Mathematical Concepts 2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES * Know different logarithmic relations and learn how to do calculations using logarithmic relations Lear curve sketching for different functions Draw linear graphs and determine the slopes Learn the method of finding the derivative of a function Know important trigonometric relations Learn how to determine the maxima and minima for a function Find partial derivatives of first and higher order Know the significance of integration and learn important integration formulae Understand and calculate definite integrals Learn permutations and combinations of different arrangements Determine the probability of occurrence of an event Realise the importance of computers Know different components of a computer Classify software into different types Learn about binary system of numbers Learn about operating systems and their different types 2.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS ES The study of physical chemistry requires a strong background in mathematics. For complex calculations, we use logarithms and antilogarithms. For the study of linear relations between two physical quantities, we need to determine the slope and intercept on the axes in order to arrive at certain quantities and constants used in the equation. Similarly, we need to carry out differentiation and integration to arrive at certain results. If we have an equation between two variables, we can do curve sketching. A knowledge of definite integrals helps us obtain the total change in a quantity for a definite change in the other quantity. In statistical studies, we require formulas to arrive at the probability of an event. The maximum and minimum values of a physical quantity can be determined if its relation with the other quantity is known. Use of computers in calculations and mathematical modelling has changed the face of all the disciplines of knowledge. The purpose of this chapter in the book is to acquaint the students with these mathematical procedures and give some insight into the working of computers.Fig. 2.1 illustrations on mathematics 2.2 LOGARITHMIC RELATIONS 1. Definition of Logarithm The logarithm of a number with respect to a given base is the power to which the base must be raised to represent the number. For example, 1000 = 103 logio 1000 = 3 In general, N=a Then logq N =x Asa? = 1, it follows that loggl = 0 a! = g, it follows that log,a = 1. 2. Four Standard Formulae of Logarithms These four formulae are commonly used. We are mentioning them without proof. Joga mn = logg m + logg n (Product formula) log a = logy m — logy n (Quotient formula) n logg m” = n logg m (Power formula) Joga m = logy m x logg b (Base-changing formula)Fig. 2.2 John Napiers (1550-1617) was a Scottish mathematician, physicist and astronomer. He discovered logarithms. Example 1 Ifa, b, c,d are four positive numbers, prove that logya * logcb * logge = logga Solution: LHS = logsax logab x logac By base logaa _ log, loge = dk, 1OBmP 5 1OBRE | Tog, loge loz,d| ee formula — oem log, =logya =RHS 3 fy? Example 2 Express log * in terms of loggx, logay and logge. 3 Solution: ey3 oo = log(x?¥3)— log, z*? (Quotient formula) = logax* + loggy*? — logy 2°? (Product formula) =3logyx +2 loge y— ; log,z (Power formula) which is the result. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE& e loge cae ab 4 2. log 42 = 10g 2 + log 3 + log 7—log 11 - log 5. Prove it 55 a 1. Prove that jog 5+ be 0 IC 3. Express in terms of log x, log y and log z: 3 ter (i) log, > (ii) log, ¥* yat Ye 4. Prove that log, mnp = log” + log” + log? Answers a 1 3. (i) 3 loggr ~ 2 logg y- 4 logg z (ii) logge + rlogs»~ 5 logsz 7 3. Two Systems of Logarithms The two systems of logarithms in common use are the following: (a) Neparian Log or Natural Log Here, the base is e, where p= 1+ 41414. mall i 3 theoretical calculations, we use natural logarithms. (b) Common Logarithm Here, the base of log is 10. In all numerical calculations, we use common log. We can convert natural log into common