Abstract

For many decades, nanotechnology has been developed with cooperation from researchers in
several fields of studies including physics, chemistry, biology, material science, engineering, and
computer science. Nanotechnology is engineering at the molecular (groups of atoms) level. It is
the collective term for a range of technologies, techniques and processes that involve the
manipulation of matter at the smallest scale (from 1 to 100 nm2).The nanotechnology provides
better future for human life in various fields. In future nanotechnology provides economy, eco
friendly and efficient technology which removes all difficult predicaments which is faced by us

in today life scenario. Nanotechnology is the technology of preference to make things small,
light and cheap, nanotechnology based manufacturing is a method conceived for processing and
rearranging of atoms to fabricate custom products.

The nanotechnology applications have three different categories nanosystems, nanomaterials and
nanoelectronics. The impact of the nanotechnology occurred on computing and data storage,
materials and manufacturing, health and medicine, energy and environment, transportation,
national security and space exploration. There are many applications of nanotechnology which
are exciting in our life such as nanopowder, nanotubes, membrane filter, quantum computers etc.

But there are several problems which are occurred with the exploration of the nanotechnology
such as the wastes released while making the materials for nanotechnology are released into the
atmosphere and can even penetarte human and animal cells and effect their performance,
agricultural countries will lose their income as nanotechnology will take over, if any damage is
done at the molecular level then it is not possible to revert it.
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction to Nanotechnology………………………………….... 02
2. History of Nanotechnology….…………………………………….....03
3. Concept……………………………………………………………… 04
3.1 A material perspective……………………………………04
3.2 Nano Mechanics and bio materials. ……….……………05

4. Nanotechnology Tools………………………………………………06
4.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)…………………..06
4.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)…………………………….06
4.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)……………………..07
5. Future Nanotechnology Applications……………………………....08
6. Exciting Applications of Nanotechnology..................................…...12
6.1 Nanopowders………………………………………………….12
6.2 Membranes……………………………………………………13
6.3 Carbon Nanotube……………………………………………..14
6.4 Molecular electronics…………………………………………15
6.5 Quantum Computers…………………………………………15

6.6 NanoRobotics………………………………………………….16
7. How nano technology will change the world…………………..17
8. Nanotechnology in india…………………………………………21

9. Energy applications of nanotechnology………………………..23

10. Hydrogen Production and Storage………………………………………27

7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………..30

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Chapter 1

Introduction

Nanotechnology is engineering at the molecular (groups of atoms) level. It is the collective term
for a range of technologies, techniques and processes that involve the manipulation of matter at
the smallest scale from 1 to 100 nm2 (1 nm = 0.000000001 m).

The classical laws of physics and chemistry do not readily apply at this very small scale for two
reasons. Firstly, the electronic properties of very small particles can be very different from their
larger cousins. Secondly, the ratio of surface area to volume becomes much higher, and since the
surface atoms are generally most reactive, the properties of a material change in unexpected
ways. For example, when silver is turned into very small particles, it takes on anti-microbial
properties while gold particles become any colour you choose. Nature provides plenty of
examples of materials with properties at the nanoscale – such as the iridescence of butterfly
wings, the sleekness of dolphin skin or the ‘nanofur’ that allows geckos to walk up vertical
surfaces.

Nanotechnology is not confined to one industry, or market. Rather, it is an enabling set of

technologies that cross all industry sectors and scientific disciplines. Probably uniquely, it is
classified by the size of the materials being developed and used, not by the processes being used
or products being produced. Nanoscience is inherently multidisciplinary: it transcends the
conventional boundaries between physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, information
technology, and engineering. This also means it can be hard to define – is the introduction of
foreign genes or proteins into cells biotechnology or nanotechnology? And since genes have
genetic memory, might this also be a form of information technology? The answer is probably
‘all of the above’. The important point is that the integration of these technologies and their
manipulation at the molecular and sub-molecular level will over the next decade provide major
advances across many existing industries and create whole new industries.

2
Chapter 2

History

Richard Feynman, US physicist and Nobel Prize winner, presented a talk to the American
Physical Society annual meeting entitled There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom. In his talk,
Feynman presented ideas for creating nanoscale machines to manipulate, control and image

matter at the atomic scale. Prof. Feynman described such atomic scale fabrication as a bottom-
up approach, as opposed to the top-down approach that we are accustomed to. Top-down
manufacturing it involves the construction of parts through methods such as cutting, carving and
molding. Using these methods, we have been able to fabricate a remarkable variety of machinery
and electronics devices. Bottom-up manufacturing would provide components made of single
molecules, which are held together by covalent forces that are far stronger than the forces that
hold together macro-scale components. Further more, the amount of information that could be
stored in devices build from the bottom up would be enormous.

In 1974, Norio Taniguchi introduced the term ‘nanotechnology’ to represent extra-high

precision and ultra-fine dimensions, and also predicted improvements in integrated circuits,
optoelectronic devices, mechanical devices and computer memory devices. This is the so called
‘top-down approach’ of carving small things from large structures. In 1986, K. Eric Drexler in
his book Engines of Creation discussed the future of nanotechnology, particularly the creation of
larger objects from their atomic and molecular components, the so called ‘bottom-up approach’.
He proposed ideas for ‘molecular nanotechnology’ which is the self assembly of molecules into
an ordered and functional structure.

