Prone Area Development Programme, Desert Development Programme, Hill
Area Development Programme.
· Target Group Programme: The Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) and Marginal Farmers
Development Agency (MFDA).
· In the 8th Five Year Plan special area programmes were designed to develop infrastructure in hill
areas, north-eastern states, tribal areas, and backward areas.
Hill Area Development Programme:

· These were initiated during the Fifth Five Year Plan covering 15 districts comprising all the hilly
districts of Uttar Pradesh (present Uttarakhand), Mikir Hill and North Cachar hills of Assam, Darjeeling
district of West Bengal and Nilgiri district of Tamil Nadu.
· The National Committee on the Development of Backward Area in 1981 recommended:
Ø All the hill areas in the country having height above 600 m and not covered under tribal sub-plan be
treated as backward hill areas.
· The detailed plans for the development of hill areas were drawn keeping in view their topographical,
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ecological, social, and economic conditions.
· Aim: Harnessing the indigenous resources of the hill areas through development of horticulture,
plantation, agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry, forestry and small-scale and village industry.
Drought Prone Area Programme:

· This programme was initiated during the Fourth Five Year Plan with the objectives of providing
employment to the people in drought-prone areas and creating productive assets.
· It emphasised on irrigation projects, land development programmes, afforestation, grassland
development and creation of basic rural infrastructure, such as electricity, roads, market, credit, and
services.
· The National Committee on Development of Backward Areas reviewed the performance of this
programme.
· This programme is largely confined to the development of agriculture and allied sectors with major
focus on restoration of ecological balance.
· Adoption of integrated watershed development approach at the micro-level.
· The restoration of ecological balance between water, soil, plants, and human and animal population
should be a basic consideration in the strategy of development of drought-prone areas.
· The Irrigation Commission (1972) introduced the criterion of 30 per cent irrigated area and
demarcated the drought-prone areas.

· Drought Prone Areas in India: It spread over semi-arid and arid tract of Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western
Madhya Pradesh, Marathwada region of Maharashtra, Rayalaseema and Telangana plateaus of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka plateau and highlands and interior parts of Tamil Nadu.
· In fifth five-year plan tribal sub plan was introduced.
Ø The most significant contribution of tribal sub-plan was the development of infrastructure in
terms of schools, healthcare facilities, potable water, etc.
Sustainable Development
Development:
· The term development is generally used to describe the state of particular societies and the process of
changes experienced by them.
· The development is a multi-dimensional concept and signifies the positive, irreversible
transformation of the economy, society, and environment.
Post-World War II Era:

· The concept of development was synonymous to economic growth which is measured in terms of
temporal increase in gross national product (GNP) and per capita income/per capita consumption.
· But even the countries having high economic growth, experienced speedy rise in poverty because of
its unequal distribution.
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In 1970s:
· The phrases such as redistribution with growth and growth and equity were incorporated in the
definition of development.
· It was realised that the concept of development cannot be restricted to the economic sphere alone.
· It also includes the issues such as improving the well-being and living standard of people, availing of
the health, education, and equality of opportunity, and ensuring political and civil rights.
By 1980s:
· Development emerged as a concept encapsulating wide-spread improvement in social as well as
material wellbeing of all in a society.
Sustainable Development:
· The notion of sustainable development emerged in the wake of general rise in the awareness of
environmental issues in the late 1960s in Western World. It reflected the concern of people about
undesirable effects of industrial development on the environment.
· The publication of 'The Population Bomb' by Ehrlich in 1968 and 'The Limits to Growth' by Meadows
and others in 1972 further raised the level of fear among environmentalists in particular and people in
general. This sets the scenario for the emergence of new models of development under a broad phrase

'sustainable development.'
· The United Nations established a World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED)
headed by the Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
Ø The Commission gave its report (also known as Brundtland Report) entitled 'Our Common
Future' in 1987.
Ø The report defines sustainable development as a “development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
· Sustainable development takes care of ecological, social, and economic aspects of development
during the present times and pleads for conservation of resources to enable the future generations to
use these resources.
Case Study: Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command Area:

· Indira Gandhi Canal, previously known as the Rajasthan Canal, is one of the largest canal systems
in India.
· The canal originates at Harike barrage in Punjab and runs parallel to Pakistan border at an average
distance of 40 km in Thar Desert (Marusthali) of Rajasthan.
· The total planned length of the system is 9,060 km catering to the irrigation needs of a total
culturable command area of 19.63 lakh hectares.
· Command Area of Stage-I: Ganganagar, Hanumangarh and northern part of Bikaner districts.
Ø It has a gently undulating topography and its culturable command area is 5.53 lakh hectares.
· Command Area of Stage-II: Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur and Churu districts
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covering culturable command area of 14.10 lakh ha.
· Traditional Crops Sown in the area: gram, bajra and jowar have been replaced by wheat, cotton,
groundnut, and rice.
Measures to Promote Sustainable Development:

Five of the seven measures proposed to promote sustainable development in the command area are
meant to restore ecological balance.
· The first requirement is strict implementation of water management policy. The canal project
envisages protective irrigation in Stage-I and extensive irrigation of crops and pasture development in
Stage-II.
· In general, the cropping pattern shall not include water intensive crops. It shall be adhered to and
people shall be encouraged to grow plantation crops such as citrus fruits.
· The CAD programmes such as lining of water courses, land development and levelling and warabandi
system (equal distribution of canal water in the command area of outlet) shall be effectively
implemented to reduce the conveyance loss of water.
· The areas affected by water logging and soil salinity shall be reclaimed.
· The eco-development through afforestation, shelterbelt plantation and pasture development is
necessary particularly in the fragile environment of Stage-II.
· The social sustainability in the region can be achieved only if the land allottees having poor economic
background are provided adequate financial and institutional support for cultivation of land.
· The economic sustainability in the region cannot be attained only through development of agriculture
and animal husbandry. The agricultural and allied activities have to develop alongwith other sectors of
economy.
Interesting points
· NITI Aayog:
Ø India adopted centralised planning after Independence, but subsequently, it graduated into
decentralised multi-level planning. The responsibility of plan formulation was with the
Planning Commission at the Centre, State, and district levels.
Ø But on 1 January 2015, the Planning Commission was replaced by the NITI Aayog.
Ø It was set up with the objective of involving the states in economic policy making for India for
providing strategic and technical advice to the Central and State governments.
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10
The use of transport and communication depends upon need to move things from place of their availability
to the place of their use. Human beings use various methods to move goods, commodities, ideas from one
place to another.
Fig. 10.1: Means of Transport
Land Transport:
· The pathways and unmetalled roads have been used for transportation in India since ancient times.
· With the economic and technological development, metalled roads and railways were developed to

move large volume of goods and people from one place to another.
Road Transport:
· India has one of the second largest road networks in the world with a total length of about 56 lakh km
(morth.nic.in, Annual Report 2017-18).
· Roads carry about 85 per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of freight traffic every year.
· It is relatively suitable for shorter distance travel.
· Serious attempt was made in 1943 when 'Nagpur Plan' was drawn to build roads in India, but this plan
could not be implemented due to lack of coordination.
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National Highways:
· These are the main roads which are constructed and maintained by the Central Government.
· Importance:
Ø These roads are meant for inter-state transport and movement of defence men and material in
strategic areas.
Ø These also connect the state capitals, major cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc.
Ø They constitute only about 2 per cent of the total road length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.
· The length of the National Highways has increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 101011 km in 2016.
· National Highways Authority of India (NHAI):
Ø It was operationalised in 1995 and is an autonomous body under the Ministry of Surface Transport.
Ø It is entrusted with the responsibility of development, maintenance, and operation of National Highways.
Ø This is also the apex body to improve the quality of the roads designated as National Highways.
State Highways:
· These are constructed and maintained by state governments.
· They join the state capitals with district headquarters and other important towns.
· These roads are connected to the National Highways.
· These constitute 4 per cent of total road length in the country.
District Roads:
· These roads are the connecting link between District Headquarters and the other important nodes in
the district.
· They account for 14 per cent of the total road length of the country.
Rural Roads:
· These roads are vital for providing links in the rural areas.
· About 80 per cent of the total road length in India are categorised as rural roads.
· There is regional variation in the density of rural road because these are influenced by the nature of the terrain.
Other Roads: These include Border Roads and International Highways.
· The Border Road Organisation (BRO) was established in May 1960 for accelerating economic
development and strengthening defence preparedness through rapid and coordinated improvement
of strategically important roads along the northern and north- eastern boundary of the country
northern and north-eastern boundary of the country.
· It is a premier multifaceted construction agency.
· It has constructed roads in high altitude mountainous terrain joining Chandigarh with Manali
(Himachal Pradesh) and Leh (Ladakh).
· The BRO also undertakes snow clearance in high altitude areas.
The international highways are meant to promote the harmonious relationship with the neighbouring
countries by providing effective links with India.
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Table 10.1: India Road Network 2016
Serial No. Road Category Length in Km
1. National Highways 101011
2. State Highways 176166
3. Major District Roads 561940
4. Rural Roads 3935377
Total 4774454
Rail Transport:
· Indian Railways, network is one of the longest in the world. The length of Indian Railways network was
66,030 km as on 31 March 2015.
· It facilitates the movement of both freight and passengers and contributes to the growth of the economy.
· Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, when a line was constructed from Bombay to Thane.
· Indian Railways is the largest government undertaking in the country.
· Its large size puts a lot of pressure on a centralised railway management system. Thus, in India, the
railway system has been divided into different zones.
Ø This step has increased the speed and the haulage capacity.
· Metro rail has revolutionised the urban transport system in Kolkata and Delhi.
· Railway network is relatively less dense in the hill states, north eastern states, central parts of India and
Rajasthan.
Table 10.2: Indian Railways: Railway Zones and Headquarters
Railway Zone Headquarters