log as follows. log.m = logig m x log, 10 and loge 10 = 2.3026 x logia 10 = 2.3026 x 1= 2.3026 |*," logip!0=1 logem = 2.3026 logigm 4, Log Tables Log tables are the standard common log tables which are available to us for calculations. These are usually four-digit tables and are given at the end of the book. The logarithm of any given number can be read from these tables. The logarithm of a number consists of two parts: (a) Integral part called characteristic (b) Decimal part called mantissa (a) Characteristic _ It can be zero, positive or negative. We use the following two rules for finding the characteristic. Rule | If the given number > 1, its characteristic is +ve. Count the number of digits to the left of the decimal point. Subtract 1 from this number. This is the characteristic of the log of a given number. For example, Characteristic of log 1798.3 is 4 — Characteristic of log of 28.78 is 2-1 Characteristic of log of 1.923 is 1-1 Rule Il If the given number is less than one, its characteristic is negative. It is put under a bar. Count the number of zeros immediately after the decimal point. Add 1 to this number. If givesus the characteristic of the log of the given number. For example, Characteristic of log 0.5828 = (0 + 1) = T Characteristic of log 0.0628 = ~(1 + 1) = 5 Characteristic of log 0.0008 = ~(3 + 1) = 7 (b) Mantissa As mentioned above, it is the decimal part of the log of a given number. It is always positive, and can be read from the log tables as follows. (@ In the given number, omit the decimal point and zeros in the beginning and at the end. For example, in log of 0.001175, we have to look up the mantissa of 1175 (ii) Take the first two digits, i.e. 11, and locate then in the first vertical column of the four- figure log table. (iii) Go through the horizontal row beginning with 11 and look up the value under the column headed by the third digit, i.e. 7. From the log tables, we find this number as 0.682. (iv) Continue moving in the same horizontal line and note the number in the small differences column headed by the fourth digit, i.e. 5. This number is 18. (v) Add 18 to 0682, we got 0700. -, the mantissa is 0.0700. Note: If the number consists of a single digit, put zeros at the end of the number to complete four digits. Read the mantissa as explained above. For example, log 7 = log 7.000 = 0.8451 Mantissa for 7, 70, 700, 0.7, etc. is the same. 5. Antilogarithm — Antilogarithm is the reverse process of logarithm. Thus, antilogarithm to logarithm is as division to multiplication. For example, if log 7 = 0.8451 then antilog 0.8451 = 7. Standard antilog tables are also given at the end of the book for calculations. We follow the rules given below for reading antilog tables. (a) Read the antilog of mantissa only (i.e. of decimal part). Locate the four digits the way we did in reading the mantissa from log tables. (b) If the characteristic is positive, say n, the decimal is placed after (n+ 1) digits in the value read. (©) If the characteristic is ve, say 77 then (n — 1) zeros are placed before the left side of the number read; then the decimal point is placed. For example, antilog of 3.3478 = 0.02227 antilog of 1.7192 = 52.38 antilog of 0 = 1.000 6. Use of Logarithms Logarithms are practically very useful in simplifying complicated calculations. Logarithm means a rule to shorten arithmetic. It was invented by John Napier in 1614. the following examples will enable students to use log tables for such purposes. jp, 19927 77.4 Example 3 Simplifs ———__—. : Pee pore Solution: Letx=-2% 74 (129.7¥ Taking log on both sides, we get2 Jog x = log 1.792 + log 77.4 — log (129.7) E = 0.2534 1.8887 -= (2.1130) = 0.2534 + 1.887 - 1.4087 = 2.1421 - 1.4087 0.7334 x = antilog 0.7334 = 1.5413 which is the result. Example 4 __ Find the fifth root of0.0076. Solution: Let x = (0.0076)!/5 Taking log on both sides, we get log.x = £ og (0.0076) 1 (3.8808) (From the tables) = (3.88084 2-2) -£G.s808 +2) 1 == (B+ 2.8808 3 ¢ ) log x = T.