The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer in
1981 (IBM Zurich Laboratories), provided the real breakthrough and the opportunity to
manipulate and image structures at the nanoscale. Subsequently, the atomic force microscope
was invented in 1986, allowing imaging of structures at the atomic scale. Another major
breakthrough in the field of nanotechnology occurred in 1985 when Harry Kroto, Robert Curl
and Richard Smalley invented a new form of carbon called fullerenes (‘buckyballs’), a single
molecule of 60 carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a soccer ball. This led to a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1996.

3
Since that time, nanotechnology has evolved into one of the most promising fields of science,
with multi-billion dollar investments from the public and private sectors and the potential to
create multi-trillion dollar industries in the coming decade.

Chapter 3

Concept Of Nanotechnology
Atoms and molecules stick together because they have complementary shapes that lock together,
or charges that attract. Just like with magnets, a positively charged atom will stick to a negatively
charged atom. As millions of these atoms are pieced together by nanomachines, a specific
product will begin to take shape. The goal of molecular manufacturing is to manipulate atoms
individually and place them in a pattern to produce a desired structure.

The first step would be to develop nanoscopic machines, called assemblers, that scientists can
program to manipulate atoms and molecules at will. Rice University Professor Richard Smalley
points out that it would take a single nanoscopic machine millions of years to assemble a
meaningful amount of material. In order for molecular manufacturing to be practical, you would
need trillions of assemblers working together simultaneously. Eric Drexler believes that
assemblers could first replicate themselves, building other assemblers. Each generation would
build another, resulting in exponential growth until there are enough assemblers to produce
objects.

Nanotechnology is not confined to one industry, or market. Rather, it is an enabling set of

technologies that cross all industry sectors and scientific disciplines. Probably uniquely, it is
classified by the size of the materials being developed and used, not by the processes being used
or products being produced. Nanoscience is inherently multidisciplinary: it transcends the
conventional boundaries between physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, information
technology, and engineering. This also means it can be hard to define – is the introduction of
foreign genes or proteins into cells biotechnology or nanotechnology? And since genes have
genetic memory, might this also be a form of information technology? The answer is probably
‘all of the above’. The important point is that the integration of these technologies and their
manipulation at the molecular and sub-molecular level will over the next decade provide major
advances across many existing industries and create whole new industries.

3.1 A material perspective

On of the fundamental concept which is the ground basis for nanotechnology is the material
perspective. Before the advent of nanotechnology material was not seen atomically. Scientists
started decomposing large materials to from new components from them. it has been observed
that decomposition of a materials at nano scale changes its properties. For example scanning
tunneling microscopy. Number of mechanical and physical phenomena which appears when
system size is decreased these affects are known as mechanical effect or quantum size effects.
4
Where as the electronic characteristics of solids are altered with great decrease in particle size.
This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions of materials. but
when micro to macro size reduction was performed this affect become dominant when molecular
size of the particle is reached. Electrical, optical, and magnetic properties of the materials
changed at nanoscale rearrangements

3.2 Nano Mechanics and bio materials.

The concept of nanomechanics was also originated when new chemical properties of conductors
and semi conductors were found. Nano materials empowered the production of new devices but
at the same time it also opened the potential risks in their reactions with biomaterials. Materials
exhibit different properties as they exhibited at macro level which enabled unique applications to
take place for example opaque elements become transparent such as copper, insulators become
conductor at nano scale treatment like silicon, solid can be converted into liquid at normal room
temperature such as gold. Bottom line is that nanotechnology totally transformed the entire
structure of any substance into new architecture.

3.3 Molecular perspective (simple to Complex)

Advanced chemistry has reached the level where it can produce molecules for almost every
structure of the present world. these techniques are used to prepare wide range of chemical
compounds such as polymers and pharmaceuticals but the extension of the control gives birth to
the question that how these molecules could be reassemble into more advanced super molecular
assemblies. Molecular self assembly in gradually evolving into supramolecular chemistry to
make the new components which can reassembles themselves.

3.4 Molecular Recognition

Another important concept is the molecular recognition which is one of the fundamental
concepts of nanotechnology. Molecular rearranges them selves chemically by molecular
recognition. There is special force that is present between molecules non covalent intermolecular
force which supports the conformation of chemical similarity of molecules.

5
Chapter 4
Tools In Nanotechnology

The main tools used in nanotechnology are three main microscopes:-

(i) Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
(ii) Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)
(iii) Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

4.1 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

The transmission electron microscope is one that utilizes a high-energy electron beam that
probes sample materials with a thickness less than 100 nanometers (nm). While some electrons
are either absorbed or bounced of the material, others pass through it creating a magnified image
as the one shown in the example. Current TEMs use digital cameras placed behind the material
to capture and record images, magnifying images up to 30 million times. The TEM is the most
popular microscope used the make images published in scientific journals on nanocrystals found
in semiconductors.

4.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM)

The atomic force microscope (AFM) uses a small silicon tip as a probe to make images of
sample material. While the probe move along the surface of the sample, the electrons of the
atoms in the material begin to repel the electrons of the probe. The AFM then adjusts the height
of the probe to keep the force of the sample constant. A mechanism records the movement of the
probe and sends this information to a computer that will generate a three-dimensional image as
shown in the slide. The image will show the exact topography of the surface.

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4.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)

A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) uses a wavelike property of electrons known as

tunneling, which allows electrons emitted from a probe to penetrate, or tunnel into, the surface of
the examined object. The electrons generate a tiny electric current that the STM measures.
Similar to the atomic force microscope, the height of the probe in the STM is adjusted constantly
to keep the current constant. In doing, so a detailed map of the material’ surface is produced as
the example in this slide shows.