Central Mumbai CST
Eastern Kokata
East Central Hajipur
Northern New Delhi
North Central Allahabad
North Eastern Gorakhpur
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Southern Chennai
South Central Secunderabad
South Eastern Kokata
South East Central Bilaspur
South Western Hubli
Western Mumbai (Church Gate)
West Central Jabalpur
Water Transport:
· Waterways is an important mode of transport for both passenger and cargo traffic in India.
· It is the cheapest means of transport and is most suitable for carrying heavy and bulky material.
· It is a fuel-efficient and eco-friendly mode of transport.
The water transport is of two types– Inland waterways, and Oceanic waterways.
Inland Waterways:
· It was the chief mode of transport before the advent of railways.
Ø It, however, faced tough competition from road and railway transport.
· Moreover, diversion of river water for irrigation purposes made them non-navigable in large parts of
their courses.
· India has 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1% to the country's transportation.
· It comprises rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc.
· At present, 5,685 km of major rivers are navigable by mechanised flat bottom vessels.
· The Inland Waterways Authority was set up in 1986 for the development, maintenance, and
regulation of national waterways in the country.
Table 10.3: National Waterways of India

Waterways Stretch Specification
NW 1 Allahabad- It is one of the most important waterways in India, which is

Haldia stretch navigable by mechanical boats up to Patna and by ordinary
(1,620km) boasts up to Haridwar. It is divided into three parts for
developmental purposes- (i) Haldia-Farakka (560km), (ii)
Farakka-Patna (460km), (iii) Patna – Allahabad (600km)
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NW 2 Sadiya-Dhubri Brahmaputra is navigable by steamers upto Dibrugarh
stretch (891km) (1,384 km) which is shared by India and Bangladesh
NW3 Kottapuram – It includes 168km of west coast canal along with

Kollam stretch Champakara canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal canal (23
(205 km) km)
NW 4 Specified stretches of Godavari and Krishna rivers along with Kakinada

Puducherry stretch of canals (1078 km)
NW 5 Specified stretches of river Brahmani along with Matai river, delta channels of
Mahanadi and Brahmani rivers and East Coast canal (588 km)
· The backwaters (Kadal) of Kerala have special significance in Inland Waterway.

Ø Apart from providing cheap means of transport, they are also attracting a large number of tourists
in Kerala.
Ø The famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race (VALLAMKALI) is also held in the backwaters.
Oceanic Routes:
· India has a vast coastline of approximate 7,517 km, including islands.
· Twelve major and 185 minor ports provide infrastructural support to these routes.
· Oceanic routes play an important role in the transport sector of India's economy.
Ø Approximately 95 per cent of India's foreign trade by volume and 70 per cent by value moves
through ocean routes.
Air Transportation:
· Air transport is the fastest means of movement from one place to the other.
· It has reduced distances by minimising the travel time.
· It is essential for a vast country like India, where distances are large, and the terrain and climatic

conditions are diverse.
· Air transport in India made a beginning in 1911 when airmail operation commenced over a little
distance of 10 km between Allahabad and Naini.
· Airport Authority of India:
Ø It is responsible for providing safe, efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication services in
the Indian Air Space.
Ø The authority manages 125 airports.
· Air India provides International Air Services for both passengers and cargo traffic.
Ø It connects all the continents of the world through its services.
· Pawan Hans is the helicopter service operating in hilly areas and is widely used by tourists in north-
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eastern sector.
Ø Pawan Hans Limited mainly provides helicopter services to petroleum sector and for tourism.
Oil and Gas Pipeline:

· Pipelines are the most convenient and efficient mode of transporting liquids and gases over long
distances. Even solids can also be transported by pipelines after converting them into slurry.
· Oil India Limited (OIL) under the administrative set up of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is
engaged in the exploration, production and transportation of crude oil and natural gas.
Ø Asia's first cross country pipeline covering a distance of 1,157 km was constructed by OIL from
Naharkatiya oilfield in Assam to Barauni refinery in Bihar. It was further extended up to Kanpur in
1966.
· Another extensive network of pipelines has been constructed in the western region of India like
Ankleshwar-Koyali, Mumbai HighKoyali and Hazira-Vijaipur-Jagdishpur (HVJ).
· Recently, a 1256 km long pipeline connecting Salaya (Gujarat) with Mathura (U.P.) has been
constructed.
Communication Networks:
· Invention of post office, telegraph, printing press, telephone, satellite, etc has made the communication
much faster and easier.
· Development in the field of science and technology has significantly contributed in bringing about
revolution in the field of communication.
Division of Mode of Communication based on the Scale and Quality
Fig.10.2: Means of Communication
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Personal Communication System:
Among all the personal communication system internet is the most effective and advanced one. It is widely
used in urban areas.
· It enables the user to establish direct contact through e-mail to get access to the world of knowledge
and information.
· It is increasingly used for ecommerce and carrying out money transactions.
· The internet is like a huge central warehouse of data, with detailed information on various items.
Mass Communication System