$762 Taking antilog on both sides, we get x = 0.3769 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. Simplify the following: (a) (0.05246) — 2.6055 (by 342 (80.2)? (0.8)? 2. Find the antilog of (a) —2.6674 [Hint, (2.6674 = 3.3326)] (b) -3.01 3. Simplify the following: (a) (0.0036)!/5 (b) (0.056)? ©1075Answers 1. (@) 1.9137 (b) 8.989 2. (a) 0.002151 (b) 0.0009772 3. (a) 0.3245 (b) 0.1464 (©) 0.6310 2.3 CURVE SKETCHING ES When a variable point P(x, y) moves under a given set of conditions then the path traced by P is called the graph or locus of P. The equation which relates the variables x and y is called the equation of the graph of P. Every point which is on the graph satisfies the given set of conditions and any point satisfying the given set of conditions lies on the graph. To draw the graph or to sketch the curve, we take y as the dependent variable and x is the independent variable. To draw the graph, the following points are followed: 1. Write the given equation equal to y. 2. Now give three, four values of x and find the corresponding values of y. 3, Plot these points in the graph by taking two perpendicular lines; horizontal line as x-axis, and vertical line as y-axis, we get the required curve. Example 5 Sketch the curve y = x29. Solution: First of all, we get a table of values for y = x? — 9 by taking x as independent and y as dependent variables. We get the table of values as under. x | -3 | -2 | -1 | 0 1 | 2 oye 07 bo) |e8el 2o) Plot these points in the graph and join it with a free hand as shown in Fig. 2.3.Example 6 Sketch the curve y = x? + 1 Solution: First of all, we get the table of values for y = x? + 1 by taking x as independent variable and y as dependent variable. We get the table of values as under. a ee a yo 7 0 tf 2 9 Plot these points in the graph and join it with a free hand as shown in Fig. 2.4. Example 7 Sketch the curve y = x2 + 2x-3 Solution: First of all, we get the table of values for y = x2 + 2x—3 as under. Plot these points in the graph and join it with a free hand as illustrated below in Fig. 2.5.Fig. 2.5 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE1. Sketch the curve y = x? - 2x 2. Sketch the curve y =x? +x+6 3. Sketch the graph y = x41. Answers2.4 LINEAR GRAPHS AND CALCULATION OF SLOPES 4. Linear Graph The graph of a linear equation is called the linear graph. 2. Linear Equation An equation of the form ax + by + ¢ = 0, where a, b, c are constants and xand y are two variables, is called a linear equation of two variables. Every linear equation in x and y represents a straight line. The various cases are discussed below one by one. (a) The equation x = a represents a straight line parallel to the y-axis and at a distance a from it. If the line is to the right of the y-axis, a is +ve If the line is to the left of the y-axis, a is —ve. If the line coincides with the y-axis, a = 0, the equation of y-axis is a = 0. The graphs of x = 5, x = 0, and x = ~4 are shown in Fig. 2.6.Fig. 2.6 The line x =a (b) The equation y = b represents a straight line parallel to the x-axis and at a distance b from it. If the line is above the x-axis, b is +ve. If the line is below x-axis, b is -ve If the line coincides with the x-axis, b = 0. The equation of the x-axis, y = 0. The graphs of y = 2..v = O and —3 are shown Fig. 2.7. a Fig. 2.7 The line y= b General Method to Draw the Graph of a Linear Equation ax + bx + c = O and to Find the Slope of the Line (a) Write the given equatio (generally, in the form y the form showing one variable in terms of the other variable nx +0)(b) Now give three, four values to x and find the corresponding values of y. () Plot these points named by ordered pairs. (@) Draw the straight line joining these points. To Find the Slope of the Line (a) Calculate the change in y over the corresponding change in x. Itis the slope of the line, ie. change in y. change in y change in x” (b) If the equation is in the form y = mx + c then m is called the slope of the line. coeff. of x coeff. of y (©) If the equation is of the form ax + by + c= O then slope is given by — (@ Differentiate the given equation to find wy Then wy is also the slope of the line. dx dx Example 8 Draw the graph of a function y = 3x + 8 and find the slope of the line. Solution: The equation of the line is y=3x+8 Putting x=0,we get y=8 Putting x=1, we get, y= 11 Putting x=2,we get, y= 14 A(O, 8), B(L, 11), C2, 14) are three points on the line. Plot these points and join them by a foot ruler. To find the slope, draw BK, CM perpendicular to the x-axis and BN perpendicular to CM. The slope is given by (CN _ Change in y BN Change inx Now, CN = CM-NM = 14-11=3 BN = KM=OM-OK=2-1=1 Slope oo = 3. Hence, the result. 