7
Chapter 5
Nanotechnology Applications

Nanotechnology opens the way towards new production routes, towards new, more
efficient, performance and intelligent materials, towards new design of structures and
related monitoring and maintenance systems.

The various applications of nanotechnology in different fields are as follows:-

(i) Computing and Data Storage

(ii) Materials and Manufacturing

(iii) Health and Medicine

(iv) Energy and Environment

(v) Space Exploration

5.1 Computing and Data Storage

As the ever-increasing power of computer chips brings us closer and closer to the limits of
silicon technology, many researchers are betting that the future will belong to “spintronics”: a
nanoscale technology in which information is carried not by the electron’s charge, as it is in
conventional microchips, but by the electron’s intrinsic spin. If a reliable way can be found to
control and manipulate the spins, these researchers argue, spintronic devices could offer higher
data processing speeds, lower electric consumption, and many other advantages over
conventional chips–including, perhaps, the ability to carry out radically new quantum
computations.

Now, University of Notre Dame physicist Boldizsar Janko and his colleagues believe they have
found such a control technique. Their work, funded by the National Science Foundation through
a Nanoscale Interdisciplinary Research Team grant, was published in the March 5, 2005, edition
of the journal Nature.

The idea is to create the device as a series of layers, each only a few dozen nanometers thick. At
the base is a layer of diluted magnetic semiconductor, a type of material Janko and his group
have been studying intensively. When gallium arsenide is doped with manganese atoms, for
example, each manganese atom contributes an extra electron, and thus an extra electron spin; the
result is a semiconductor material that can be magnetized in much the same way as iron. Then an
insulator material is layered over the base, followed by a layer of superconducting material.

Next, a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the top surface (see animation above). Thanks
to the basic physics of superconductors, the field can make it through only by pinching itself

8
down into an array of nanoscale flux tubes. That super concentrates the field inside each tube, so
that it creates a spot of high-intensity magnetism on the semiconductor layer below, which, in
turn, creates a patch of closely aligned electron spins. The resulting spin patches, one for each
flux tube, are then available for encoding information.

The effect resembles what happens when you sprinkle iron filings on a piece of paper, and then
hold a bar magnet underneath, says Janko: the presence of the magnet (the flux tube) makes the
iron filings (the spins) stand at attention. Furthermore, he says, just as you can manipulate the
filings by moving the magnet underneath the paper, you can manipulate the spins in this system
by moving the flux tubes. For example, an electric current flowing through the superconductor
will cause a given flux tube to move to one side (with the patch of spins underneath moving
along with it), while a current flowing in the reverse direction will move it back to the other side
(see animation, this video requires the free RealPlayer plug-in).

5.2 Materials and Manufacturing

The Nanotechnology, Advanced Materials and Manufacturing (NM) topic addresses innovations
and development of new materials, devices, machines, structures and manufacturing processes
for the advancement of the competitive nature. NM includes materials and manufacturing
technologies such as electronic materials and processes, high temperature materials, structural
materials, coatings, composites, powder processing, nanomanufacturing, printing, patterning and
lithography, machining, casting, joining, additive manufacturing, self-assembly, and other
related research areas.

The NM program seeks to support high-risk, high-payoff innovative technologies with the
potential for large impact on business, consumers, and society, thereby catalyzing new business
opportunities for small businesses in today's global marketplace. NSF is committed to supporting
scientific discoveries to benefit society and to emphasize private sector commercialization.

9
Novel technologies aimed at achieving increased performance, reduced cost, and/or new
functions or applications are of great interest.

5.3 Health and Medicine

Nanomedicine: NBM is an international, peer-reviewed journal presenting novel, significant,

and interdisciplinary theoretical and experimental results related to nanoscience and
nanotechnology in the life sciences. Content includes basic, translational, and clinical research
addressing diagnosis, treatment, monitoring, prediction, and prevention of diseases. In addition
to bimonthly issues, the journal website (click here) also presents important nanomedicine-
related information, such as future meetings, meeting summaries, funding opportunities, societal
subjects public health, and ethical issues of nanomedicin e .
The potential scope of nanomedicine is broad, and we expect it to eventually involve all aspects
of medicine. Sub-categories include synthesis, bioavailability, and biodistribution of
nanomedicines; delivery, pharmacodynamics, and pharmacokinetics of nanomedicines; imaging;
diagnostics; improved therapeutics; innovative biomaterials; interactions of nanomaterials with
cells, tissues, and living organisms; regenerative medicine; public health; toxicology; point of
care monitoring; nutrition; nanomedical devices; prosthetics; biomimetics; and bioinformatics.

5.4 Energy And Environment

Development of new energy technologies and technologies for a cleaner environment are two
important focus areas. For example, the development of light and strong new materials would
make planes, trains and cars lighter and thus reduce energy consumption. Development of
effective methods for the conversion of one type of energy to another is another important area.
Materials with new functional properties will be able to streamline the energy conversion, for
example from sunlight to electricity in solar cells, or from electrical energy to chemical energy in
the form of hydrogen gas. The production of new and effective nanomaterials will also provide
an environmental benefit because the material need will be less than with the use of traditional
materials.
10
Choosing the main profile of “Nanotechnology for materials, energy and environment” you will
contribute to the development of such new environmental friendly energy technologies. You will
also be able to contribute to the development of for example new, effective methods for purifying
gases, liquids and drinking water as well as separating CO 2 for storage. In order to avoid possible
negative effects, it is also crucial to understand the impact new nanomaterials will have on the
environment. A specialisation within “Nanotechnology for materials, energy and environment”,
will equip in facing the world's climate challenges.