Radio:
· Radio broadcasting started in India in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay.
· Government took the opportunity and brought this popular mode of communication under its control
in 1930 under the Indian Broadcasting System.
Ø It was changed to All India Radio in 1936 and to Akashwani in 1957.
· All India Radio broadcasts a variety of programmes related to information, education, and
entertainment.
· Special news bulletins are also broadcast at specific occasions like session of parliament and state
legislatures.
Television:
· Television broadcasting has emerged as the most effective audio-visual medium for disseminating
information and educating masses.
· In 1976, TV was delinked from All India Radio (AIR) and got a separate identity as Door darshan (DD).
· After INSAT-IA (National Television-DD1) became operational, Common National Programmes (CNP)
were started for the entire network and its services were extended to the backward and remote rural
areas.
Satellite Communication:
· Satellites are mode of communication in themselves as well as they regulate the use of other means of

communication.
· The use of satellite in getting a continuous and synoptic view of larger area has made satellite
communication very vital for the country due to the economic and strategic reasons.
Ø Satellite images can be used for the weather forecast, monitoring of natural calamities, surveillance
of border areas, etc.
On the basis of configuration and purposes, satellite system in India can be grouped into two: Indian National
Satellite System (INSAT) and Indian Remote Sensing Satellite System (IRS).
· The INSAT, which was established in 1983, is a multi-purpose satellite system for telecommunication,
meteorological observation and for various other data and programmes.
· The IRS satellite system became operational with the launching of IRS-IA in March 1988 from
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Vaikanour in Russia.
· The National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) at Hyderabad provides facilities for acquisition of data
and its processing. These are very useful in the management of natural resources.
Interesting points
· Grand Truck Road:

Ø Sher Shah Suri built the Shahi (Royal) road to strengthen and consolidate his empire from the
Indus Valley to the Sonar Valley in Bengal.
Ø This road was renamed the Grand Trunk (GT) road during the British period, connecting
Calcutta and Peshawar.
Ø At present, it extends from Amritsar to Kolkata. It is bifurcated into 2 segments: (a) National
Highway (NH)-1 from Delhi to Amritsar (b) NH- 2 from Delhi to Kolkata.
· Bharatmala: It is a proposed umbrella scheme for:
Ø Border areas, including connectivity of nonmajor ports.
Ø Backward areas religious and tourist places connectivity programme.
Ø Setubharatam Pariyojana, which is for the consruction of about 1500 major bridges and 200
rail over bridges rail under bridges. District Headquarters connectivity Scheme for the
development of about 9000 km newly declared National Highways.
· On the basis of the width of track of the Indian Railways, three categories have been made:
Ø Broad gauge: The distance between rails in broad gauge is 1.676 metre. The total length of
broad-gauge lines was 60510 km in March 2016.
Ø Metre gauge: The distance between rails is one metre. Its total length was 3880 km in March
2016.
Ø Narrow gauge: The distance between the rails in this case is 0.762 metre or 0.610 metre. The
total length of narrow guage was 2297 km in March 2016. It is generally confined to hilly areas.
· Konkan Railways:
Ø Indian Railways has been the construction of Konkan Railway in 1998.

Ø It is 760-km long rail route connecting Roha in Maharashtra to Mangalore in Karnataka.
Ø It crosses 146 rivers, streams, nearly 2000 bridges and 91 tunnels.
Ø Asia's largest tunnel, which is nearly 6.5 km long, also lies on this route.
Ø The states of Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka are partners in this undertaking.
· In 1953, Air transport was nationalised and two Corporations, Air India International and Indian
Airlines were formed. Now Indian Airlines is known as 'Indian'.
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INTERNATIONAL TRADE
11
International Trade is mutually beneficial as no country is self-sufficient. India's international trade has
undergone a sea change in recent years in terms of volume, composition and direction.
India's Trade Pattern:

In 1950-51, India's external trade was worth Rs.1,214 crore, which rose to Rs. 44,29,762 crores in 2016-17.
Reasons for rise in Overseas Trade:

Ø The momentum picked up by the manufacturing sectors.
Ø The liberal policies of the government.
Ø The diversification of markets.
· Though there has been an increase in the total volume of import and export, the value of import
continued to be higher than that of exports.
Changing Pattern of the Composition of India's Exports:

The composition of commodities in India's international trade has been changed over the years.
· The share of agriculture and allied products has declined, whereas shares of petroleum and crude
products and other commodities have increased.
· The shares of ore minerals and manufactured goods have largely remained constant over the years
from 2009-10 to 2010-11and 2015-16 to 2016-17.
· Amongst the Agricultural Products:
Ø There is a decline in the export of traditional items, such as coffee, cashew, etc.
Ø An increase has been registered in floricultural products, fresh fruits, marine products, and sugar,
etc.
· Manufacturing sector alone accounted for 73.6 per cent of India's total value of export in 2016-17.
· Engineering goods have shown a significant growth in the export.
· Gems and jewellery contribute a larger share of India's foreign trade.
· China and other East Asian countries are our major competitors.
Changing Patterns of The Composition of India's Import:

· India faced serious food shortage during 1950s and 1960s.
Ø The major item of import at that time was food grain, capital goods, machinery and equipment.
Ø The balance of payment was adverse as imports were more than export in spite of all the efforts of
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
import substitution.
· After 1970s:
Ø Food grain import was discontinued due to the success of Green revolution.
Ø The energy crisis of 1973 pushed the prices of petroleum.
Ø The import budget was also pushed up.
Ø Food grain import was replaced by fertilisers and petroleum.
Ø Machine and equipment, special steel, edible oil and chemicals largely make the import basket.
78
· In Recent Years:
Ø There is a steep rise in the import of petroleum products.
Ø Import of capital goods maintained a steady increase due to rising demand in the export-oriented
industrial and domestic sectors.
Ø Non-electrical machinery, transport equipment, manufacturers of metals and machine tools were
the main items of capital goods.
Ø Import of food and allied products declined with a fall in imports of edible oils.
Ø Other major items of India's import include pearls and semi-precious stones, gold and silver,
metalliferous ores and metal scrap, non-ferrous metals, electronic goods, etc.
Direction of Trade:
· India has trade relations with most of the countries and major trading blocks of the world.
· India aims to double its share in the international trade within the next five years. It has already started
adopting suitable measures such as import liberalisation, reduction in import duties, delicensing and
change from process to product patents.
· Most of India's foreign trade is carried through sea and air routes. However, a small portion is also
carried through land route to neighbouring countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Pakistan.
Sea Ports as Gateways of International Trade:

India is surrounded by sea from three sides and is bestowed with a long coastline.
· Water provides a smooth surface for very cheap transport provided there is no turbulence.
· India has a long tradition of sea faring and developed many ports with place name suffixed with pattan
meaning port.
· India's west coast has more ports than its east coast.
· The emergence of ports as gateways of international trade became important after the coming of the
European traders and colonisation of the country by the British.
Ø This led to the variation in the size and quality of ports.
· At present, India has 13 major ports and 200 minor or intermediate ports.
· Major Ports:
Ø The central government decides the policy and plays regulatory functions.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Ø The major ports handle larger share of the total traffic.

· Minor Ports:
Ø Whose policy and functions are regulated by state governments.
· To compensate loss of Karachi and Chittagong port India developed Kandla and diamond harbour near
Kolkata on river Hugli.
79
Important Ports
Kandla Port:
· It is situated at the head of Gulf of Kuchchh and has been developed as a major port to cater to the
needs of western and north western parts of India and also to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port.
· It is specially designed to receive large quantities of petroleum and petroleum products and fertiliser.
· The offshore terminal at Vadinar has been developed to reduce the pressure at Kandla port.
Mumbai Port:
· Mumbai is a natural harbour and the biggest port of India.
· It is situated closer to the general routes from the countries of Middle East, Mediterranean countries,
North Africa, North America, and Europe.
· The port is 20 km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths and has the country's largest oil terminal.
· Main Hinterland of Mumbai Port: M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts of Rajasthan.
Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva:

· It was developed as a satellite port to relieve the pressure at the Mumbai port.
· It is the largest container port in India.
Marmagao Port:
· It is situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary and is a natural harbour in Goa.
· It gained significance after its remodelling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports to Japan.
· Construction of Konkan railway has considerably extended the hinterland of this port.
· Main Hinterland: Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra.
New Mangalore Port