116 c 14 (2, 14) 12 B Ic, 10 a,b (0, 8) 44 x 2 M y Fig. 2.8 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. Draw the graphs and find the slopes: (a) 2x-y=3 (b) 4x+y=3 (x+y=0 (@x-y=2 Answers(b)2.5 DIFFERENTIATION 4. Function When the value of a quantity y depends on another quantity x then y is said to be a function of x. We represent it as y = f(x) Note that /(x) is a symbol. It is not f multiplied by x. 2. Differential Coefficient — The derivative or differential coefficient of y w.r.t. x is denoted by ay dy Poy & dx 8x308x where Ox is the small change in the value of x and dy is the corresponding small change in the value of y. d ae 3. Method of Finding Derivative of a Function Let y= f (x) be a derivable function of x. Let x represent any arbitrary but fixed point in the domain of the function. Let Ox be the small increment of x and let dy, the corresponding increment of the value of y.op yt dy =flxt 6x) or dy =f(x+ 9) -f() Sy _ f(x +8x)- 09 or 6x dx By definition, “y= Lt a pp [ESD LY) fe toes ~ an bx itis worthwhile to note that 2 is the quotient of dy and dx bur isnot the quotient of dy x ix and dx. dy. , 4 oe ai satis Instead, — is to be interpreted as — (y), i.e. differentiation of y w.r.t. x. dx ix (a) Derivative of kx w.r.t. x Let yoke ..-(2.1) where k is any constant. Let Ox be an increment of x and dy, the corresponding increment of y. yt Ov — ke t det y= hie 4 &e) = ke 42.2)-(2.1) or or Taking limits dx + 0 (b) Derivative of x" w.r.t. x Let yaxr (2.3) where n is any natural number Let Ox be an increment of x and dy, the corresponding increment of y. yt 6v— 0 + oy” wb (24)-(2.3) or Sy = vt &nyt— x" MR MEERA ng ED? be tae (Oxy =x" u or by or dy = nx! vt we + + (Beyor by = & [rm 1 MAD 2 S44 (Sexy -| 2 Dividing both sides by dx, Bs mm 4 MGM pa brent" | Y ox ax or 2 =a + a“ Dt? Bx + (Ry” or Lt ous Lt nett 4 AOD et gy + (xy! 6x90 5X 6x90 2 by 1 1x") = nx” Sx =n. d So) =n! a (c) Derivative of log x w.r.t. x Let y=logx (2.5) Let Ox be the small increment in x and the corresponding increment in y be dy. Then y+ dy =log (x + Bx) (2.6) (2.6) (2.5) or 5y = log (x + Sx) — log x fae or 5y = tog 28 x 6. dx or = log] 1+— x i or = log} 1+ dx x 5x e( x or Sy dx Taking limits,when dx > 0 then a ¥ == or te (42)* = Sok X yt or dat loge de * L st “sloge= | : ( foge= 1] L or Log yes x (d) Derivative of e* w.r.t. x Let yak (2.7) Let dx be an increment of x and dy be the corresponding increment of y. yt dp oe -(2.8) (2.8)-(2.7) or by = oe or So Bie or by _ eee" bx bx ete) 6x Taking limits, Ox + 01 Oe yy SUED eet 6x30 8x bxs0 BX dy 2 =e loge dx avy oe “so Lt = loge sso Or 8 dy Das [. log e= 1] dx dy » (et) =e dx (e) Derivative of sin x w.r.t. x Let y=sinx (2.9) Let dx be an increment of x and dy, the corresponding increment of y. i at by ~singx t &x) =. (2.10) (2.10)-(2.9} or Oy = sin (x ¢ Sx)—sinx = 2e0s (+385) mo 2 2 ( &) «Ox 2eos| r+ Isin by 2 2 6x 6x 2 sin C—sin D=2 cos £*? gin S=P 2 2 Ox cos | x +——|sin by 2 or — = bx 5x 2) Taking limits,Lt ox. Lt cos} x+ bx30 8x 6x40 -cosxel ® ccosx dx ie. 4 Gsinxy -cos de On the lines of sin x, we can find the following derivatives: d dd — {cos x) =—sin x —{tan x) = sec? x de dx d d = (eot x) =—cosec?x ~ (sec x)= sec x tanx d& dy tee ere xX) =-cosec x cot x a =d loga dy os € dee » Hey =7 a y= d ao iy L243) - L002) 4213-204 05% dx iv v iv feeweetnse Mec de a ae w Soe54 = 5.2n— 108 d d (vib, — (sin 2x) = cas 7x — (7x) = 7 cas Fx de t de 4 ae 3] = 520+ att (2043) SQ 4 34-2 