SPOILAGE PROBLEMS
Contents
Problems Caused by Bacteria
Problems Caused by Fungi
Problems Caused by Bacteria
DA Bautista, Del Monte Foods, Walnut Creek, CA, USA
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by Karen M.J. Hansen, Derrick A. Bautista, volume 3, pp 2051–2056, Ó 1999, Elsevier Ltd.
Introduction
Spoilage of food can be described as a loss of qualitative
properties in foods with regard to color, flavor, texture, odor, or
shape. It is often the by-products of microbial metabolisms that
make spoiled food offensive. Spoiled food, however, is a more
subjective analysis rather than an objective one and is usually
made by some organoleptic assessment. For example, Hákarl is
a Nordic dish that involves burying shark meat underground
for 3 months and then hanging it to dry for an additional
5 months. Although the smell and taste of this food may be
objectionable to several people, it is considered a delicacy by
many others.
Most spoilage is caused by microorganisms, such as
bacteria, yeast, and molds. For the purposes of this chapter,
spoilage of food products will be focused on those caused by
bacteria only. For further information on characteristics of
spoilage bacteria, the reader is encouraged to refer to other
chapters within this book.
Meat Spoilage
In healthy animals, the combination of immune system and
the physical barrier of the skin adequately protect organs and
muscle against microorganisms. Therefore, muscle tissues from
freshly slaughtered animals should be relatively free of bacterial
contamination. The surface of the skin and gastrointestinal
tract, however, are heavily colonized with bacteria and provide
a source of cross-contamination during processing. For
example, feces and soil can harbor microorganisms, such as
Micrococcus, Staphylococcus, and Pseudomonas spp. As feces and
soil can come into direct contact with animal surfaces, removal
of hides during processing can contaminate tissues via the
skinning knife or by handling. Fresh meat is an ideal source of
nutrients (rich in nitrogenous compounds, minerals and
water), and therefore bacterial spoilage of meat is greatly
Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology, Volume 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384730-0.00314-1
influenced by the sanitary conditions of the carcass and pro-
cessing systems (Table 1).
Spoilage of Fresh Refrigerated Meat
Pseudomonas spp. are among the most common spoilage agents
of refrigerated raw meats. This is especially true of raw meats
stored over several days under aerobic conditions and at
refrigeration temperatures (4
C). These psychrotrophic Gram-
negative bacilli flourish at temperatures between 0 and 20
C.
Furthermore, the high humidity associated with domestic
refrigeration systems can also increase the rate of spoilage.
Excessive population of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pseudomonas
fragi, and Shewanella putrefaciens will produce a green water-
soluble slime and off-odors.
Ground raw-meat products can spoil rather quickly due to
the distribution of bacteria by the mechanical action of
grinding and pooling of different meats to make one end-
product. The larger surface area of ground meat, in addition to
cold temperatures (4
C) during storage, creates an environ-
ment favored by Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Moraxella, and
Aeromonas spp. These organisms will produce discoloration and
unpleasant odors in the product.
Growth of Acinetobacter, Moraxella, and Brochothrix spp. can be
favored when Pseudomonas spp. are restricted by low oxygen
conditions, such as with modified atmosphere packaging (MAP).
At high densities, Acinetobacter and Moraxella spp. can rapidly
attack proteins to produce off-flavors and -odors, whereas Bro-
chothrix thermosphacta utilizes glucose and glutamate to produce
off-odors and slime. Flavobacterium spp. and Serratia marcescens
are other common spoilage organisms of MAP and can produce
greenish-yellow and red discolorations in meat, respectively.
Vacuum-packaged fresh meats tend to undergo consider-
ably longer refrigeration than fresh meats without vacuum
packaging. When these products spoil, the predominant
spoilage agents are Lactobacillus spp. The prevalence of these
bacteria is determined by a number of factors, including final
465
466 SPOILAGE PROBLEMS j Problems Caused by Bacteria

Table 1 Bacteria commonly associated with the spoilage of meat and meat products

Type of product Spoilage condition Organism(s) responsible

Fresh beef (stored at approx. 4 C) Surface slime and/or off-odor Pseudomonas, Shewanella, Acinetobacter, Brochothrix,
Leuconostoc, Moraxella spp.
Red spot Serratia marcescens
Blue discoloration Pseudomonas syncyanea
Yellow discoloration Micrococcus, Flavobacterium spp.
