When an Arab Laughs in Toledo: Cervantes's Interpellation of Early Modern Spanish Orientalism Author(s): E. C.

Graf Reviewed work(s): Source: Diacritics, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 1999), pp. 68-85 Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1566455 . Accessed: 03/11/2011 16:21
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WHEN
TOLEDO

AN

ARAB

LAUGHS

IN

CERVANTES'S INTERPELLATION OF EARLYMODERNSPANISHORIENTALISM

E. C. GRAF

Mypurpose has been to place in the plaza of our republica game table which everyonecan approachto entertainthemselveswithout fear of being harmedby the rods, by whichI mean withoutharmto spirit or body, because honest and agreeable exercises are always more likely to do good than harm. -Miguel de CervantesSaavedra,Prologue to Novelas ejemplares[my translation] Weare engaged in a technical enterpriseat the species scale. en -Jacques Lacan, "L'agressivit6 psychanalyse"[my translation] WhileI was all intenton watchinghim, he looked at me, and with his hands he spread his chest and said. "See how I split myself!"! -Dante Alighieri,Inferno28.28-30 For much of this century,Hispanists have labored in an effort to elevate Miguel de CervantesSaavedra'sEl ingenioso hidalgo don Quijotede la Mancha (1605, 1615) to the coveted status of the "firstmodem novel."Today this kind of criticism may strike our postmodernsensibilities as a rathertraditionalenterprise,the kind more interested in establishingan elite hierarchyof literarytastes thanin saying anythingnew aboutan authoror text. For many, the study of literatureis still an aesthetic beauty pageant in which "greatbooks" like Laurence Sterne's TristramShandy (1767) or Marie de la Vergnede La Fayette'sLa princesse de Clives (1678) are paradedacross the stage in a contest to seduce the Westernintelligentsia.'The postmodernstudentof literature may not have much concernfor this age-old territorial contest,but she might be interestedto learnthatthe fallout from Hispanism'squest for the "firstmodem novel" has involved so muchattentionto, indeedcomplicationof, Don Quixote,thatthe book now resembles more a postmoderntext than an early modem one. At the turnof the century,we have an been left with what JorgeLuis Borges would recognize as an "aleph": infinite ideothat reflects and/or cannibalizes all forms, thereby escaping all atlogical labyrinth
The Inventionof the Human.See 1. Cf. Harold Bloom's arguablyambitious Shakespeare: and also WalterCohen'smaterialistresponseto "theethnocentrism narrownessof the hierarchically ordered field of literarystudy in which English, French,and Germanare privileged at the expense of all other linguistic traditions"[156].

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(an temptsto describeit.2Whateverwe currentlymean by "Cervantes" author,a collection of texts, an ideological construction,and so forth) carries with it an impressive rangeof criticalresponses.Cervanteshas been labeled converso (Castro,Canavaggio), Christianhumanist(Castro,Bataillon,Forcione,Herrero, Vilanova),disillusionedsecuanti-essentialist larist(Lukics, Cascardi), (Johnson), (Wilson),anti-Eusebian precapitalist (Presberg),Menippean(Bakhtin),feminist (El Saffar,Rabin, Cruz), sadist (Nabokov), ethnocentricimperialist(Mariscal),medieval (Gorfkle),homophobic(Martin),non-organicist Aristotelian(Read), and either discursively or actually homosexual (Combet, Rossi, Smith,Arrabal).This list is nowherenearcomplete,but the readerwill graspthe robusteffects of the pluralityof perspectiveson Cervantes. Each of these interpretations valid to varying degrees within various contexts, is but at presentI am interestedin readingCervantesas the authorof a multicultural manifesto on behalf of the Moriscosof SouthernSpain.3 Withinthe contextsof FrenchMarxist philosopherLouisAlthusserandPalestinianpostcolonialliterarycriticEdwardSaid, materialist, critiquesof variousformsof powerandtheir postcolonial,andmulticultural can be seen as the fundamentalpropositionsof Cervantes'sDon Quixote.4 ideologies Cervantes'sultimate orientationmay perhapsbe inescapablyEurocentric,but his responses to the Europeanexperienceof the rise andexpansionof an ethnocentricmilitaristic nation state are relatively centrifugalwhen comparedto the attitudesof many of his contemporaries. In surveying some of the antihegemonicdetails of Cervantes'snovel, I am also interestedin dispelling the popularmyth of Don Quixote. Especially in the Englishin speakingworld, andparticularly the United States,Don Quixoteremainscaptive to a romanticinterpretation. the efforts of numerouscervantistas,the protagonistis Despite still generally taken as a positive hero "dreamingthe impossible dream"against his Man of La Mancha (1966) as well as of a oppressivesociety, the tone of Wasserman's version of the novel in which the writershave chosen to make forthcomingHollywood the narrative"move"by having Don Quixote attemptto rescue Dulcinea from the evil Inquisition.These are but two examples of the common misrecognitionof Cervantes's
2. ForBorges's responseto the "protestant" tendencyto turnart into an object thatloses its dialogical distinctiveness,see "PierreMenard,autor del Quijote."For Borges's appropriation see by Frenchpoststructuralism, John T.Irwin. 3. Moriscos were Muslims living under Christian rule who, after the fall of Granada in 1492, were forced to convert to Christianityin Spain. They were the Islamic analogue of the Jewish converso.A major event in Cervantes'sday was the rebellion of Moriscos in Granada, also knownas the AlpujarrasWar, which began aroundChristmas1568 and lasted into the summer of 1570 before it was finally repressedby Philip II. Historian HenryKamenhas called this conflict "themost brutalwar to befought on Europeansoil duringthatcentury"[131]. Philip III decided to resolve the ongoing social unrestthat he inheritedfrom his father by expelling over 500,000 Moriscos in 1609-11, four years after the publication of Don Quixote, part 1. Castro points out that Cervantes'ssarcastic response to thispolicy was part 2 of the 1615 Don Quixote. Diana de Armas Wilson: "The late Cervantes,I think, could be rankedamong that visionary companyof Spaniards-Antonio de Montesinos,Francisco de Vitoria,Bartolomdde las Casaswho were actively generating an internal critique of their own empire's colonial abuses" ["CervantesRomancesInca Garcilaso de la Vega"247]. 4. In the concludingchapterof Capital, "TheSo-called PrimitiveAccumulationof Capital," Marx suggests the postcolonial direction of the materialist critique.In 1969 Althusser glosses this chapterwithominousconcernfor thefuture: "[t]his last chaptercontainsa prodigiouswealth which has not yet been exploited: in particular the thesis (which we shall have to develop) that existence-i.e. in the colonial capitalismhas always used and, in the 'margins' its metropolitan of and ex-colonial countries--is still using well into the twentiethcentury,the most brutallyviolent means" [87-88].