5.5 Space Exploration

NASA and other researchers are exploring the use of carbon based Nanotubes to deliver
solutions for some of its most promising visions of space exploration. This includes such
applications as a huge space elevator which can carry cargo to and from earth without the need
for orbital takeoff and landing. Nanotechnology is also being considered for other applications as
well, such as solar sail applications that can be used to propel spacecraft using light from the sun,
ion thrusters that replace chemical rockets, and materials that can be used to make the outside of
spacecraft resilient to bombardment from space debris.
The great space elevator concept has been the subject of much fascination and imagination,
and it no doubt faces a host of engineering challenges. The idea is to create a long cable from the
Earth to space, tethering the cable to an object in orbit—such as an asteroid in space—and
anchoring it on Earth to a station that is rigged in the ocean somewhere. Cargo can then be
shuttled back and forth without the need for rockets and fuel as the transport mechanism. The
cable would extend to 90,000 kilometers in length, be constructed of carbon based Nanotubes,
and use solar power to generate the electricity needed to shuttle it back and forth from space.
NASA’s Institutes for Advanced Concepts and the Elevator 2010 group provide insights and
yearly competitions to accelerate the time to production of the first successful prototype.
Nanotechnology is also being considered for use with space craft as well. One such use comes
in the form of solar sails. These use electricity from the sun to power a spacecraft’s travels,
rather than relying on thruster engines. Researchers have used carbon based Nanotubes to create
the thin sheets used as the space sails. And to replace chemical rockets altogether, ion thrusters
can use solar cells to generate electric fields as the propulsion mechanism. Additionally, other
researchers have explored the possibility of using Nanotubes for the exterior of the spaceship
itself, to create a resilient exterior that can withstand space debris bombardment. Ultimately, it
will even be possible to use Nanoparticles to effect any necessary repairs to the ship’s hull.

11
Chapter 6

Exciting Applications of Nanotechnology

6.1 Nanopowders – building blocks of nanomaterials

Nanopowders contain particles less than 100 nm in size — 1/10,000th the thickness of a human
hair. The physical, chemical and biological properties of such small particles allow industry to
incorporate enhanced functionalities into products.
Some of the unique properties of interest to industry are enhanced transparency from particles
being smaller than the wavelength of visible light, and high surface areas for enhanced
performance in surface area-driven reactions such as catalysts and drug solubilisation.

These unique properties give rise to a range of new and improved materials with a breadth of
applications. For example, nanotechnology allows plastics to retain transparency while also
taking on characteristics such as resistance to abrasion, conductivity or UV protection found in
ceramics or metals. New medical nanomaterials are being developed, such as synthetic bone and
bone cement, as well as drugs with improved solubility to allow lower dosing, more efficient
drug delivery and fewer adverse side effects.
The high surface areas of nanoparticles are being exploited by industry in catalysts that improve
chemical reactions in applications such as cleaning up car exhausts and potentially to remove
toxins from the environment. For example, petroleum and chemical processing companies are
using nanostructured catalysts to remove pollutants — $30 billion industry in 1999 with the
potential of $100 billion per year by 2015. Improved catalysts illustrate that improvements to
existing technology can open up whole new markets — nanostructured catalysts look likely to be
a critical component in finally making fuel cells a reality, which could transform our power
generation and distribution industry.

12
6.2 Membranes
Nanotechnology can address one of the most pressing issues of the 21st Century — safe, clean
and affordable water. There are 1.3 billion people without access to safe drinking water and
indications are that global consumption of water will likely double in the next 20 years. Fresh
water supplies are already limiting the growth of our cities — Australian cities such as
Sydney and Perth are considering waste water reuse schemes to augment their water supplies,
London is investing ₤200 million in desalination and Singapore recycles wastewater. Further
technology development is required to make this cost effective and allow it to become a more
mainstream water supply option.
Nanomembrane filtration devices that ‘clean’ polluted water, sifting out bacteria, viruses, heavy
metals and organic material, are being explored by research teams in the US, Israel and Australia
(at the UNESCO Centre for Membrane Science and Technology at the University of New South
Wales and a consortium of CSIRO Divisions). The key to lowering the energy demand and
improving throughput for desalination is in understanding how to selectively separate small
molecules, and package these technologies for exploitation. Separation of molecules occurs
efficiently in nature through membranes, such as the ion channels that remove salt from blood
and the respiratory membranes that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide. In order to reduce the
energy requirement for this process, nature provides large surface areas for the transport of
molecules. A parallel approach is being developed by nanotechnologists for the production of
nanoarchitectures for cost-effective filtration systems in large-scale water purification.

13
6.3 Carbon Nanotube

Carbon nanotubes possess many unique properties which make them ideal AFM probes. Their
high aspect ratio provides faithful imaging of deep trenches, while good resolution is retained
due to their nanometer-scale diameter. These geometrical factors also lead to reduced tip-sample
adhesion, which allows gentler imaging. Nanotubes elastically buckle rather than break when
deformed, which results in highly robust probes. They are electrically conductive, which allows
their use in STM and EFM (electric force microscopy), and they can be modified at their ends
with specific chemical or biological groups for high resolution functional imaging. Professor
Charles M. Lieber Group

CNT exhibits extraordinary mechanical properties: the Young's modulus is over 1 Tera Pascal. It
is stiff as diamond. The estimated tensile strength is 200 Giga Pascal. These properties are ideal
for reinforced composites, nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS)

Carbon Nanotube Transistors exploit the fact that nm- scale nanotubes (NT) are ready-made
molecular wires and can be rendered into a conducting, semiconducting, or insulating state,
which make them valuable for future nanocomputer design. Carbon nanotubes are quite popular
now for their prospective electrical, thermal, and even selective-chemistry applications. Physics
News 590, May 21, 2002

Many potential applications have been proposed for carbon nanotubes, including conductive and
high-strength composites; energy storage and energy conversion devices; sensors; field emission
displays and radiation sources; hydrogen storage media; and nanometer-sized semiconductor
devices, probes, and interconnect. Some of these applications are now realized in products.
Others are demonstrated in early to advanced devices, and one, hydrogen storage, is clouded by
controversy. Nanotube cost, polydispersity in nanotube type, and limitations in processing and
assembly methods are important barriers for some applications of single-walled nanotubes.