Ham Bone taint Clostridium spp.
Souring Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas spp.
Spongy consistency Bacillus spp.
Vacuum-packed meats Putrefaction and gas production Clostridium, Alcaligenes spp.
Souring Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Acinetobacter, Pediococcus spp.
Off-odor and slime Pseudomonas, Brochothrix spp.
Modified atmosphere packaging Souring Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Acinetobacter spp.
Cured meat (bacon) Cheesy odor, sour taste, rancid Micrococcus, Lactobacillus, Alcaligenes, Bacillus,
Clostridium spps.
Sausage (pork) Souring at 0–11
C Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc spp.
Souring at 22
C Microbacterium spp.
Surface slime Lactobacillus, Bacillus, Leuconostoc spp.
Processed and cooked meats Souring Lactobacillus, Brochothrix spp.
Dried meats Surface slime Micrococcus spp.
Discoloration Bacillus spp.
Luncheon meats Slime, greening Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pseudomonas spp.

pH and the level of available oxygen. In vacuum-packaged raw
beef with a pH of about 5.6, Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lacto-
bacillus casei, Lactococcus lactis, Leuconostoc spp., Pediococcus
spp., and other lactic acid bacteria predominate. The sour
taste and pungent odor associated with the growth of these
organisms in meat are caused by their production of organic
acids.
Homofermentative strains, such as Leuconostoc spp., generate
>80% lactic acid from the fermentation of glucose. Hetero-
fermenters, including Pediococcus spp., can produce at least 50%
lactic acid as an end-product of fermentation. In addition to
souring, Lactobacillus spp. can create slime on the interior walls
of the package and on meat surfaces. Often, a murky liquid is
present in the packaging. Vacuum packaging and MAP can
create an environment favorable for anaerobic and facultative
anaerobes, such as B. thermosphacta. In sufficient numbers, this
organism produces diacetyl acetone and 3-methyl butane,
resulting in a cheesy odor in meats.
Spoilage of Finished Meat Products
Due to differences in environmental conditions, moisture
content, and pH, the flora found in finished meat products is
different from that of fresh raw meats.
Curing is a process during which salt, nitrite, and seasoning
are added to meat to help develop unique characteristics and
flavors. It was initially developed to extend the shelf life of meat
products; however, bacterial spoilage still can be a problem.
Bacteria commonly isolated from spoiled cured products
include lactic acid bacteria, Bacillus, Micrococcus, Clostridium,
and Alcaligenes spp. The high fat content and low water activity
of products, such as bacon, can provide adequate conditions
for the growth of Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, and Micrococcus spp.
Souring is often a result of these organisms utilizing sugar in
the curing solution pumped into the product. If the sugar
content is >1% of the formulation, there is a greater prevalence
of spoilage issues. This is especially true when these meat
products are stored in MAP and vacuum packaging.
Processes employed during curing, such as smoking and
brining, can reduce the susceptibility of finished meat products.
Some exceptions are sporeformers, such as Bacillus and
Clostridium spp. Spores from these bacteria can survive the
cooking process or can be introduced into the finished product
during handling and packaging. Bacillus cereus and Clostridium
perfringens can form gas in vacuum-packaged or canned meat
products. They also may cause greening, odor, loss of texture,
and excessive liquid production.
Micrococcus and Bacillus spp. are common spoilage agents in
sausages, especially when stored in MAP and at refrigeration
temperatures (approx. 4
C). Excessive growth of these bacteria
can result in slime formation and gas production.
Bacterial spoilage of luncheon meats such as frankfurters
and bologna can result in sliminess, souring, and greening.
Slime spoilage usually occurs on the outer surfaces of sausages
and frankfurters. It normally is caused by excessive growth of
Gram-negative psychrotrophic bacteria (e.g., Pseudomonas
spp.). Greening is also common on frankfurters and results
from the action of peroxides produced by Lactobacillus and
Leuconostoc spp. The lower brine levels and more neutral pH of
these types of meat products can make them more susceptible
to spoilage than traditional cured or cooked meats. In addition,
luncheon meats often are sliced and kept in MAP or vacuum
packaging. The increased surface area or high moisture levels in
the packaging and humid storage conditions can make surface
contamination more noticeable.