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radicality,whereby the authoris appreciatedfor having anticipatedthe modem bourgeois values of everyone from Goethe to Jefferson-individual freedom, creative esand capism, metaphysicalmultiperspectivism, so on. While Cervantes'santi-inquisitorial and even protofeministattitudesare quite tenable,the liberal individualistreading riskserasingthe morefundamental cultural componentof his agenda.In short,Cervantes did not intendDon Quixoteto be a noble hero, butratheran annoyingethnocentric fool, a menace to society who acts out his infatuationwith the laughablyantiquatedaristochivalricromance.' craticideology of Arthurian

Althusser is Althusser'smost salient term, "interpellation," used throughouthis critical negotiation of the hegemonic ideology of liberalcapitalismin his famous 1970 essay "Ideology and Ideological StateApparatuses": Ideology "acts" or "functions"in such a way that it recruitssubjectsamong the the individuals(it recruitsthemall), or "transforms" individualsinto subthemall) by thatveryprecise operationwhichI have called jects (it transforms interpellationor hailing, and which can be imagined along the lines of the mostcommonplaceeveryday you police (or other)hailing: "Hey, there!"[ 174] of This is essentiallya political translation Lacan'smirrorstage of humandevelopment, where the infantis deceived into acceptingthe illusion of its autonomyvia its recognition of a corporealself. In Lacan's developmentaltrajectory,the social self loses its individualloses the preverbalplurality;in Althusser'spolitical trajectory, interpellated radicalagency. But since Althusser'sdefinitionof interpellationis for the purposesof bourdiscussingthe relativelyendogenousphenomenonof the rise of modem European he privilegesthe exchange between classes over that between cultures. geois ideology, In deference to the latter,the term interpellationcan have a more active and oppositional meaning which Althusser never fully develops [see note 4]. In the context of international relations, interpellationis a diplomatic gesture, the process by which a foreign ministerformally questions the actions or policies of anothernation-state.As we shall see, both senses of the term are ideal for a discussion of Cervantes'sideological and culturalintentions.6 Don Quixote has alreadybeen called to actionAt the beginningof the narrative, in that is, been interpellated the Althusseriansense-by the ideology of SpanishchauheroAmadis de Gaulais a logic broughton vinism. His desireto imitatethe prenational by his havingconfused chivalricromancewith real history.To the extent thatthe books
5. As Mary Gaylord puts it, "Cervantes's novel foregrounds intentions--his own, Don Quixote's, those of a whole host of other characters" [117]. See this study's epigraph, where Cervantesis clearest about the problems,means, and goals of his texts (public violence,playful exchange,and an orderlyrepublic,respectively).For a Freudianassessment of the relationship between intentionalityand plot design, see Peter Brooks.For a critique of the New Criticism's see aversion to intentionality, PatrickSwinden[21-29]. 6. Fromhis participationin the battle of Lepantoand his captivityin Algiers to his mysterious role as an envoy to Ordn, and from the early drama Los bafios de Argel to the novel Don Quixote, both Cervantes'slife and his literaryproductiontake shape as a series of complicated maneuversalong the multifaceted fault line betweenIslam and Spain. For Cervantes'sdiverse with Islamic subjectpositions, see Abi-Ayad, Anderson,Bubovna,Gallotta,and experimentation HerndndezAraico.