14
6.4 Molecular electronics — cross bar latches to replace silicon chips
Hewlett-Packard — one of the world's biggest computer companies — declared on 1 February
2005 that it is on the verge of a revolution in computer chip technology10. They believe that
silicon computer chips will have reached a technical dead end in about a decade, to be replaced
by tiny nanotechnology devices described as ‘cross bar latches’. These molecular-scale
alternatives to the transistor should dramatically improve the performance of computers because
they are much smaller — only 2 or 3 nm in size compared with 90 nm for transistors — and they
can store memory for much longer periods.
The new device consists of a wire that is crossed by two other wires. The resulting junctions
serve as switches that are only a few atoms across and can be programmed by a repeatable set of
electrical pulses.

6.5 Quantum Computers

The quantum computer uses quantum particles as the "tape" in the Turing experiment. Because
the presence of a symbol or a blank in the Turing tape symbolizes the binary digits, so can the
state of the quantum particles be used to hold these values. The use of multiple quantum particles
also means that the quantum computer will be much faster than the Turing machine since it can
perform several calculations simultaneously.
Moreover, unlike today's computers that uses the basic bit which has only two states (1 or 0), a
quantum computer will store information as quantum bits which can hold more than two values.
This ability of qubits to exist in more than two states means that a quantum computer has the
capability of performing more than a million simultaneous computations at one time and the
potential to be a lot faster and a lot more powerful than today's supercomputers.
Quantum computers will also be able to utilize one other important characteristic of quantum
particles known as entanglement. The property of entanglement makes it possible to assign and
determine the value or the spin of a quantum particle by introducing an outside force.

6.6 NanoRobotics

15
Basic nanomachines are already in use. Nanobots will be the next generation of nanomachines.
Advanced nanobots will be able to sense and adapt to environmental stimuli such as heat, light,
sounds, surface textures, and chemicals; perform complex calculations; move, communicate, and
work together; conduct molecular assembly; and, to some extent, repair or even replicate
themselves. Nanobot.info is an informational site that provides information on both recent
developments and future applications at the intersection of nanotechnology and robotics.
Nanotechnology is the science and application of creating objects on a level smaller than 100
nanometers. The extreme concept of nanotechnology is the "bottom up" creation of virtually any
material or object by assembling one atom at a time. Although nanotech processes occur at the
scale of nanometers, the materials and objects that result from these processes can be much
larger. Large-scale results happen when nanotechnology involves massive parallelism in which
many simultaneous and synergistic nanoscale processes combine to produce a large-scale result.

16
 HOW NANO TECHNOLOGY WILL CHANGE THE WORLD:

First Bricks Then The Building :

Before nanotechnology can become anything other than a very impressive computer
simulation, nanotechnologists are inventing an assembler, a few-atoms-large nanomachine
that can custom-build matter.

Engineers at Cornell and Stanford, as well as at Zyvex (the self- described "first
molecular nanotechnology development company") are working to create such assemblers
right now.

The first products will most likely be superstrong nanoscale building materials, such as
the Bucky tubes . Bucky tubes are chicken-wire-shapedtubes made from geodesic dome-
shaped carbon molecules . These tubes are essentially nanometer-sized graphite fibers, and
their strength is 100 to 150 times that of steel at less than one-fourth the weight. With Bucky
tubes we can build super roller coasters that drop you from 14,000 feet or we could take tram
rides through the Himalayas.

The key to manufacturing with assemblers on a large scale is self-replication. One nano-
sized robot making wood one nano-sized piece at a time would be painfully slow. But if
these assemblers could replicate themselves, we could have trillions of assemblers all
manufacturing in unison. Then there would be no limit to the kinds of things we could create.
"Not only our manufacturing process will be transformed, but our concept of labor.
Consumer goods will become plentiful, inexpensive, smart, and durable".

17
The Ways That Molecular Nanotechnology could Change our lives:

Manufacturing and Industry:

Nanotechnology will render the traditional manufacturing process Obsolete. For

example, we'd no longer have a steel mill Outfitted with enormous, expensive machinery,
running on fossi fuels and employing hundreds of human workers; instead we'd have a
nanofactory with trillions of nanobots synthesizing steel, molecule by molecule.

Bill Spence believes that all industry would disappear except software engineering
and design. We'd simply design, engineer, and do a molecular model of any product we
wanted, and then software could tell a nanobot how to make it.

Use of Natural Resources:

Rather than clear-cutting forests to make paper, we'd have assemblers synthesizing
paper. Rather than using oil for energy, we'd have molecule-sized solar cells mixed into road
pavement a few hundred Famine would be obliterated, as food could be synthesized easily and
cheaply with a microwave-sized nanobox that pulls the raw materials (mostly carbon) from
the air or the soil. And by using nanobots as cleaning machines that break down pollutants, we
would be able to counteract the damage we've done to the earthsince the industrial revolution .