A form of spoilage known as bone sour or bone taint can be
caused by Clostridium spp. As the term implies, a sour spoilage
can occur between the flesh and bone of beef rounds and hams.
Such internal spoilage of beef may be due to delayed chilling or
prolonged storage at temperatures between 15 and 25
C. The
 SPOILAGE PROBLEMS j Problems Caused by Bacteria 467

low oxygen levels surrounding the bone allow Clostridium spp.
to proliferate.
Due to a predominant lactic acid flora and the nature of
fermented meat products, spoilage is minimal. Problems that
occur include an overproduction of organic acid by lactic acid
bacteria. To rectify this problem, meat processors will cook
the fermented meat product after the desired pH has been
reached. This will stop any further production of lactic acid
and souring.
Bacterial Spoilage of Milk and Milk Products
Spoilage in Raw Milk
Most sources of bacterial spoilage in milk can be traced to the
hide and teats of the animal. Contamination may be due to
infections of the udder, milk ducts, or teats, but most often it
results from unclean or improper cleaned equipment. Mastitis,
an inflammatory disease that can be found in the mammary
glands of milk-producing animals, is caused by a number of
bacteria, including Pseudomonas and Staphylococcus spp. These
organisms metabolize proteinaceous compounds to change the
normal flavor of milk to a bitter or unclean taste. The
production of ethyl butyrate by Staphylococcus spp. may give
milk a fruity odor. Both Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa can lipolyse milk lipids, resulting in rancidity of raw
milk products.
Lactic acid bacteria can contribute to spoilage of raw milk.
Although end-products of lactic acid bacteria can be desirable
in many fermented milk products, they are considered to be
a source of spoilage in raw milk. The lactic, formic, butyric
acids, and CO2 produced by these bacteria result in souring,
foaming, and curdling of milk. Alcaligenes spp. can produce
slime or ropiness (i.e., characterized by a viscous and oily
mouthfeel) in milk when left at ambient temperatures
(22
C).
Spoilage in Pasteurized Milk
Most spoilage of pasteurized milk is the result of recontami-
nation after thermal processing. Although pasteurization
destroys many spoilage bacteria and lessens the growth
potential of others, heat-resistant Lactococcus and Lactobacillus
spp. can survive and grow to create spoilage problems. Their
conversion of lactose to lactic acid lowers the pH of milk to
about 4.5 and produces curdling. Lactobacillus lactis can
metabolize leucine to produce 3-methylbutanol, which adds
an undesirable malty taste. Normally, milk contaminated with
L. lactis does not undergo a color change. If this organism is
grown in the presence of Pseudomonas syncyanea, however, milk
will turn bright blue.
Heat-stable proteinases and lipases of some psychrotrophic
bacteria are not affected by pasteurization temperatures. These
enzymes can cause proteolysis and lipolysis of casein and milk
lipids, respectively, to produce flavor defects. Species of Lacto-
coccus, Lactobacillus, and Clostridium spp. may result in a sour
taste, whereas Proteus spp. can give milk an undesirable sweet
flavor. Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, and Bacillus spp. can give
milk a bitter or off-flavor when present in high numbers. Ropi-
ness is caused by Micrococcus spp. and, especially, Alcaligenes
viscolactis. This is particularly apparent when pasteurized milk is
stored over long periods or kept at ambient temperatures
(22
C).
Spores of Bacillus and Clostridium spp. can survive pasteur-
ization temperatures. Bacillus spp. can cause bitty in cream,
which is the result of lecithinase activity on phospholipids. It is
a visual defect and appears as an aggregation of particles that
adhere to the surface of milk cartons.
Ultra-high-temperature milk products are commercially
sterile milks that have been heated at or above 138
C for at
least 2 s. Spores of thermophilic bacteria such as Bacillus and
Clostridium spp. can survive these high temperatures and may
result in rancidity or souring of pasteurized milk (Table 2).

Table 2 Bacteria associated with the spoilage of milk and milk products

Type of product Spoilage condition Organism(s) responsible

Raw milk (at 10–37
C) Souring Lactobacillus lactis

Raw Milk (at 37–50
C) Souring Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus
Raw Milk (>50
C) Souring Lactobacillus thermophilus
Unclean flavor Pseudomonas spp.
Fruity flavor Staphylococcus spp.
Pasteurized milk Bitter taste (proteolysis) Pseudomonas, Flavobacterium, Bacillus spp.