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of chivalryhave muddledDon Quixote's interpretation reality,they have functioned of which subtlyinterpellate readerwho the like one of Althusser'sideological apparatuses, proingests theirvalues. Such is made clear by the novel's exposition.As the narrative ceeds, however,the discomfortandhumorthatformthe thematicbackboneof the novel's episodes derivefrom Don Quixote's repeatedinabilityto gratifyhis chivalricimpulses with respect to others.The initial phase of this process culminatesin the cliffhangerat the conclusion of chapter8, when the second narrator intrudesto informthe readerthat the manuscript has been transcribing ended without offeringa resolutionto the he has battle between Don Quixote and the Basque. Here, as the frustrationof the reader's climaxcoincideswith thefrustration theprotagonist's desirefor a satisfactory narrative of desire to conquerhis enemy, Cervantesunveils the process of diplomaticinterpellation as a key to overcoming ideological interpellation: the subject already ideologically if interpellatedis the protagonistof Cervantes'snovel, the subject now being formally novel is the ingenuousreader, who sharesthe secondnarrator's questionedby Cervantes's and the protagonist'snostalgia for the culturaland militarydominanceof Castile. Just as one might say that Althusserwishes to counterinterpellate capitalist subject of the wishes to counterinterpellate nationalist the 1970, Cervantes imperialist subjectof 1605.7 Said Said's Orientalism(1978) offers an important criticalperspectiveon the history of Euliteraturefrom Dante to the present. The general mystique of the Orient has ropean more often thannot been a hyperbolicformulationbased upon fear and ignorance,and hence one highly conducive to the sanctioningof military aggression and economic exploitationby the Europeanpowers. The theoreticalplay of Said's term orientalism derives fromthe fact thatit describesan Occidentalphenomenon-specifically the ethnocentrismof English and Frenchcolonialism.8It is thereforecurious,but perhapsnot so surprising,that aside from two ratherperfunctoryreferencesto the medieval epic Poema de mio Cid [63, 71] and a quick portraitof the stupidbrutalityof Spanishcolonial imperialismin the New World [82], Said's discourse on the Europeanencounter with the OrientalOtheris largely silent with respect to the case of Spain. Particularly disappointingis Said's stereotypicalreferenceto Cervantes'sDon Quixote as a book
7. Flores, in his study of Cervantes'smethodof composition,has suggested that Cervantes realized that the battle betweenDon Quixote and the Basque was the ideal place in the text to insert thefirst formal break around the same time that he conceptualizedthe novel as a more lengthyparody of books of chivalry.Moreover,he has this to say about the intentionalityof this break:

It is obvious thedivisionintoParts thisstagewasperfectly that at viable.It obeyeda definite anda clearsenseof structure. felicitous The addition a new of literary purpose the that must pointof view(twoif oneconsiders alterations CideHamete's manuscript havesuffered the handsof the morisco at the enriched complexity the of translator)
narrative.[139-41] 8. CompareAmerico Castro's use of the "Orient"in 1966 in a discussion of the aesthetic whichCastroargued was importedto Spain via Jewish, Moorish, and praxis of "perspectivism," Byzantine intellectuals: "En el arte cervantino confluyeron el Oriente y el Occidente" ("In Cervantine art the Orient and the Occident converge") [269, my translation]. For Castro, "orientalism"is the appropriationof a superior ontology imported from the Orient;for Said, "orientalism"is a Europeanfetish that results in an ignorant ideological constructionof the Orient.

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aboutthe dangersof literalreading[92-93]. One is temptedto conclude that Said does not seek allies for his project, that his silence with respect to Cervantesis a case of "anxietyof influence"in the still-nascentfield of culturalcriticism. Cervantes'snovel concerns itself with precisely the same problems that preoccupy Said. By his of deconstruction the very nationalandcolonial periodof Spanishhistorythatshouldbe of more interestto Said, Cervantesis an importantprecursorin the task of diplomatically interpellating Europeanorientalism.