Medicine:

Nanotechnology could also mean the end of disease as we know it. If you caught a
cold or contracted AIDS, you'd just drink a teaspoon of liquid that contained an army of
molecule-sized nanobots programmed to enter your body's cells and fight viruses. If a
genetic disease ran in yourfamily, you'd ingest nanobots that would burrow into your
DNA and repair the defective . Even traditional plastic surgery would be eliminated, as
medical nanobots could change your eye color, alter the shape of your nose, or even give you a
complete sex change without surgery.

WHAT NEW OBJECTS WILL APPEAR BECAUSE OF NANOTECHNOLOGY? :

18
 Perhaps the big story -- with mature nanotechnology, any object can morph into any
other imaginable object... truly a concept requiring personal exposure to fully
understand the significance and possibilities, but to get a grip on the idea, consider this:
The age of digital matter -- multi-purpose, programmable machines, change the software, and
something completely different happens.

A simple can opener or a complex asphalt paver are both, single purpose machines.
Ask them to clean your floor or build a radio tower and they "stare" back blankly. A computer
is different, it is a multi purpose machine --one machine that can do unlimited tasks by
changing software... but only in the world of bits and information.

Fractal Robots are programmable machines that can do unlimited tasks in the
physical world, the world of matter. Load the right software and the same "machines" can
take out the garbage, paint your car, or construct an office building and later, wash that
building's windows. In large groups, these devices exhibit what may be termed as macro (hold
in your hand) sized "nanobots ", possessing AND performing many of the desirable
features of mature nanomachines (as described in Drexler's, Engines of Creation,
Unbounding the Future, Nanosystems, etc.).This is the beginning of "Digital Matter".

These Robots look like "Rubic's Cubes" that can "slide" over each other on command,
changing and moving in any overall shape desired for a particular task. These cubes
communicate with each other and share power through simple internal induction coils, have
batteries, a small computer and various kinds of internal magnetic and electric inductive
motors (dependingon size) used to move over other cubes (details here). When sufficiently
miniaturized (below
0.1mm) and fabricated using photolithography methods, cubes can also be programmed to
assemble other cubes of smaller or larger size. This “self-assembly" is an important feature
that will drop cost dramatically.

The point is – if you have enough of the cubes of small enough dimension, they can
slide over each other, or "morph" into any object with just about any function, one can imagine
and program for such behavior. Cubes of sufficiently miniaturized size could be
programmed to behave like the "T-2" Terminator Robot in the Arnold Schwartznegger movie,
or a lawn chair... Just about any animate or inanimate object.

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 Fractal Shape Shifting Robots have been in prototype for the last two years and this
form of "digital matter" to hit the commercial seen very soon. In the near future, if you gaze
out your window and see something vaguely resembling an amoeba constructing an office
building, you'll know what "IT" is.

This is not to say individual purpose objects will not be desirable... Back to cotton
-- although Cubes could mimic the exact appearance of a fuzzy down comforter (a
blanket), if made out of cubes, it would be heavy and not have the same thermal properties.
Although through a heroic engineering effort, such a "blanket" could be made to insulate and
pipe gasses like acomforter and even "levitate" slightly to mimic the weight and mass, why
bother when the real thing can be manufactured atom by atom, on site, at about a meter a second
(depending on thermal considerations).

Also, "single purpose" components of larger machines will be built to take advantage
of fantastic structural properties of
diamondoid-Buckytube composites for such things as thin, super strong aircraft parts.
Today, using the theoretical properties of such materials, we can design an efficient, quiet,
super safe personal vertical takeoff airocar. This vehicle of science fiction is probably
science future.

NANOTECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

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One possible means of bridging the gap between India’s abundant, varied natural resources and
her ever-increasing requirements like clean water, food and rapid, low cost diagnosticmachinery
is the use of nanotechnology, write Arindam Ghosh and Yamuna Krishnan in theinternational
journal Nature Nanotechnology.But what is nanotechnology? When we modify materials at their
atomic and molecular level,some very unusual and useful properties are generated. Since the
dimensions of atoms andmolecule are in nanometers, this technology is called nanotechnology.
The resulting materialsare called nanomaterials. Nanomaterials can be used for wide variety of
things, ranging from purification of water to wrinkle free fabrics to curing cancer.Self reliance in
nanotechnology can make good use of the natural and human resources Indiahas and also help
make India self reliant in sectors like defence and anti-terrorism, write Ghosh and Krishnan.
They present data regarding India’s effort thus far to promote nanotechnology (see
accompanying infographic), and further discuss the successes, limitations and the wayforward.
The article below is a short summary of their key viewpoints.Efforts to promote research in
nanotechnology in India began early in the millenium.