Souring (acid proteolysis) Micrococcus, Bacillus cereus, Lactobacillus, Clostridium spp.
Sweet proteolysis, curdling and slime Alcaligenes, Proteus spp.
Malty taste L. lactis
Ropiness Micrococcus spp., A. viscolactis
Blue color Pseudomonas syncyanea with L. lactis
Cream and butter Surface taint Pseudomonas putrefaciens
Bitty Bacillus spp.
Hard and soft cheese Slime and off-flavor Pseudomonas, Leuconostoc, Bacillus spp.
Pink discoloration Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc spp.
Holes in curd Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Leuconostoc spp.
Rancidity, soapiness Micrococcus, Serratia, Pseudomonas spp.
Cottage cheese Slimy curd, putrid odor Pseudomonas spp.
Unclean taste Escherichia coli
Discoloration Flavobacterium spp.
468 SPOILAGE PROBLEMS j Problems Caused by Bacteria
Spoilage of Other Dairy Products
The microflora of whole milk tends to be present in the cream
component. Because cream is the main ingredient of butter,
microbial spoilage can be a problem. Microorganisms associ-
ated with the lipid hydrolysis of triglycerides to free fatty acids
can produce increased acidity, rancidity, and soapiness in
butter. Causative agents include Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, and
Serratia spp. Surface taint or putridity results from the growth of
S. putrefaciens.
Bacterial contamination of cheese usually is the result of
manufacturing with milk that has a high microbial content
(1000 cfu ml1). The undesirable growth of lactic acid
bacteria, such as Leuconostoc spp. and L. lactis, can cause an
undesirable pink discoloration near the surface of cheese.
Bacillus, Leuconostoc, and Pseudomonas spp. can attack proteins
and produce carbon dioxide. Production of large amounts of
gas may result in the formation of undesirable holes in curd
during cheese manufacturing. These bacteria are responsible for
bitter flavor and slime in soft and hard cheeses (e.g., Brie and
Parmesan, respectively).
In cottage cheese, Pseudomonas spp., namely P. fragi, can
alter the flavors leaving a putrid, rancid, bitter, or fruity taste.
Another problem is the growth of Flavobacterium spp., which
can alter the color of cottage cheese. Escherichia coli in high
enough numbers (100 000 cfu g1) can result in an unclean or
barny taste, especially when cottage cheese is left at room
temperature (22
C).
Spoilage of Fruits and Vegetables
Fresh Fruits and Vegetables
Several fruits and vegetables usually are harvested from or near
the soil, these commodities can be subjected to a variety of
flora that may cause spoilage. Losses in product and revenue
associated with microbial spoilage have been estimated to be in
excess of 20% of all fruits and vegetables. For the most part,
biochemical composition of fruits and vegetables can be an
excellent growth medium (Table 3). Carbohydrates that are
present in high concentrations in these food products are easily
utilized by a variety of bacteria, resulting in the production of
various degradation by-products. The accumulation of these
Table 3 Chemical constituents of fruits and vegetables
Constituents Examples
Carbohydrates and Polysaccharides, oligosaccharides,
related compounds monosaccharides, sugar alcohols (e.g.,
sorbitol), sugar acids (e.g., ascorbic acid),
organic acids (citric acid)
Proteins Albumins, prolamines, peptides, amino acids
Lipids Fatty acids, phospholipids, glycolipids
Nucleic acids and Purines and pyrimidine bases, nucleotides
derivatives
Vitamins A, D, E (fat-soluble), thiamin, niacin, riboflavin
(water-soluble)
Minerals Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron
Other components Water, alkaloids, porphyrins, aromatics
products can alter the appearance, texture, and taste of fruits
and vegetables. Unless certain precautionary measures are
made, the shelf life of these products will be short.
Of the problems associated with bacterial spoilage, soft rot
is of key importance in vegetables. Members of the Erwinia spp.
(e.g., Erwinia carotovora), Pseudomonas marginalis, and some
Bacillus and Clostridium spp. are associated with this problem.
These bacteria produce protopectinases that break down
pectins found on the outer skin of vegetables. This results in
softening and the production of off-odors. Root crops, cruci-
fers, cucurbits, solanaceous vegetables, onions, and many other
plants can be susceptible to these organisms.
