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Lgurovic Sec4 Pos0
Lgurovic Sec4 Pos0
Contents:
• Transport mechanisms
• Water properties
• Definition of soil-water potential
• Measurement of soil-water potential
• Soil-water retention curve
• Components of total soil-water potential
Transport:
1. Solute molecules, dissolved in gas or liquid, move from high to low concentration
Driving force for movement is difference in concentration with distance
Transport is formulated by Fick’s law of diffusion
In soils, water moves by pressure (or water potential) and gravitational forces
Water properties:
Water is an unusual fluid and has much different physical properties than other substances
with equal molecular weight
H O
H
105o
H
O
1.38 A
H2O molecule has no net charge (neutral), but charge distribution is asymmetrical, with the
center of negative charge not coinciding with center of positive charge;
H-atoms of water molecules are hydrogen bonded with O atoms of surrounding molecules,
acting as attraction forces between water molecules;
Hydrogen bonding explains the physical properties of water, and its weak crystalline
structure;
Surface tension
Molecules at fluid interface are exposed to different forces than within fluids. For example,
at the water-air interface, a net inward force exists because of higher density of water
molecules in water than in air. Within the water there is no net attraction in any direction.
Therefore, water at interface has membrane-like properties. The extra energy of the water
at the interface is called surface tension, σ, and is defined as energy per unit surface area
(Nm/m2) or force per unit length.
Vapor molecules
Liquid surface
Net inward
force
Liquid molecules
Viscosity
Resistance of fluid flow is caused by attraction forces between fluid molecules, thereby
resisting motion from one laminar fluid layer to another.
Viscosity is defined by relation between drag force, τ, (N/m2) and velocity gradient
perpendicular to direction of flow:
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 4 -
τ = ν dv/dy ,
J What has higher viscosity: air or water; which fluid will experience the larger drag
force, and how is viscosity affected by temperature ?
Osmotic pressure:
Solution Water
Π = CRT
Capillary Rise:
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 5 -
For a curved interface, the pressure is greater on the concave side of the air-water
interface. For a hemispherical interface (with radius R), this pressure difference, ∆P, can
be derived from a force balance, and is equal to
That is, the surface tension force is balanced by a pressure drop across the air-water
interface:
R
R
Water Water
Water
Hence, the fluid pressure is always greater on the concave side of the interface, with the
difference determined by the radius of the curvature and the surface tension.
Contact angle (γ) is the angle measured from the liquid-solid interface to the liquid-air
interface. For a small angle (<90o), liquid is preferentially attracted to the solid surface (by
adhesion forces), and wets the solid. If cohesion forces of liquid are stronger than the
attractive force to the solid, the liquid repels from the solid surface and γ is large (mercury
on glass).
γ γ
γ
Small contact angle, < 90o Large contact angle, > 90o
Liquid wets the solid Liquid repelled by solid
Hydrophilic surface Hydrophobic surface
The contact angle adjusts to attain equilibrium between various surface tension forces.
If a capillary tube is inserted in water, the water will form a concave meniscus because of
net surface tension forces pulling it along the capillary wall. If diameter is small enough,
the air-water interface will be curved, causing a pressure difference across the air-water
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 6 -
interface.
Consequently, the water in the capillary will rise. At equilibrium, the upward surface
tension force is equal to the downward force by the weight of the water in the capillary.
The resulting capillary rise equation for a tube with capillary radius R is:
where H is the height of capillary rise and ρw is the water density. This is also called the
La Place equation ( r is radius of curvature) .
J Where would the level of the interface be if the capillary was filled with mercury,
which is repelled by the glass capillary?
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 7 -
The total energy state of soil water is defined by its equivalent potential energy, as
determined by the various forces acting on the water per unit quantity.
In general, flow rates of water in soils is too small to consider kinetic energy. Therefore,
the energy state of soil water is defined by its equivalent potential energy, that is by virtue
of its position in a force field.
• Capillary forces
• Adsorptive forces (adhesion of water to solid soil surfaces)
Capillary water
Adsorbed water
soil
• Gravitational forces
• Drag or shear forces (at soil surface-water interface)
Water in the soil flows from points with high soil-water potential energy to points of lower
potential energy:
Driving force for flow is the change in potential energy with distance (soil-water potential
gradient)
It is defined as the potential energy of pure water, with no external forces acting on it, at a
reference pressure (atmospheric), reference temperature, and reference elevation. Soil-
water potential is then determined as potential energy per unit quantity of water, relative to
the reference potential of zero.
Soil water potential is measured as potential energy per unit quantity of water, relative to
this reference soil water potential.
J The soil below the groundwater table is saturated with water. Is the soil water potential
below the groundwater larger or smaller than this reference potential ?
Formal definition:
Total soil water potential is defined as the amount of work per unit quantity of pure
water that must be done by external forces to transfer reversibly and isothermally an
infinitesimal amount of water from the standard state to the soil at the point under
consideration.
Since water in soil has various forces acting upon it, potential energy usually differs
from point to point, and hence its potential energy is variable as well.
soil
J Do we need to exert work to move water from the reference state (at atmospheric
pressure) to the capillary water with the curved interface of the soil above, and hence is
the soil water potential there positive or negative ?
Potential per unit weight (h) : h = potential/weight = mgl / mg = l (m, head unit)
= equivalent height of water
ΨT = Ψp + Ψz + Ψs + Ψa (N/m2)
where Ψp , Ψz , Ψs , and Ψa are pressure, gravitational, solute (osmotic) and air pressure
potentials, respectively.
so ψ T = ψ p + ψ z
Ψ p - pressure potential
Energy per unit volume of water required to transfer an infinitesimal quantity of water from
a reference pool of water at the elevation of the soil to the point of interest in the soil at
reference air pressure and temperature.