The “NanoScience and Technology Initiative” started with a funding of Rs. 60 crores . In 2007,
the government launched a 5 year program called Nano Mission with wider objectives and
largerfunding of USD 250 million. The funding spanned multiple areas like basic research
innanotechnology, human resources development, infrastructure development and
internationalcollaboration. Multiple institutions like Department on Information Technology,
DefenceResearch and Development Organisation, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
andDepartment of Biotechnology provided the funding to researchers, scholars and
projects. National Centers for Nanofabrication and Nanoelectronics were started in Indian
Institute ofScience, Bangalore and Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai.The efforts have paid
off well. India published over 23000 papers in nanoscience in the past 5years. In 2013, India
ranked third in the number of papers published, behind only China andUSA. There have been
300 patent applications in the Indian Patent Office in 2013, ten timesthat of 2006. Clearly, this
points to the success of Nano Mission initiative.But there is lot of room for improvement. The
amount India spends on nanotechnology researchis still just a fraction of the research spending of
countries like Japan, USA, France and China.The quality of research has shown only a little
improvement from the NSTI phase (till 2006)to the nano mission phase (post 2007). Only 16
papers from India appeared in the top 1% ofthe publications in 2011. Also, the number of
patents applied from India to the US patent officecontributes to only 0.2% of the total
applications.Though people look at nanoscience and technology very positively, the number of
studentsfollowing undergraduate and graduate degrees in the area is low and career prospects
stillextremely limited. The number of PhDs awarded in nanoscience and technology is about
150 per year; a very small number compared to the target of producing 10,000 PhD studentsannu
ally over the next decade articulated by the Ministry of Human Resource Development.

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The contribution of the private sector to nanotechnology research has been minimal.
Researchfrom academic institutions has indicated how much impact nanotechnology can have on
needsof Indian market. For example, a team from IIT Madras has used nanotechnology for
arsenicdecontamination of water. Another team from IIT Delhi has come up with a water based
selfcleaning technology for use in textile industry. It is a matter of concern that, in spite of
suchenormous potential, the private sector is not investing enough in nanoscience research. Nano
technology holds great potential for India and a multi pronged approach will ensure thatthis is
fully leveraged. Funding should be increased and long term funding which can

accommodate coherent research programs with high-impact outcome is needed. Variousresearch

centers throughout India must work together so that the collective efforts can lead to better
results. A highly equipped central facility should plan and initiate research activities.The
administrative aspects of new projects should be streamlined. Most importantly,remuneration for
people trained in the field should increase, to attract high calibre work forceto join these research
facilities.The good news is that the Nano Mission has been extended till 2017 as Phase II.
Sincenanotechnology is an emerging technology and India has abundant skilled workforce, India
canaim to become a global leader in nanotechnology.

ENERGY APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

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Nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of energy by providing innovative solutions to
enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and develop new methods for energy production, storage, and
conservation. This section will cover key areas where nanotechnology impacts energy
applications, including solar cells, batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and hydrogen production.

1. Solar Cells

Enhanced Photovoltaic Efficiency:

Nanotechnology has significantly improved the efficiency of solar cells. Nanomaterials such as
quantum dots, perovskite nanocrystals, and carbon-based materials (like graphene) have unique
optical and electronic properties that can be tailored to absorb a wider spectrum of sunlight.

Quantum Dots:

Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals that can be tuned to absorb different wavelengths
of light. When used in solar cells, they increase the range of light absorption, potentially leading
to higher efficiency than traditional silicon-based cells.

Perovskite Solar Cells:

Perovskite materials have shown great promise due to their high absorption efficiency and
relatively low production costs. Incorporating nanostructured perovskite layers can enhance light
absorption and charge transport, further improving efficiency.

Batteries and Supercapacitors

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High-Performance Batteries:

Nanotechnology enables the development of batteries with higher energy densities, faster
charging times, and longer lifespans. Nanomaterials such as silicon nanowires, graphene, and
transition metal oxides are used in anodes and cathodes to enhance their performance.

Silicon Nanowires:

Silicon nanowires have a high capacity for lithium ions, making them excellent candidates for
next-generation lithium-ion batteries. They can store more charge and provide higher energy
densities compared to conventional materials.

Graphene:

Graphene’s exceptional conductivity and mechanical strength make it an ideal material for
battery electrodes. It enhances electron transport and increases the overall efficiency and lifespan
of batteries.

Supercapacitors:

Supercapacitors store energy through electrostatic processes and can deliver rapid bursts of
energy. Nanomaterials like carbon nanotubes and graphene are used to create electrodes with
high surface area and conductivity, leading to supercapacitors with high power densities and long
cycle life.

FUEL CELLS

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Improved Catalyst Efficiency:

Fuel cells convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy through electrochemical
reactions. Nanotechnology improves the efficiency of catalysts used in fuel cells, such as
platinum nanoparticles, which increase the surface area and reduce the amount of precious metal
needed.

Durability and Cost Reduction:

Using nanomaterials, researchers are developing more durable and cost-effective catalysts. For
example, incorporating carbon-supported platinum nanoparticles can enhance the catalyst's
stability and reduce costs by minimizing the amount of platinum required.

Hydrogen Production and Storage

Efficient Hydrogen Production:

Nanotechnology enhances hydrogen production methods, such as water splitting, by using

nanocatalysts to improve the efficiency of these processes. Nanostructured materials like
titanium dioxide (TiO2) and molybdenum sulfide (MoS2) are effective in catalyzing the
hydrogen evolution reaction.

Hydrogen Storage:

Storing hydrogen efficiently and safely is a significant challenge. Nanomaterials such as metal-
organic frameworks (MOFs) and carbon-based nanostructures offer high surface areas and
porosity, making them suitable for hydrogen storage. These materials can adsorb and release
hydrogen at controlled rates and under safe conditions.

Energy Harvesting

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Nanogenerators:

Nanogenerators convert mechanical energy into electrical energy using piezoelectric and
triboelectric effects. These devices use nanomaterials like zinc oxide nanowires and
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) to harness energy from everyday activities, such as walking or
typing, and convert it into usable electricity.