In potatoes, Erwinia spp. are also responsible for black leg,
which is a common rot of potatoes under poor storage condi-
tions. Potatoes can be subjected to bacterial attack by Coryne-
bacterium sepedonicum, which creates a vascular ring and
subsequently produces a creamy-yellow or light-brown discol-
oration and softening of the plant tissues. Scab of potatoes is
caused by Streptomyces scabies and is seen as brownish spots that
resemble enlarged corky areas.
Corynebacterium michiganese causes bacterial canker in
tomatoes. Random spotting occurs on the fruit, followed by
decay. Bacterial spot is the production of small, black scabby
fruit spots that is caused by Xanthomonas vesicatoria. Pseudo-
monas syringae produces bacterial speck on tomatoes, which
appears as numerous small dark-brown spots.
Due to their low pH, bacterial spoilage is not a serious
problem with fruits. If spoilage does occur, it usually is the
acidophilic bacteria that cause the problem. Under normal
storage conditions, Acetobacter and Lactobacillus spp. account for
the reduced shelf life of fresh fruit products. One major excep-
tion is the Erwinia rot of pears. With a pH range of 3.8–4.6, it is
believed that Erwinia spp. can initiate growth on the surface of
the pear, where pH is suspected to be more neutral (Table 4).
Processed Fruits and Vegetables
Fresh fruits can be further manufactured into a variety of
processed finished products (e.g., canned). These materials may
be further subjected to thermal process to help extend the shelf
life of the product. As such, the thermal process for many
packaged fruit products will not be subjected to the same
lethality as for neutral pH-based foods. The level of lethality
(typically 90
C for 10 s) that usually is applied is enough only
to minimize or eliminate vegetative organism from the
product. The lethality, however, may not be sufficient enough
to eliminate spore-forming bacteria from the product. Typical
spore-forming bacteria that have been attributed to the
spoilage of thermally processed fruit products are Alicycloba-
cillus spp., Bacillus spp., and certain Clostridium spp.
Alicyclobacillus spp. are capable of growing at pH 2.5–6.0
and have been associated with the spoilage of many juice
products (e.g., apple, orange, peach, grape), flavored waters,
and canned fruit with juice. These organisms produce guaiacol,
which has been described as a distinctive disinfectant taste or
odor. As no gas is produced, it is difficult to determine spoilage
through nondestructive testing (e.g., tap test, bloated appear-
ance of packaging, etc.). Some organisms that have been
associated with this type of spoilage are Alicyclobacillus acid-
oterrestris and Alicyclobacillus acidocaldarius.

Table 4 Bacteria commonly associated with the spoilage of vegetables and fruits
Type of product Spoilage condition
Various vegetables Bacterial soft rot
Potatoes Black leg
Vascular ring and discoloration
Scab of potatoes
Tomatoes Bacterial canker
Bacterial spot
Bacterial speck
Pears Erwinia rot
Bacillus spp. are other sporeformers that have contributed to
the spoilage of thermally processed fruit products. Of particular
interest is Bacillus coagulans, which is another organism that does
not produce gas during its growth phase, but an acid that further
lowers the pH. This phenomenon often is referred to as ‘flat-
souring’ as the canned products do not exhibit swelling but have
undergone a notable and undesired acidification. In tomatoes
and other fruit products, spoilage often is accompanied
by a cheesy-sweet smelling odor. Another important non-
gas-producing organism to be aware of is Bacillus licheniformis,
which has the ability to grow at pH 4.2 and higher. During growth,
this organism has the ability to release metabolites that can
neutralize the pH of acidic food products and potentially allow
the growth of Clostridium botulinum and its toxin production.
Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium pasteurianum are
sporeformers that will release large quantities of gas during
their growth phase and can be spotted easily by swollen
packaging. In addition, these organisms produce a character-
istic butyric odor that resembles rancid butter.