If the soil is unsaturated, Ψ p is negative, and also denoted by matric potential (Ψm in book).
[However, if only water column: Ψ = Ψ p (can be both < 0 and > 0), as opposed to water
in soil matrix.]
When expressed in energy per unit weight (m) than we use hp or simply h.
F
P= makes F = PA
A
Fl PAl PV P ψp
µp = = = = =
m m m ρw ρ w
thus ψ p = µ p ρ w
hp = h = Ψp / ρwg
Porous cup
SOIL
hp = -10 cm
Water-filled tube
(m/s2) x -0.10 (m) = - 980 N/m2 = -980 Pa = -0.98 kPa (1Pa=1 N/m2)
F1 F2 F3
C B
x Mercury reservoir
A 10 cm
y 100 cm
D porous cup
That is, F1 + F2 = F3
*Note the H2O in the tubing above the dashed line BC (see figure) is not considered
because the downward forces due to H2O in both halves of the "U-tube" are equal.
F1 + F2 = F3
The sign (+ or -) of F1 is unknown at this stage. However, since F2 and F3 are acting
downward, both forces are exerting a negative pull on the water located at the broken line.
Thus, they are assigned negative values.
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 12 -
ρwV1g-ρwV2g = -ρHgV3g
ρw g h - ρw g y = - 13.5 ρw gX
h = y - 13.5 X
h = 100 + 10 + X - 13.5 X
If X = 20 cm,
If X = 5 cm,
Thus, tensiometers can measure both + and – soil-water pressure potentials, i.e.,
hydrostatic pressure and matric potentials.
Alternatively, instead of force balance, one can state that at hydraulic equilibrium the total
water potential at B is equal to total water potential at point D.
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 13 -
At D: z = - 100
h = hD
J Would the rise of fluid in the reservoir (X) increase or decrease if its density would be
less than mercury, for the same soil water potential at point D ?
C B
x Mercury reservoir
A 10 cm
y 100 cm
D porous cup
• Assume that at the time of measurement, the fluids in the tensiometer are at hydraulic
equilibrium, i.e., fluid is static;
• For a static fluid (not in motion), change in pressure occurs only with a change in
elevation. That is, along the horizontal plane, the pressure will be constant;
• Also, the fluid pressure changes inversely with elevation. If one travels upward in the
fluid (positive z), the pressure decreases; and if one goes downward (negative z), the
pressure increases; Therefore, in diagram: pressure at C = pressure at B or ψ C = ψ B
Resistance(R) depends upon amount of H2O in block. Must be calibrated. Requires good
soil contact, and R depends on ionic concentration in block. Accurate only in dry range.
-Measures rate at which heat is conducted away from a heat source, using
temperature response close to heat source (using thermocouple or thermister).
-The more water in porous matrix, the faster the heat is conducted away.
-300
-100
• Soil available water is defined as the water content difference between field capacity
(h=-330 cm) and permanent wilting point (h = -15,000 cm); Will be discussed later !!!
J Would you expect the soil-water retention curve to be different if it was determined by
desorption or adsorption ?
Hysteresis
-300
h (cm) -200
a f
f
b c
pore drainage
-h
e
e b
c pore a
filling f
f θ
soil
sample
porous
plate
tube filled
with water
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 20 -
J If the length of the hanging water column is X and the system is in hydraulic
equilibrium, what is the pressure potential in the soil sample ?
3. Pressure plate
Pressure
Control
Soil core
Water collects
in burette until
equilibrium is
established
Air-bubble trap
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 21 -
Metal Ring
Soil core
O-Rings
J If 1 bar gauge pressure is applied to the pressure plate apparatus, and water drainage
has stopped, then what is the pressure potential of the soil water in the cores ?
Remember:
Energy per unit volume of water required to transfer an infinitesimal quantity of water from
a reference pool of water at the elevation of the soil to the point of interest in the soil at
reference air pressure and temperature.
When expressed in energy per unit weight (m), then we simply use h (pressure head)
Pressure potential or hydrostatic water pressure is equal to the water pressure exerted by
overlying unsupported saturated water at the point of interest. This is strictly positive, and
is equal to the pressure equivalent of the height of water above the point of interest (h =
hydrostatic pressure head, when expressed in potential per unit weight, Nm/m = m,
sometimes also denoted by p).
ψp
h = matric pressure head given by: h = (units: m)
ρwg
J If the tensiometer cup at point A is located at the water table (pressure is atmospheric
pressure), what is the pressure potential at point A ?
Energy per unit volume of water required to move an infinitesimal amount of pure, free
water from the reference elevation (zo) to the soil water elevation (zsoil).
If potential is expressed per unit volume, then gravitational potential = (zsoil - zo), or
zo A
J Now with this information, compute the soil water pressure potential at point A in the
previous diagram with the tensiometer of length L.
Ψ s - solute potential
ψs
s = osmotic pressure head given by: s = (units: m)
ρwg
Accounts for changes in air pressure, different than the reference pressure (atmospheric
pressure). Important in pressure cells (Tempe cell) and pressure plate apparatus.
ψa
a = air pressure head given by: a = (units: m)
ρwg
SSC107 – Fall 2000 Chapter 2, Page - 26 -
ΨT = Ψp + Ψz + Ψs + Ψa + .....
so ψ T = ψ p + ψ z or Total Head H = h + z