1000+ 3)4 ke " ded a 4 dog?) = (2 og y= 24 tog x a! aa rite oe ay . wey 4 dx fe Ju Hetty = & Dy = 58 tixy SA) = &* Sy =5 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE .. Find the derivative of the following functions {on the lines of e*) d bs cy=0 [Heo vis the function of xGyx+4 x Gili) x2 +2 ny 2 x (6) @) x? a (ii) (ax + by” Gi) x2? omer*s (ii) 5x23 Gill) a™ (d) (i) sin 5x (il) cos 5x (iii) tan 5x dy (©) If x= a (0+ sin 8), y= a (1—cos 6) Find = dx Hin. =¢ +cos 6), w. asin@, de de Answers —2 a0 > xe wt (iil) 2x 2,1 o)@ + (i) 3 x (ii) an(ax + by (iii) 3 xh? 2 (© (i 2xe" +5 (i) 5x 28 Gili) a°™1og acos x vw. a dxid@ )@) (i) 5cos Sx (ii) 5 sin 5x (iii) Ssec? 5x © tno Some Important Rules of Trigonometry Used in Different 1. sin? @+ cos? @= 1 2. sec? @= 1+ tan? @ 3. cosec? @= 1+ cot? 6 4, sin(A & B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and sin 2A = 2sin A cos A 5. cos (A + B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B and cos 2A = cos? A- sin? A or 1—2 sin? A or 2 ion and Integration cos*A—1 . . C+D C-D 6.sin C+ sin D=2sin += cos 5 . C+D C-D 7. sin C— sin D = 2cos sin 8.cos C+ cos D=2c0s 5+ cos C+D 8 cos C— cos D = 2sin — A 10. 1 + cos A= 2cos? ’ 2A 11. 1 — cos 4 = 2sin? — tan A +tan B 2tan A STNG, 2) neers CNC) 1 lees —tan A tan B tan’ 4 4 @ B c Fig. 2.9 Right-angled triangleTable 2.1 Trigonometric Values sin (-@) =-sin @ £05 (-8) = cos @ tan (-0) = tan @ sin (90° + @ = cos @ cos (90° + 8) =-sin® tan (90° + 8) =—cot @ sin (90° ~ 8) = cos @ cos (90° ~8) = sin @ tan (90° - 8) = cot @ sin (180° + 6)=—sin cos (180° + @)=—cos @ an (180° + @)= tan @ sin (180° — 8) = sin @ cos (180° — @)=—cos @ tan (180° - 6) = tan @ sin (270° + 6) =—cos @ 0s (270° + 8) = sin @ tan (270° + 6) = —cot@ sin (270° ~ 6) =-cos@ cos (270° + 6) = ~sin @ tan (270° - 8) = cot @ sin (360° + 8) = sin @ cos (360° + 8) = cos @ tan (360° + @) = tan @ sin (360° ~ 6) = ~sin @ 05 (360° + 8) = cos 8 tan (360° ~ 6) = tan @ 2.6 MAXIMA AND MINIMA TS Maxima is the plural word for maximum values and minima is the plural word for minimum values. If we draw the graphs of functions, we observe the following maximum and minimum values. (See Fig. 2.10). It represents an arbitrary function, whose graph has been drawn. y3 is the maximum value of the function corresponding to x;, and y4 is the maximum value corresponding to x3 on the x-axis. Thus, y3 and y4 are maxima of the function. Similarly, y1 represents the minimum value of the function corresponding to x, and y2 represents the minimum value corresponding to x4 on the x-axis. Thus, y; and y2 are the minima of the function. The following steps are performed to find the maximum and minimum values of a function fx). Fig. 2.10 Maxima and minimaStep 1 Put the given function = y 2y, Step 2 Calculate & ana 22 for the function. dx dk Step 3 Put FY < o and solve the equation, i.e. determine the possible values of x. These are ie known as critical values. 2 Step 4 Let one of the values of x be a. Substitute this value for x in the result of, fy de If the result is negative, the function has maximum value at x = a. Calculate the value of y by putting x = a in the function f(x). If by putting x = ain the result of & £ we get a positive result, the function has a minimum value at x = a. Determine the value of y by putting x = a in f(x). Step 5 Repeat the above steps for the values b, c, d, ... etc. obtained in step 4 (other than a) This is illustrated with the help of the following examples. Example 9 Find the maximum and minimum values of the following functions: y = x° — 6x? + 9x +15 Solution ee =12v+9 of 3(x?