Cervantes If the intendedsignificance of Don Quixoteis an Althusseriancounterinterpellation of the ideology of earlymodem Spanishimperialismand a Saidianor diplomaticinterpellation of the ideology of early modem Spanishorientalism,this intentionis to be found most explicitly in the fundamentalclimax of the first part of the novel, which occurs between chapters8 and 9 and on the heels of the famous adventurewith the windmills. Significantly,this is preciselywherethe novel achievesits modem statusas a "writerly" text, a book that, as Said puts it, challenges its reader'stendency "to preferthe schematic authorityof a text to the disorientationsof direct encounterswith the human" [93]. Between chapters8 and 9, where the so-called first modem novel's most importantrupturetakes place, Don Quixote is left in the midst of his duel with the Basque: Venia,pues, como se ha dicho, don Quijote contra el cauto vizcaino, con la espada en alto, con determinaci6n de abrirle por medio, y el vizcaino le aguardaba ansimesmo levantada la espada y aforrado con su almohada, y estabantemerosos colgadosde lo que habiade suceder todoslos circunstantes y de aquellos tamahosgolpes con que se amenazaban;y la sefiora del coche y las demds criadas suyas estaban haciendo mil votos y ofrecimientosa todas las imadgenescasas de devoci6nde Espafa, porqueDios librasea su escudero y y a ellas de aquel tan grandepeligro en que se hallaban. Pero estd el daho de todo esto que en este punto y terminodeja pendiente el autor desta historia esta batalla, disculpdndoseque no hall6 mds escrito, destas hazafiasde don Quijote,de las que deja referidas.Bien es verdadque el segundo autor desta obra no quiso creer que tan curiosa historia estuviese entregadaa las leyes del ovido, ni que hubiesen sido tan poco curiosos los ingenios de la Mancha, que no tuviesen en sus archivos o en sus escritorios algunos papeles que deste famoso caballero tratasen; y ast, con esta imaginaci6n,no se desesper6 de hallar elfin desta apacible historia, el cual, sidndole el cielo favorable, le hall6 del modo que se contard en la segunda parte. [137-38] Don Quixote, as we have said, rushed at the wary Basque with sword aloft, determinedto cleave himto the waist; and theBasque watched,withhis sword also raisedand well guardedby his cushion;while all the by-standerstrembled in terrifiedsuspense, hanging upon the issue of the dreadfulblows with which one And the lady of the coach and her waiting-women theythreatened another. offereda thousandvows and prayers to all the images and places of devotion in Spain, thatGod mightdeliver theirsquireand themfrom the greatperil they were in. But the unfortunate thing is thatthe authorof this historyleft the battle in suspenseat thiscrucialpoint, withthe excusethathe couldfind no morerecords

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of Don Quixote's exploits than those related here. It is true that the second author of this work would not believe that such a curious history could have been consigned to oblivion, or that the learned of La Manchacould have been so incuriousas not to have in their archives or in their registriessome documents relating to this famous knight. So, strong in this opinion, he did not despair offinding the conclusion of this delightfulstory and, by thefavour of Heaven,found it, as shall be told in our second part. [74-75] The promised"secondpart,"which follows in chapter9, is anythingbut satisfying to the readerwho seeks the gratificationof an immediateresolutionto the armedconflict. narrator the fabled that Chapter9 begins with the confession on the partof the Christian has originalmanuscript left him in the lurchas well. Firsthe tells of his disappointment at finding the text to be incomplete,and then he tells of his joy at the fortuitousdiscovery of its continuation: Dejamos en la primeraparte desta historia al valeroso vizcaino y alfamoso don Quijote con las espadas altas y desnudas, en guisa de decargar dos furibundosfendientes, tales, que si en lleno se acertaban, por lo menos se dividirianyfenderian de arriba abajo y abririan como una granada;y que en aquel punto tan dudoso par6 y qued6 destroncadatan sabrosa historia, sin que nos diese noticia su autor d6nde se podria hallar lo que della faltaba. [139] In thefirst part of this historywe left the valiantBasque and thefamous Don Quixote with naked swords aloft, on the point of dealing two such furious downwardstrokesas, had theystrucktrue,wouldhave cleft bothknightsasunderfrom head to foot, and split them likepomegranates.At this critical point our delightfulhistorystopped short and remainedmutilated,our authorfailing to informus where to find the missingpart. This caused me great annoyance, for my pleasurefrom the little I had read turned to displeasure at the thoughtof the small chance therewas offinding the rest of this delightfulstory. [75] The intendedirony of all of this is easy to miss, but fortunatelyit is historically specific. The comedic battle between the archetypalCastilianknight and his Basque enemy at the conclusion of chapter8 is an emblem of the initial phase of Christian militaryconsolidationon the IberianPeninsulapriorto the rise of Castile in the twelfth century.The episode's humorderives as much from the parodyof a militaryencounter as it does from the Basque's inability to speak proper Castilian,9but the scene also contains an abstractionfor the popularimagination'sversion of the prehistoricalencounterbetween Cantabrian tribes, an encounterthat must have occurredlong before the Reconquest,and perhapseven before the Moorish invasion (cf. the role of Minaya de AlbarFafiez in the Poema de mio 7id).In 1611, for example, Sebastia6n Covarrubias Horozco, the Cuencan lexicographer,describes the Basque language with historical awe for a postdiluviangolden age: Si no Juro 9. "LYo caballero? a Dios tanmientescomocristiano. lanzaarrojas espadas y veris queal gatollevas!Vizcaino tierra, sacas,iel aguacuwin hidalgo hidalgo mar, por por presto I you y que porel diablo, mientes mirasi otradicescosa"[136]("Inotgentleman?swear liar,as the and I ama Christian. throw You downlanceanddrawsword, you will see you arecarrying on at water thecat.Basque land,gentleman sea.A gentleman, thedevilandyoulie if you to by

