Physics Project Class 12

Aim: To facilitate the use of logic gates using semiconductors

(Diodes).

Apparatus Required: one 1KΩ resistor, 2 diodes, breadboard,

connecting wires, green or red LED, battery etc.

Theory: All digital electronic circuits and microprocessor-based

systems contain hardware elements called Digital Logic Gates that

perform the logical operations of AND, OR and NOT on binary

numbers. In digital logic only two voltage levels or states are allowed,

and these states are generally referred to as Logic "1" or Logic "0",

High or Low, True or False and which are represented in Boolean

Algebra and Truth Tables by the numbers "1" and "0" respectively. A

good example of a digital logic level is a simple light as it is "ON" or

"OFF".

Logic operations can be performed using any non-linear device that

has at least two distinct regions of operation. Voltage levels are

assigned to logic levels 0 and 1.

While many voltage level assignments are possible, one common

assignment is:

logic 1 (HIGH)---- ~ 5 V

logic 0 (LOW) ---- ~ 0 V.

This is known as "Positive logic" system. There is also a

complementary "Negative Logic" system in which the values and the

rules of a logic "0" and a logic "1" are reversed. But, unless stated

otherwise, we shall only refer to the Positive Logic convention for all

the experiments. It is important to note that noise, power source

fluctuations, loading by other circuits, and other factors will cause

the logic level voltages

to vary over some range.

Procedure: Connect as per circuit diagram.

a. OR Gate:

1. Take two similar diodes and connect their negative

terminals together.

2. Take a 1kΩ resistor and connect it in series with the

LED. Then connect the negative terminal of the battery

to the negative terminal of the LED.

3. Connect the wire to each of the positive terminal of the

diodes. Two inputs A and B for the logic gates are

formed.

4. Use a battery of voltage 5-6 V.

b. AND Gate:

1. Take two similar diodes and connect their negative

terminals together.
 2. Take a 1kΩ resistor and connect it in series with the LED.

Then connect the negative terminal of the battery to the

negative terminal of the LED.

3. Connect the wire to each of the positive terminal of the

diodes. Two inputs A and B for the logic gates are formed.

4. Use a battery of voltage 5-6V.

Elaborate procedure with working of each of the elements:

1. Resistor: A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical

component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit

element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce

current flow, adjust signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active

elements, and terminate transmission lines, among other uses.

2. Diode: A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts

as a one-way switch for current. It allows current to flow easily

in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in

the opposite direction

3. Breadboard: A breadboard is used to build and test circuits

quickly before finalizing any circuit design. The breadboard has

many holes into which circuit components like ICs and resistors

can be inserted.

4. Battery: A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and

converts it to electrical energy. The chemical reactions in a

battery involve the flow of electrons from one material

 (electrode) to another, through an external circuit. The flow of

electrons provides an electric current that can be used to do

work.

Circuit Diagrams:
Observed Values:

Conclusion:

During this project, we studied the use of logic gates and

implemented their uses through semiconductors. We connected the

wires in four different configurations for each of the AND and OR

Gates and obtained the values as shown in the truth table above. We

obtained the expected values and there was no discrepancy due to

any possible errors in the circuit. All the required precautions were

taken.

Optimizing Ideas:

Logic gates have their extensive application in the world of

computing. Almost all arithmetic operations and logical operations

are performed with the help of logic gates.

Bit adder:

To perform additions between two numbers half bit adder is used.

Firstly, the two numbers which we give as input are converted from
decimal into binary. Now every binary digit of two bits is passed

through AND gate which gives us the carry over number which is

added to the next bit and XOR gate which gives sum of two bits.

When half adders are combined by another half adder which adds

it’s sum and carryover of other half bit adder it gives the final digit

and that gives the resultant binary number. When it is converted to

decimal it gives us the resultant of two decimal numbers given

initially.

Logical operations:

When a certain operation needs to be performed based on

conditions satisfied, we use logical operation. Let us take an example

of checking eligibility of candidate to become voter in India. Only if a

person is an Indian citizen and their age is greater than 18, they are

eligible. So, by assigning 1 for representing, they are either an Indian

citizen or age greater than 18 and 0 if he is not an Indian or age is less

than 18 and if we pass these two numbers in AND gate and if the

resulting number is 1 then he is eligible to vote else he is not eligible.

In this way several conditions can be checked simultaneously for

several inputs in split seconds. In this way human error is reduced

and several tasks are performed instantly.

Bibliography:

1. https://www.realdigital.org/doc/e127ebfa82dbc904b5c0dac5d1a

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2. google.com

3. youtube.com