· It is located in the state of Karnataka and caters to the needs of the export of iron-ore and iron-
concentrates.
· It also handles fertilisers, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone,
molasses, etc.
· Karnataka is the major hinterland for this port.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Kochchi Port:
· It is situated at the head of Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the 'Queen of the Arabian Sea' and is
also a natural harbour.
· It has an advantageous location being close to the Suez-Colombo route.
· It caters to the needs of Kerala, Southern Karnataka and South Western Tamil Nadu.
80
Ports on Eastern Coast
Kolkata Port:
· It is located on the Hugli river, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.
· Like the Mumbai port, this port was also developed by the British.
· Kolkata had the initial advantage of being the capital of British India.
· The port has lost its significance considerably on account of the diversion of exports to the other ports
such as Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and its satellite port, Haldia.
· It is also confronted with the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli river which provides a link to the
sea.
· Its hinterland covers U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim, and the north-eastern states.
· It also extends ports facilities to our neighbouring land-locked countries such as Nepal and Bhutan.
Haldia Port:
· It is located 105 km downstream from Kolkata.
· It has been constructed to reduce the congestion at Kolkata port.
· It handles bulk cargo like iron ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and fertilisers, jute, jute
products, cotton, and cotton yarn, etc.
Paradwip Port:
· It is situated in the Mahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack.
· It has the deepest harbour especially suited to handle very large vessels.
· It has been developed mainly to handle large-scale export of iron-ore.
· Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand are the parts of its hinterland.
Visakhapatnam Port:
· It is located in Andhra Pradesh and is a land-locked harbour, connected to the sea by a channel cut
through solid rock and sand.
· An outer harbour has been developed for handling iron-ore, petroleum, and general cargo.
· Andhra Pradesh and Telangana are the main hinterland for this port.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Chennai Port:
· It is one of the oldest ports on the eastern coast.
· It is an artificial harbour built in 1859.
· It is not much suitable for large ships because of the shallow waters near the coast.
· Tamil Nadu and Puducherry are its hinterland.
81
Ennore:
· It is a newly developed port in Tamil Nadu and has been constructed 25 km north of Chennai to relieve
the pressure at Chennai port.
Tuticorin Port:
· It was also developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai port.
· It deals with a variety of cargo, including coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals, and
petroleum products.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Fig. 11.1: Major Ports
82
Airports:
· Air transport plays an important role in the international trade.
· It has the advantage of taking the least time for carriage and handling high value or perishable goods
over long distances.
· It is very costly and unsuitable for carrying heavy and bulky commodities which ultimately reduces
the participation of this sector in the international trade as compared to the oceanic routes.
· There were 25 major airports functioning in the country (Annual Report 2016-17).
Ø They are Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Goa, Guwahati, Hyderabad, Kolkata, Mumbai,
Thiruvananthapuram, Srinagar, Jaipur, Calicut, Nagpur, Coimbatore, Cochin, Lucknow, Pune,
Chandigarh, Mangalore, Vishakhapatnam, Indore, Patna, Bhubaneswar, and Kannur.
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
Fig.11.2: Airports of India
83
GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON
12 SELECTED ISSUES AND PROBLEMS
Environmental Pollution:
Environmental pollution results from 'the release of substances and energy from waste products of human
activities.
Classification of Pollution:
It is based on medium through which pollutants are transported and diffused: Air pollution, water
pollution, land pollution and noise pollution.
Water Pollution:
· Indiscriminate use of water by increasing population and industrial expansion has led degradation of
the quality of water considerably.
· Surface water available from rivers, canals, lakes, etc. is never pure.
Ø It contains small quantities of suspended particles, organic and inorganic substances.
Ø When concentration of these substances increases, the water becomes polluted, and hence
becomes unfit for use.
· Water Pollutants are created from:
Ø Natural Sources: Erosion, landslides, decay and decomposition of plants and animals, etc.
Ø Anthropogenic: Human beings pollute the water through industrial, agricultural, and cultural
activities. Among these activities, industry is the most significant contributor.
Industrial Pollution:
GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVE ON SELECTED ISSUES AND PROBLEMS

· Industries produce several undesirable products including industrial wastes, polluted waste water,
poisonous gases, chemical residuals, numerous heavy metals, dust, smoke, etc.
· Most of the industrial wastes are disposed of in running water or lakes.
Ø The poisonous elements reach the reservoirs, rivers, and other water bodies, which destroy the bio-
system of these waters.
· Major Water Polluting Industries: leather, pulp and paper, textiles, and chemicals.
Other Source of Pollution:

· Various types of chemicals used in modern agriculture such as inorganic fertilisers, pesticides and
herbicides are also pollution generating components.
· Fertiliser induces an increase in the nitrate content of surface waters.
· Cultural activities such as pilgrimage, religious fairs, tourism, etc. also cause water pollution.
Effects of Water Pollution:

· Water pollution is a source of various water- borne diseases.
· The diseases commonly caused due to contaminated water are diarrhoea, intestinal worms, hepatitis, etc.
· The World Health Organization shows that about one-fourth of the communicable diseases in India
are water-borne.
Air pollution:
· Air pollution is taken as addition of contaminants, like dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour, smoke or vapour to
the air in substantial proportion and duration that may be harmful to flora and fauna and to property.
84
· There is a marked increase in emission of toxic gases into the atmosphere due to increasing use of
varieties of fuels as the source of energy.
· Main Source of Pollution: Combustion of fossil fuels, mining and industries.
Ø These processes release oxides of sulphur and nitrogen, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, lead and asbestos.
· Effects of Air Pollution:
Ø Air pollution causes various diseases related to respiratory, nervous, and circulatory systems.
Ø Smoky fog over cities called as urban smog is caused by atmospheric pollution. It proves very
harmful to human health.
Ø Air pollution can also cause acid rains.
o Rainwater analysis of urban environment has indicated that pH value of the first rain after
summer is always lower than the subsequent rains.
Noise Pollution:
· Noise pollution refers to the state of unbearable and uncomfortable to human beings which is caused
by noise from different sources.
· Main Sources of Noise Pollution: various factories, mechanised construction and demolition works,
automobiles and aircraft, etc.
Ø There may be added periodical but polluting noise from sirens, loudspeakers used in various
festivals, programmes associated with community activities.
· The level of steady noise is measured by sound level expressed in terms of decibels (dB).
· In sea traffic, the noise pollution is confined to the harbour due to loading and unloading activities
being carried.
· Noise pollution is location specific and its intensity declines with increase in distance from the source of
pollution, i.e., industrial areas, arteries of transportation, airport, etc.
Urban Waste Disposal:

· Solid waste refers to a variety of old and used articles, for example-stained small pieces of metals,
broken glassware, plastic containers, polythene bags, ash, floppies, CDs, etc., dumped at different
places.
· These discarded materials are also termed as refuse, garbage, and rubbish, etc., and are disposed of
from two sources:
Ø Household or Domestic Establishments: The household wastes are disposed of either on public
lands or on private contractors' sites.
Ø Industrial or Commercial Establishments: The solid wastes of industrial units are collected and
disposed of through public (municipal) facilities at low lying public grounds (landfill areas).
· Effects of Solid Waste:
Ø Solid wastes cause health hazard through creation of obnoxious smell, and harbouring of flies and
rodents, which act as carriers of diseases like typhoid, diphtheria, diarrhoea, malaria, and cholera, etc.
Ø These wastes cause frequent nuisance as and when these are carelessly handled, spread by wind
and splittered through rainwater.
85
The dumping of industrial waste into rivers leads to water pollution.
· In India, about 30 to 50 per cent of the waste generated are left uncollected which accumulate on
streets, in open spaces between houses and in wastelands leading to serious health hazards.
· These wastes should be treated as resource and utilised for generating energy and compost.
· Untreated wastes ferment slowly and release toxic biogas to the atmosphere, including methane.
Table 12.1: Types and Sources of Pollution
Pollution Types Pollution Invoked Sources of Pollution
Air Pollution Oxides of sulphur (SO2 So3) Oxides Combustion of coal. petrol and diesel.
of nitrogen. carbon monoxide. industrial processes. solid waste disposal.
hydro-carbon. ammonia lead sewage disposal. etc.
alddehydes asbestos and beryllium
Water Pollution Odour. dissolved and suspended Sewage disposal. urban run-off. toxic
solids. ammonia and urea. nitrate effluents from industries. run-off over
and nitrites. chloride. fluoride. cultivated lands and nuclear power plants.
carbonates. oil and grease.
Insecticide and pesticide residue.
tannin. conform MPH (bacterial

count) sulphates and sulphides.
heavy metals e.g. lead. aresenlc.
Land Pollution Human and animal excreta viruses Improper human activities. disposal of
and bacteria. garbage and vectors untreated industrial waste. Use of
therein. pesticides and fertiliser- pesticides and fertilisers.
residue alkalinity, fluorides. radio-
active substances,
Noise pollution High level of noise above tolerance Aircrafts, automobiles, trains. Industrial
level. processing and advertising media.
Table 12.2: Sources of Pollution in the Ganga and the Yamuna Rivers
River and State Polluted Stretches Nature of Pollution Main Polluters
Ganga (Uttar a. Downstream of 1. Industrial Pollution from Cities of kanpur,

Pradesh) Bihar Kanpur towns like Kanpur Allahabad Varanasi,
and West b. Downstream of 2. Domestic wastes from Patna and Kolkata
Bengal Varanasi urban centres release domestic waste
c. Farrakka Barrage 3. Dumping of carcasses in into the river
the river
86
Yamuna (Delhi) a. Delhi to Confluence 1. Extraction of water by Delhi dumping its
and Uttar with Chambal Haryana and Uttar domestic waste
Pradesh b. Mathura and Agra Pradesh for irrigation
2. Agricultural run off
resulting in high levels of
micro-pollutants in the
Yamuna
3. Domestic and Industrial
waste of Delhi flowing into
the river
Rural- Urban Migration:

Population flow from rural to urban areas is caused by many factors:
· High demand for labour in urban areas.
· Low job opportunities in rural areas.
· Unbalanced pattern of development between urban and rural areas.
Problems of Slums:
· Slums are residential areas of the least choice, dilapidated houses, poor hygienic conditions, poor
ventilation, lack of basic amenities, like drinking water, light, and toilet facilities, etc.
· Serious Health and Socio-Environmental Hazards: Open defecation, unregulated drainage system
and overcrowded narrow street patterns.
· Most of the slum population works in low-paid, high risk-prone, unorganised sectors of the urban
economy and cannot afford to give proper education to their children.
· The poverty makes them vulnerable to drug abuse, alcoholism, crime, vandalism, escapism, apathy,
and ultimately social exclusion.
Land Degradation:
· The pressure on agricultural land increases not only due to the limited availability but also by
deterioration of quality of agricultural land.
Ø Soil erosion, waterlogging, salinisation and alkalinisation of land lead to land degradation.
· Land degradation is generally understood either as a temporary or a permanent decline in productive
capacity of the land.
· Though all degraded land may not be wasteland, but unchecked process of degradation may lead to
the conversion to wasteland.
· There are two processes that induce land degradation.
Ø Natural: There are a few types of wastelands such as gullied /ravinous land, desertic or coastal
sands, barren rocky areas, steep sloping land, and glacial areas, which are primarily caused by
natural agents.
87
Ø Created by Human Beings: There are wastelands such as degraded shifting cultivation area,
degraded land under plantation crops, degraded forests, degraded pastures, and mining and
industrial wastelands, which are caused by human action.
· National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) has classified wastelands by using remote sensing
techniques.
· The degraded lands such as waterlogged and marshy areas, land affected by salinity and alkalinity and
land with or without scrub, which have largely been caused by natural as well as human factors.
Interesting points
· The Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) is part of the urban renewal mission launched by the
Government of India to improve the quality of life in urban slums.
· In India, it is estimated that after 1961 around 60 per cent of the urban growth has been attributed
and 29 per cent of them from rural areas to urban migration.
· By 2050, an estimated two-thirds of the world's population will live in urban areas.
· Namami Gange Programme: Ganga, as a river, has national importance but the river requires
cleaning by effectively controlling the pollution for its water. The Union Government has launched

the 'Namami Gange Programme' with the following objectives:
Ø Developing sewerage treatment systems in towns.
Ø Monitoring of industrial effluents.
Ø Development of river front.
Ø Afforestation along the bank of increase biodiversity.
Ø Cleaning of the river surface.
Ø Development of 'Ganga Grams' in Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
Ø Creating public awareness to avoid adding pollutants into the river even in the form of rituals.
· Polluters Pays law: The 'polluter pays' principle is the commonly accepted practice that those
who produce pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health
or the environment.
88

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NCERT NOTES

Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes ............................................................................................... 3 - 5

Motions of the Earth ...................................................................................................................... 6 - 8

Major Domains of the Earth ................................................................................................... 10 - 12

Major Landforms on Earth ...................................................................................................... 13 - 16

Our Country India ...................................................................................................................... 17 - 18

India: Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife .............................................................................. 19 - 20

What are celestial bodies?

What are constellations?

What are the Planets?

What is the Solar system?

● All these planets revolve around the Sun in an elongated orbit.

What is the globe?

What is the Equator?

Important parallels of latitude:

Heat zones of the Earth:

GLOBE: LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES

What is the longitude?

Fig: 2.2: Grids

Longitude and Time:

Rotation and associated terms:

Fig. 3.1: Day and Night on the Earth due to rotation

Important points related to Revolution:

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

On 21stMarch and 23rdSeptember:

Fig. 3.3: Revolution of the Earth and Seasons

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

Important components of maps:

Fig. 4.1: Conventional Symbols

Seven Major Continents on Earth:

MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH

Fig. 5.1: Layers of the Atmosphere

Fig. 5.2: The Biosphere

Interesting terms and facts:

MAJOR DOMAINS OF THE EARTH

Fig. 6.1: Landforms

Types of landforms depending on elevation and slopes

Three types of mountains:

Fig. 6.2: Fold Mountains

MAJOR LANDFORMS ON EARTH

Fig. 6.3: Block Mountains

Signiﬁcance of the Mountains:

MAJOR LANDFORMS ON EARTH

Key points related to India:

Physical Division of India:

Fig. 7.1: Physical division of India

River from either side.

Factors affecting climates:

Signiﬁcance of the forests:

INDIA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION AND WILDLIFE

Inside our Earth ............................................................................................................................... 4 - 5

Our Changing Earth ....................................................................................................................... 6 - 8

Natural Vegetation And Wildlife ........................................................................................... 16 - 18

Human Environment - Settlement, Transport, and Communication ......................... 19 - 20

Human Environment Interactions: The Tropical and Subtropical Regions .............. 21 - 22

Life in Deserts ............................................................................................................................. 23 - 24

Fig. 1.1: Components of Environment

Fig 1.3: Pond ecosystem

· Environment: French word Environer meaning “neighbourhood”.

Interior of the Earth:

Fig. 2.1: Interior of the Earth

Rocks and Minerals:

Fig. 2.2: Rock Cycle

· The deepest mine in the world, is in South Africa. It is about 4 km deep.