otherwise!" [73]). say

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La lengua de los desta tierra llamaronvascongada. Tienesepor cierto que la primerapoblaci6n de Espaia fue la de esta tierra,por Tubal,tataranietode Noe; y es cosa admirableque hasta nuestrostiempos se aya conservadosin mezcla de otra alguna, excepto algunos vocablos quepor la comunicaci6nde los demdspueblos se avrdn introducido.Esta gente hasta la predicaci6n del La Evangelio vivi6 en la ley de naturaleza,adorandoun solo Dios verdadero. las demdspartesdel reynode Navarra, Cantabria,Guipazcoa,Alava,Vizcaya y que han participadoy participan desta lengua, es de la gente mds antigua y mds noble y limpiade toda Espafa. ["Vascufia" 995] The language of thosefrom this land is called vascongada.It is takenas certain that the first population of Spain was that of this land, by Tubal, third grandsonofNoah; and it is an admirablethingthat untilour timesit has been conserved withoutmixturewith any other language, exceptfor a few words which have been introduceddue to communicationwith the other peoples. Thesepeople up untilthe teachingof the Gospel lived underthe law of nature, worshipingone trueGod. Cantabria,Guipazcoa,Alava,Vizcaya,and theother parts of the kingdomof Navarra that have shared and continue to share this language, are possessed of the most ancient, noble, and pure people of all Spain. [my translation] J. J. Menezo's genealogy of Spanish heads of state shows that this foundationmyth persiststoday:"Se puede considerarel nacimientode Castillacomo una manifestaci6n de los pueblos caintabro vasco, poco romanizados,que defiendensu peculiarmodo de y vida; teniendo como base, la propiedady libertad individual frente al Fuero Juzgo, nostalgia del Nuevo Imperio G6tico" [1] ("The birth of Castile can be considered a manifestationof the scarcely Romanized Cantabrian and Basque townships that defended their particularway of life, having as its base, individualliberty and property Not surbefore the Just Law, a remnantof the New Gothic Empire"[my translation]). served in the governmentof numerousmembersof the Covarrubias family prisingly, the Hapsburgsand were often intimatelyinvolved in the recoveryand redissemination of the Fuero Juzgo. Covarrubias even proudly includes the family name in his definition of the term [613]. Clearly, Cervantes's text questions the construction of national identity being and mountedby Castilianslike the Covarrubias their Hapsburgpatrons.The slippery issue of whetheror not the ancient Iberiansaccepted this "just law" or instead had it violently imposed upon them, first by the Visigoths and later by Castilla-Le6n,is anthe otherunderlyingtensionat the end of chapter8. The conclusionforegrounds violent between the imperialnostalgiaof the CastilianDon Quixote and the lincontradiction interest guistic and nationalisticindependenceof the primordialBasque. Of particular is the fact thatin Cervantes'sversion of the culturaltension at the mythicalfoundation of Castile, the characterfighting for his freedomis not Don Quixote, who insteadviolently contaminates-or "stains"as the epithet"dela Mancha"indicates-the purityof the Basque. Ask the popularreaderwhich is the most famous episode of Don Quixote,and she will recall the windmill at the beginning of chapter8. But she will not understand the symbolic relationshipbetween the windmill and the postponed image of the crossed blades of the Castilianand the Basque, where "X marksthe spot" again at the conclusion of the very same chapter. has Fidel Fajardo-Acosta pointedout thatthe giant windmills are a referenceto the final circle of the Inferno,where Dante undergoeshis own crucialtransformation havingto embraceSatanandsymbolicallyreversethe upsideby