-4x +3) 6x — 12 307 = Ax+3) =0 or 3{x—1)(x-3)=0 or x=l and x First, take up x = 1. Substitute this value in the result oy, ie, (6 x 1) ~ 12 = -6 which is : dx negative. Therefore, the function has a maximum value at x = —6. To find out the maxima, put this value in y, ie. (1)3- 6(1)? + 9(1) + 15 = 19 Thus, the maximum value of the function is 19. Now consider the second value of x, i.e. 3 or x = 3. Substitute this value in the result of te 6x — 12 or (6 x 3) 12=6 This is positive. Therefore, the function has a minimum value at x = 3. Substitute the value in y. (3)3- 6(3)? + 9(3) + 15 =27-54+27+15=15 Thus, the minimum value of the functions is 15 at x = 3 Example 10 Show that the following functions do not have maxima or minima: (a) 2x + 7 (b) log x Solution: (a)y=2x+7 or 2 = 0 which is not possible (we need to put the result of dy/dx equal to zero) Thus, the given function has no maxima or minima. (b) y = log x dy 1 dex and 1 == 0, This is not possible for a finite value of x. ‘Therefore, the function has no maxima or minima. Example 11 Find the maximum and minimum value of the following functions: (a) 2x? - 3x +5 (b) 5x2 + 20x + 9 Solution: (a) y = 2x2 3x+5, ® cays or yal dy 4 25 d*y =4 ae We don’t need to substitute the value of x in the result of d2y/dx” as it is already a definite numerical value, i.e. 4, As the value is positive, the function has a minimum value at x = 3/4. The value of minima is obtained by substituting x = 3/4 iny, ie.2 3 or 2 (2) -3 z 4 4 or (2x2 or 3 ‘Thus, the minimum value of the function is at x= 2 8 (b) y =-Sx? + 20x +9 os —l0x + 20 dx —l0x + 20 = 0 orx 10 which is negative (We don’t need to substitute the value of x in the result of d2y/dx? as it is already a definite numerical.) Thus, the function has a maximum value at x = 2. The maximum value of the function is obtained as 5(2)? + (20 x 2) +9 =-20+ 40+9= 29 Thus, the function has a maxima equal to 29 at x = 2 PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. Show that the following functions do not have maxima or minima. (a) x + 5 (b) log (x + 4) 2. Find the points of maxima and minima and also find the maximum and local minimum values of the following functions. @x? (b) 2x3— 21x? + 36x — 20 3, Find the critical values for the following functions: (a) x27- 2x44 (b) 8-1 Answers2 (a) Local minimum value = 0 at x = 0 (b) Local maximum value = ~3 at x = 1 Local minimum value = ~128 at x = 6 3(a)x=1 (b)x=0 2.7 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 2.7.1 Partial Derivatives of First Order Let z = f (x, y) be a real-valued function of two independent variables x and y; then tp Lt duy)= Son 6x30 ox generally denoted by = ¥ or 2 or fx(x, y) or f(x) or zx- 2 and read as curly f by curly x. a Similarly, Lt Lensv +59)~ Fev) bx30 5y oF and is generally denoted by — or a or fy(x, y) or fy or zy. aw ay , if it exists, is called partial derivative of z (orf) w.r.t. x and it is if it exists is called partial derivative of z (or f) w.r-t.y From the above definition, we conclude that if / = f (x, y) is a function of two variables x and y then the partial derivative of y w.r.t. x is the differentiation of wv w.r.t. x taking y as constant. Example 12 _ If f(x, y) = log(x? + y’), find fx and fy Solution: f(x, y) = log(x? + y?) Differentiating partially w.r.t x, we get fn = 2h = i x 2x Example 13 Find (x and fy for the function flx, y) = y Solution: f(x,y) = Differentiating partially w.r:t. x, we get ce a eat =y logy be ee SK or ¥ logy |: (a") wed Now differentiating partially w.r.t. y, we get L fo =n" qe |PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE 1. Find 2H MH ic itis given that p= xy +y2z + 2x, ie ay a 2. Find ne first-order derivatives ofthe following functions Oly (©) ax? + avy + by? Answers au ee ays? Bates - Osa aa drt g PP?” xt gy? PP (b) 2(ax + hy); 2(hx + by) 2.7.2 Partial Derivatives of Higher Order Since each ofthe partial derivatives 2,27, in general, isa function of x and y, so each of them ae possesses partial derivatives w.r.t. the independent variables x and y. af x). = vs or Ax 1. The partial derivative of 2° want. xis given by 2 a ax 2. The partial derivative of wart, yis given by | ay oy 3. The partial derivative of wart. y is given by az on j= = £ ; or fy % sau xis gvenby 42 2S ony 4, The partial derivative of a 2 oa 2 2F ae al called second order partial derivatives. FF PS " ee . ay" [eh Ody ca ayax 2 2 Example 14 r1-m(2} ey ore x Oy-dx axdy Solution: Given ai) f= tant (3) x Differentiating (i) partially w.r.t. x, we get