For low-acid canned vegetables (i.e., pH  4.6), the thermal
process is considerably higher than for acidified products (i.e.,
minimum 121
C for 15 min). So, many of the problematic
spore-forming bacteria found in acid products usually are
eliminated. Other types of sporeformers, however, are quite
capable of surviving the ‘commercially sterile’ process. For
example, Geobacillus stearothermophilus (formerly Bacillus stear-
othermophilus) is another ‘flat-souring’ organism found in
spoiled cans of peas, corn, and beans. It is a thermophile and is
capable of growth at a minimum of 40
C. At a maximum,
G. stearothermophilus is able to grow at temperatures between 65
and 75
C. However, if the product is not exposed to temper-
atures beyond 40
C, there is very little concern of spoilage from
this organism in neutral-based products. Other similar flat-
souring thermophilic sporeformers of concern for canned
vegetables are Clostridium thermoaceticum and Clostridium nig-
rificans. Regarding the latter, spoilage can cause darkening of the
contents and a rotten egg smell sometimes referred to as ‘sulfide
stinker.’ In the mesophilic range, Thermoanaerobacterium ther-
mosaccharolyticum (formerly Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum)
is another robust sporeformer capable of growing between 32
and 60
C, producing gas and a cheesy odor.
Spoilage of Wines and Beer
A major problem of spoiled wine products is a significant
increase in the acidity of wines due to the production of acetic
SPOILAGE PROBLEMS j Problems Caused by Bacteria 469
Organism(s) responsible
Erwinia spp., E. carotovora, Pseudomonas marginalis,
Bacillus spp., Clostridium spp.
Erwinia spp.
Corynebacterium sepedonicum
Streptomyces scabies
Corynebacterium michiganese
Xanthomonas vesicatoria
Pseudomonas syringae
Erwinia spp.
acid and lactic acid by heterofermentative and homo-
fermentative bacteria. In addition, wines with high amounts of
these acids often will have high concentrations of histamine.
Examples of the chemical breakdown of acidic substrates are
depicted as follows:
Malolactic fermentation
Malolactic enzyme
lðÞ-malic acid ƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒ! lðþÞ-lactic acid þ CO2
Tartaric acid decomposition
Tartaric acidƒƒƒ!acetic and lactic acids þ CO2
Excessive malolactic fermentation will decarboxylate L-malic
acid to produce pyruvic acid. The results are wines with reduced
acid content and an unusual flavor. This spoilage problem
normally is caused by Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, and Lactobacillus
spp., but the process may be instigated by Oenococcus oenos.
The utilization of tartaric acid by Lactobacillus plantarum will
increase the acidity of wines. High levels of lactic acid bacteria
can produce diacetyl compounds that create an undesirable
buttery or whey-like aroma. Decarboxylation of amino acids by
lactic acid bacteria is responsible for the production of off-flavors
and -odors (e.g., phenethlyamine, tyramine, putrescine, cadav-
erine, and spermidine).
Another common problem with wines is Tourne disease,
caused by the degradation of sugars by facultative and anaerobic
bacteria under low alcohol content. It produces a silky cloudi-
ness, mousy odor, and unusual taste. Mousiness is described as
an odor similar to mouse urine and is caused by Lactobacillus
hilgardii, Lactobacillus brevis, and/or Lactobacillus cellobiosus.
Ropiness can be found in spoiled wines. There is a slimy,
viscous, oily characteristic to the wine that is produced by
Streptococcus mucilaginosus, Pediococcus cerevisiae, and Leuconostoc
spp. The problem occurs during wine manufacturing. It begins
at the bottom of the fermentation vessel and slowly moves
toward the top. Clostridium butyricum may give a rancid taint
due to production of small amounts of butyric acid. Bacillus
circulans and Bacillus subtilis have been known to produce
significantly in volatile acidity in wines.
In beer, microbial contamination is known to originate from
a variety of sources in the brewing process. Some sources are
raw materials, air, brewing water, additives, and pitching yeast.
In addition, hygiene plays an important role, as bacterial resi-
dues on brewhouse tanks, pipelines, valves, heat exchangers,
and packaging equipment can harbor microorganisms and
compromise the beer fermentation process. Some of the effects
of bacterial contamination range from changes in beer flavor,
appearance, and fermentation performance.
470 SPOILAGE PROBLEMS j Problems Caused by Bacteria
Lactobacillus brevis is one microorganism that produces
an undesirable ‘silky’ appearance and a diacetyl or ‘buttery’
off-flavor. This organism is particularly undesirable as it has
substantial resistance to low pH, ethanol, and hop-derived
compounds (e.g., isohumulone) during the processing of
beer. Another undesirable group of microorganisms in beer
fermentation are Pediococcus spp. (e.g., Pediococcus inopinatus,
Pediococcus dextrinicus, and Pediococcus damnosus). Pediococci
are responsible for sarcina sickness during yeast fermentations
and give rise to high acidity and buttery aroma due to the
production of diacetyl compounds. Gram-negative bacteria
that also can cause spoilage in beer are from the Zymomonas
spp. These organisms create a heavy turbidity and rotten
apple odor.