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down logic of his universein orderto proceed.10 Subsequently,Don Quixote's ridiculous battle with the Basque marks the climax of the novel's satirical portraitof the Castiliannationalidentity that remainsincapableof learning from its "revolutionary" fall and is still hell-bent on demonizingeverythingand everyone it meets. Indeed,only momentsafterbeing thrownto the groundandhavinghis lance brokenby the windmill, but still previous to his encounterwith the Basque, Don Quixote had alreadydeclared his intentionto emulatea certainDiego Perez de Vargas,whose fame and epithetderive from his prowess againstMoors: -Yo me acuerdo haber leido que un caballero espahol llamadoDiego Perez de Vargas,habiendose en una batalla roto la espada, desgaj6 de una encina unpesado ramoo tronco,y con ~1hizo tales cosas aquel dia y machac6 tantos morosque le qued6por sobrenombre Machuca,y ast el como sus decendientes se llamarondesde aquel dia en adelante Vargasy Machuca.Hete dicho esto, porque de la primera encina o roble que se me deparepienso desgajar otro troncotaly tan buenocomo aquel que me imagino,y pienso hacer con J1tales hazafias,que taite tengaspor bien afortunadode habermerecidovenira vellas y a ser testigo de cosas que apenas podrdn ser creidas. [ 131] I remember readingthata certainSpanishknightcalled Diego Perezde Vargas, brokenhis swordin battle,tore a great boughor limbfrom an oak, and having performedsuch deeds with it that day, and pounded so many Moors, that he earned the surnameof the Pounder,and thushe and his descendants from that day onwards have been called Vargasy Machuca. I mention this because I propose to tear downjust such a limbfrom thefirst oak we meet, as big and as good as his; and I intendto do such deeds with it thatyou may consideryourself mostfortunate to have won the right to see them. For you will witness things which will scarcely be credited.[69]" And so the unmaskingof imperialistideology thatoccursat the conclusionof this chapter is made even more completeby the suddencontextualpresencesof both the original ArabicauthorCide HameteBenengeli and the Morisco translator. the battlebetween If the Basque and Don Quixote is symbolic of the dialecticaldifficultyat the mythic foundationof Castile,thenthe presencesof the Arabandthe Moriscoallow for the "othered" as perspectivesof morerecentCastilianhistory.Similarly,the use of the term"granada" an image of the hypotheticaloutcome of the violence between the Basque and Don Quixote ("dosfuribundos fendientes,tales, que si en lleno se acertaban, lo menos se por como una granada"[139] ("two such dividiriany fenderiande arribaabajoy abririan furiousdownwardstrokesas, had they strucktrue,would have cleft both knights asunder from head to foot, and split them like pomegranates"[75]) strongly suggests the
10. Come quandouna grossa nebbia spira o quandol'emisperio nostro annotta, par di lungi un molin che'l vento gira, veder mi parveun tal dificio allotta.[Inferno34.4-7] Just as, when night falls on our hemisphere or when a heavy fog is blowing thick, a windmill seems to wheel when seen far off, so then I seemed to see that sort of structure.

11.Forthewindmill as castration see episode Cervantes's symbolic ofDonQuixote, JohnT. Cull.

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SandroBotticelli, The Virginand Child (c. 1490). Courtesy of the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University;@1999 President and Fellows of Harvard College.

SalvadorDali, Dream Caused by the Flight of a Bee arounda Pomegranate One Second before Awakening (1941). Courtesy of Museo ThyssenBornemisza,Madrid;? 1999 Artists'Rights Society (ARS), New York.

kingdomby the same name thatis the currentsite of the Moriscoproblem[see note 3].12 In conjunction, then,theMoor,theBasque,theArab,andthe Moriscocontainthe Castilian and second narrator, reader)and force him to examinethe violence both at (protagonist, and present of his nationalhistory. Much more than a modem the beginning, middle, of deconstruction the suspensionof disbelief involved in the acts of narrating readand transitionis the way in ing, what is truly marvelous about Cervantes's"disorienting" which he weaves the laughterof the Arabic Other into a deconstructionof Castilian identity. Cervantes,the ultimate authorof what at this moment becomes the modem and novel, subtly invites his readerto laugh along with both the Morisco translator the originalArabic authorat the ingenuous antics of the medievalCastiliannationalist. At the beginningof chapter9, Cervantes'sChristian narrator enthusiasticallyseeks the outcome of the battle. Indeed he seeks the self-privilegingpleasureof an alreadyknown outcome. The mere fact that a Castilianis transcribing novel for a Castilian the public would indicatethatDon Quixote is expected to defeat the Basque for the historical allegoryto reflect reality.But the rupturing actionof Cervantes's narrative disallows this result, and what ensues instead is a dizzying deconstructionof national, ethnic, religious, and linguistic subjectpositions. Here in Toledo, in the very heartof Spain, in its religious centerjust south of Madrid,in its ancientimperialVisigothic capital-the centerof medievaltranslations, laterhome to one of thebloodibut gloriousmulticultural est inquisitorialtribunals-a young boy in the marketplace("alcana"from the Arabic with the Arabictext thatsupposedlypromises providesthe Castiliannarrator "al-janit") to relinquishthe preferredoutcome: Pas6, pues, el hallarla en esta manera: Estando yo un dia en el Alcand de Toledo, lleg6 un muchachoa vender unos cartapacios y papeles viejos a un sedero; y como yo soy aficionado a leer, aunque sean los papeles rotos de las calles, llevado desta mi natural inclinaci6n, tome un cartapacio de los que el muchachovendia, y vile con cardcteresque conoci ser ardbigos. Ypuesto que aunque los conocia no los sabia leer, anduve mirandosi parecia por alli algan morisco aljamiado que los leyese, y nofue muydificultosohallar interprete semejante,pues aunquele buscara de otra mejory mds antigua lengua, le hallara. Enfin, la suerte me depard uno, que, dicidndolemi deseo y ponidndole el libro en las manos, le abri6 por medio, y leyendo un poco en el, se comenz6a reir. [142-43] This is how the discovery occurred:--One day I was in the at Toledo, Alcandt when a lad came to sell some parchmentsand old papers to a silk merchant. Now as I have a tastefor reading even tornpapers lying in the streets, I was impelled by my natural inclinationto take up one of the parchmentbooks the lad was selling, and saw in it characters which I recognized as Arabic. But thoughI could recognizethemI could not read them,and lookedaroundto see Moor about,to read themto me; and it if therewas not some Spanish-speaking was not difficulttofind such an interpreter there.For,even if I had wantedone for a better and older language, I should have found one. In short, chance offeredme one, to whom I explained what I wanted,placing the book in his
12. Thisfruit (granada 'pomegranate')as a symbolfor the kingdomwith the same name persists today at the bottomof the national coat of arms. SalvadorDalfi'sSuefio causado por el vuelo de una abejaun segundo antes del despertar(1944) is an abstractionof Iberian historyup to the Spanish Civil Warthat echoes Cervantes's technique,albeit with much less humor.Note also thatthepomegranatesymbolizesthe life-givingblood of Christ from medievaltimes-that is, anotherinstanceof Cervantes'sappealfor a Christiansolutionto the violence of Spanishhistory.