HYDROGEN PRODUCTION AND STORAGE

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Nanotechnology plays a crucial role in advancing hydrogen production and storage technologies,
which are essential for developing a sustainable hydrogen economy. Hydrogen is a clean fuel
with high energy content, but its production and storage present significant challenges.
Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to improve the efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and
safety of these processes.

Hydrogen Production

Water Splitting:

Water splitting involves the decomposition of water (H₂O) into hydrogen (H₂) and oxygen (O₂)
using energy inputs, typically electrical (electrolysis) or solar (photocatalysis).

Electrolysis:

Nanotechnology enhances electrolysis efficiency by developing advanced catalysts that lower

the energy required for the reaction. Nanostructured catalysts, such as platinum nanoparticles,
provide a large surface area and improved catalytic activity. However, platinum is expensive,
prompting research into alternative nanomaterials like nickel-iron (Ni-Fe) alloys and transition
metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) which offer high performance at lower costs.

Photocatalysis:

Photocatalytic water splitting uses sunlight to drive the reaction. Nanomaterials such as
titanium dioxide (TiO₂) and cadmium sulfide (CdS) are popular choices due to their excellent
photocatalytic properties. By modifying these materials at the nanoscale, scientists can enhance
light absorption, charge separation, and overall efficiency. For instance, doping TiO₂ with
nitrogen or coupling it with other semiconductors can improve its performance under visible
light.

Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Cells

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PEC cells combine photovoltaic and electrochemical processes to produce hydrogen directly
from water using sunlight. Nanostructured photoelectrodes made from materials like hematite
(Fe₂O₃) and bismuth vanadate (BiVO₄) can significantly enhance the efficiency of these cells
by improving light absorption and charge carrier dynamics.

Thermochemical Water Splitting:

This method uses high temperatures, often provided by solar concentrators, to split water.
Nanomaterials such as cerium oxide (CeO₂) and ferrite-based compounds are used for their
high-temperature stability and redox properties, enabling more efficient thermochemical cycles.

Hydrogen Storage

Solid-State Storage:

Storing hydrogen in solid-state materials involves adsorbing or absorbing hydrogen into solid
matrices, which can offer higher storage densities and safer handling compared to gaseous or
liquid hydrogen storage.

Metal Hydrides:

Metal hydrides, such as magnesium hydride (MgH₂) and sodium alanate (NaAlH₄), store
hydrogen by forming chemical bonds with metals. Nanoscale engineering of these materials can
improve hydrogen absorption/desorption kinetics and reduce operating temperatures. For
example, doping magnesium hydride with transition metals or reducing its particle size to the
nanoscale can enhance its hydrogen storage capacity and release rate.

Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs):

MOFs are crystalline materials composed of metal ions coordinated to organic ligands, creating
porous structures with high surface areas. These pores can store large amounts of hydrogen at
relatively low pressures. By tuning the pore size and functionalizing the internal surfaces,
researchers can optimize hydrogen uptake and release properties of MOFs.

Carbon-Based Nanomaterials:
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 Materials like carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphene offer high surface areas and strong
hydrogen adsorption capabilities. Nanostructured carbons can be engineered to enhance
hydrogen binding through chemical modifications or by creating specific pore structures that
facilitate hydrogen storage.

Chemical Hydrogen Storage:

Chemical hydrogen storage involves storing hydrogen in the form of chemical compounds that
can release hydrogen upon demand.

Ammonia (NH₃):

Ammonia is a potential hydrogen carrier that can be decomposed to release hydrogen.

Nanocatalysts, such as ruthenium-based or iron-based nanoparticles, can facilitate efficient
ammonia decomposition at lower temperatures, making this process more viable for practical
applications.

Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers (LOHCs):

LOHCs are organic compounds that can reversibly absorb and release hydrogen. Nanocatalysts
play a critical role in the hydrogenation and dehydrogenation processes, improving the efficiency
and kinetics of these reactions.

Nanostructured Hydrogen Storage Systems:

Combining different nanomaterials and nanostructures can create hybrid hydrogen storage
systems with enhanced performance. For example, embedding metal hydrides within a porous
carbon matrix can improve thermal conductivity and hydrogen release rates, while maintaining
high storage capacity.

Conclusion

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Nanotechnology offers the ability to build large numbers of products that are incredibly powerful
by today's standards. This possibility creates both opportunity and risk. The problem of
minimizing the risk is not simple; excessive restriction creates black markets, which in this
context implies unrestricted nanofabrication. Selecting the proper level of restriction is likely to
pose a difficult challenge.

This paper describes a system that allows the risk to be dealt with on two separate fronts: control
of the molecular manufacturing capacity, and control of the products. Such a system has many
advantages. A well-controlled manufacturing system can be widely deployed, allowing
distributed, cheap, high-volume manufacturing of useful products and even a degree of
distributed innovation. The range of possible nanotechnology-built products is almost infinite.
Even if allowable products were restricted to a small subset of possible designs, it would still
allow an explosion of creativity and functionality.

Preventing a personal nanofactory from building unapproved products can be done using
technologies already in use today. It appears that the nanofactory control structure can be made
virtually unbreakable. Product approval, by contrast, depends to some extent on human
institutions. With a block-based design system, many products can be assessed for degree of
danger without the need for human intervention; this reduces subjectivity and delay, and allows
people to focus on the few truly risky designs.

In addition to preventing the creation of unrestricted molecular manufacturing devices, further

regulation will be necessary to preserve the interests of existing commercial and military
institutions. For example, the effects of networked computers on intellectual property rights have
created concern in several industries, and the ability to fabricate anything will surely increase the
problem. National security will demand limits on the weapons that can be produced.

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