Spoilage in Commercial Fermentation Facilities
Consider the following on fermentation systems used for food
production (e.g., soy sauce, fermented fish sauce, and other
fermented flavorings). Unless sterilized, ingredients used in
fermentation systems are prone to inherent microflora even
with the best hygienic practices in place. Even with high heat
processes to pasteurize ingredients, the thermal lethality
usually is not enough to eliminate sporeformers, such as
Bacillus or Clostridium spp.
As the undesirable sporeformers get hold of the ingredients,
they potentially can overcome the intended microorganism
and take over the fermentation process. As a result, they can
create a variety of undesirable products, odors, and appear-
ances. This is of particular interest regarding fermentation
practices that use lactic acid bacteria in conjunction with
ingredients that are incapable of being sterilized from spore-
formers (e.g., wheat gluten and other grain-based products).
Spoilage of Cereal Products and Bakery Goods
Due to the low water activity (aw  0.60) of grains and cereals,
bacterial spoilage usually is not a serious problem. It is mostly
of mold origin. A problem can arise, however, when the water
activity (aw) of the product increases by exposure to higher
relative humidities.
With the production of baked goods, Leuconostoc and
Lactobacillus spp. are common spoilage organisms for raw
doughs, biscuits, and rolls before baking. After baking,
B. subtilis may be a problem when baked goods (pH > 5) are
cooled slowly in a moist environment. It can produce ropiness
and a fruity aroma in the final product.
Conclusion
Food spoilage may pose economic consequences if certain
precautionary and preventive measures are not performed. The
food industry has adopted methods to minimize spoilage with
the use of natural preservatives, novel processing systems,
refrigeration, packaging material and, more recently, manage-
ment systems. These techniques, however, are incapable of
controlling spoilage if incoming material is not of the highest
quality and handled under good sanitary conditions. In all cases,
the shelf life of many foods can be extended if foods are prepared
to minimize the level of bacterial contamination before final
processing.
See also: Confectionery Products – Cakes and Pastries; Hazard
Appraisal (HACCP): The Overall Concept; Heat Treatment of
Foods – Principles of Pasteurization; Spoilage of Meat; Curing
of Meat; Microbiota of the Intestine: The Natural Microflora of
Humans; Milk and Milk Products: Microbiology of Liquid Milk;
Microbiology of Cream and Butter; Packaging of Foods;
Spoilage of Plant Products: Cereals and Cereal Flours; Spoilage
Problems: Problems Caused by Fungi; Wines: Malolactic
Fermentation.
Further Reading
Brown, M.H., 1982. Meat Microbiology. Applied Science, New York.
Davies, A., Board, R., 1998. The Microbiology of Meat and Poultry. Chapman & Hall,
New York.
Doyle, M.P., Beuchat, L.R. (Eds.), 2007. Food Microbiology Fundamentals and
Frontiers. ASM Press, Washington, DC.
Fleet, G.H., 1994. Wine Microbiology and Biotechnology. Hardwood Academic,
Philadephia.
Frazier, W.C., Westhoff, D.C., 1988. Food Microbiology. McGraw Hill, Toronto.
Jay, J.M., Golden, D.A., Loessner, M.J., 2007. Modern Food Microbiology, seventh ed.
Springer ScienceþBusiness Media LLC, Germany.
Kraft, A., 1992. Psychrotrophic Bacteria in Foods – Spoilage and Disease. CRC Press,
Florida.
Reed, G., Nagodawithana, T.W., 1991. Yeast Technology, second ed. Van Nostrand-
Reinhold, New York.
Sperber, W.H., Doyle, M.P. (Eds.), 2009. Compendium of the Microbiological Spoilage
of Foods and Beverages. Springer ScienceþBusiness Media LLC, Germany.
Sumague, M.J.V., Mabesa, R.C., Dizon, E.I., Carpio, E.V., Roxas, N.P., 2008. Pre-
disposing factors contributing to spoilage of soy sauce by Bacillus circulans.
Philippine Journal of Science 134, 105–114.