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hands. He opened it in the middle, and after reading a little began to laugh. [76] And so the old Morisco translator Toledo greets the fumbling second narrator in and his complicit readerwith laughter.Laughterat what? In general, laughterat the desperateimportancethatthe Castilianhas placed on such a silly text. But the specificity of this laughteris even more amazing,and perhapsparadoxically justifies said imhas portance.For the Morisco translator comprehendedan Arabic commentator's joke in the marginabouta classic Castiliananxiety thatdeserves to be laughed at: Pregunteleyo que de qud se reia, y respondi6meque de una cosa que tenia aquel libro escrita en el margenpor anotaci6n. Dijele que me la dijese, y el, sin dejar la risa, dijo: Dulcinea -Estd, como he dicho, aqui en el margen escrito esto: <<Esta del Toboso, tantas veces en esta historia referida, dicen que tuvo la mejor manopara salar puercos que otra mujerde toda la Mancha.~> [142-43] I askedhimwhat he was laughingat, and he answeredthatit was at something writtenin the marginof the book by way of a note. I asked him to tell me what it was and, still laughing,he answered: "Thisis what is writtenin the margin: 'Theysay thatDulcinea del Toboso,so often mentionedin this history,was the best hand at salting pork of any woman in all La Mancha.'" [76] This is much more than the Morisco laughingat the object of the CastilianChristian's desire;this is a complicatedgeopolitical and cultural joke. He is mocking the Castilian Christian'sethnic anxiety,his need to prove,by eatingpork,thatneitherhe nor his love object areJewishor Islamic.The Moriscotranslator's laughterdiscloses the knowledge he shares with Arabic readersand glossers who recognize that Don Quixote's lady is also from "La Mancha,"and thereforequite likely Semitic despite her reputationfor salting pork. In short, afternearly 900 years of convivencia,this patheticCastilianattemptat a clearethnicor culturaldistinctionstrikesthe Moriscoas absurd.The question now: is the Spanishreaderof 1605 still laughing?The ultimateresult of the windmill Just as Don Quixote would episode is as simple as "whatgoes aroundcomes around." contaminatethe Basque golden age with Castilianhistory,so the Morisco reducesthe Castilian irreverence. Moreconcernforbloodpuritywithmarginal latesixteenth-century occurs in the marketplaceadds a over, the fact that this culturallyinterpellating joke Bakhtiniandimension to the Cervantinecritique.Bakhtin'spositive assessmentof the lower-class humorof Rabelaisas the textualequivalentof liberatingspaces and events or like the marketplace carnivalis akinto Cervantes'sregardfor the young merchantas well as his sympathywith the laughterof the Morisco translator." But let us be even more specific aboutwhatit is thatprovokesthe Morisco's laughter.Let us do exactly as he does andopen the book at the middleandread a little. When we do, we find more evidence of the novel's multicultural humoras well as its remarkThe able degreeof self-referentiality. following passage at the beginningof chapter26, the middle of the novel's 52 chapters,might easily provokea wry Arabiccommentator to scribblesomethingsnide in the margin:
13. For Cervantes'sconcernfor the social vitality of the marketplace,see Johnson. I have employed Bakhtin in a cursory manner because the Soviet theorist is far more common in Cervantinestudies than eitherAlthusseror Said. For more on Bakhtinand Cervantes,see Reed, Gorfkle,and Cascardi ("Romance,Ideology and Iconoclasm in Cervantes").

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Yvolviendoa contar lo que hizo el de la TristeFigura despues que se vio solo, dice la historia que, asi como don Quijoteacab6 de dar las tumbaso vueltas de medio abajo desnudoy de medio arriba vestido, y que vio que Sancho se habia ido, sin quereraguardara ver mds sandeces, se subi6 sobre una punta de unaaltapefia, y alli torn6a pensar lo que otrasmuchasveces habiapensado, sin habersejamds resueltoen ello; y era que cudl seria mejory le estaria mds a cuento: imitara Rolddnen las locuras desaforadasque hizo, o enAmadisen las malenc6nicas;y hablandoentre si mesmo,decia: --Si Rolddnfue tan buencaballeroy tan valiente como todos dicen, ique maravilla, pues, al fin era encantado, y no le podia matar nadie si no era metidndoleun alfiler de a blanca por la punta del pie, y dl trafa siempre los zapatoscon siete suelas de hierro? Aunqueno le valierontretascontraBernardo del Carpio, que se las entendi6,y le ahog6 entre los brazos, en Roncesvalles. Pero dejando en e?llo de la valentia a una parte, vengamosa lo de perder el juicio, que es cierto que le perdi6, por las senialesque hall6 en la Fortunay por las nuevasque le dio el pastor de queAnge'licahabia dormidomds de dos siestas con Medoro,un morillo de cabellos enrizadosy paje de Agramante;y si e"l y entendi6que esto era verdad que su damale habiacometidodesaguisado, no hizo muchoen volverse loco; pero yo, gc6mopuedo imitalleen las locuras, si no le imito en la ocasi6n dellas? Porquemi Dulcinea del Tobosoosare yo jurar que no ha visto en todos los dias de su vida moroalguno, ansi como el es, en su mismo traje,y que se estd hoy como la madreque la pari6. [318-19] To continue the account of the actions of the Knightof the Sad Countenance once he was alone, our history tells that, after thefalls or somersaultsperformed with his upperparts clothed and his lower parts naked, and after he had seen Sancho depart,unwillingto wait and see any moreof his antics, Don Quixoteclimbed to the top of a high rock,and thereturnedhis thoughtsonce more to a problem on which he had already pondered many times without reachingany conclusion. This was to decide which was the better and would stand him in the greater stead: to imitate Roland's downright madness or Amadis'melancholy moods.So, communing withhimself,he argued: "IfRoland was as good a knightand as valiantas theyall say, whereis the wonder?since after all, he was enchanted,and no one could kill him except by stabbing a long pin into the sole of his foot, which was the reason why he always wore shoes with seven iron soles. But these contrivanceswere of no avail against Bernardodel Carpio, who understoodthem, and throttledhim with his bare handsat Roncesvalles.But, setting his braveryon one side, let us consider his madness, which certainlyarosefrom the evidence he found beside the spring and the news which the shepherdgave him thatAngelica had slept more than two afternoonswithMedoro,a littlecurly-haired Moorandpage toAgramante. Now if he believed that this was true, and that his lady had done him thisfoul wrong, it is not surprisingthat he went mad. But how can I imitatehim in his madnesswithouta similarcause? ForI dareswear thatmyDulcinea del Toboso has never seen a real Moor in his real Moorish dress in all her life, and that she is to-day as her motherbore her:"[214] The pointed ridiculousnessof Don Quixote's concern for Dulcinea's purity should be self-evident. The irony of the logic of his hero worship is perhapsmore complicated. The passage's initial image of the half-clothedandhalf-nakedbody of the protagonistis one of an always almost interpellatedsubject, a portraitof Don Quixote at the very

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instant of the mirrorphase of his culturalidentity.When Don Quixote is finally and completely alone in the middle of the forest, in the middle of his textual labyrinth,life boils down to an excruciatingchoice between the competing exemplaritiesof Roland andBernardo Carpio.Similarto the historicalallegoryinvolved in the image of Don del Quixote's battle with the Basque framed by the perspectiveof the Arab, this choice between chivalricicons is a highly significantone betweenthe Frenchinvaderfrom the north(Roland)andthe relativelymoreautochthonous from Basqueor Leonese Spaniard del the south (Bernardo Carpio).Don Quixote, who shareswith Bernardodel Carpioan oppositionto CarolingianEmpire,has an Achilles' heel to his Castilianethnocentrism that is made vulnerableby this coincidence between Basque, Leonese, and Moorish politics.14 Don Quixote prefersthe raw strengthof Bernardodel Carpioto the madness of Roland,and so we might say thatin readinghis own Castilianmedievalhistory,Don Note furQuixote questionsthe layeredideology and aggressivelogic of Charlemagne. of ther thatthis split identityarises from an abstractrepresentation medieval historyat Roncesvalles (778), constructedin hindsightas the crucial midpointin the ChristianIslamic relations of southernEurope.We might expect to find referencesto the postCarolingianlull afterthe Moorishinvasion and before the rise of the Leonese-Castilian nation-statenearthe middle of an epic parodyof Iberianhistory.'5 The break between chapters 8 and 9 and the identity crisis at the beginning of chapter26 are more thanmimesis.The parodicand comedic tone of such episodes betrays a desire for social engineering;they are Cervantes'sabstractways of unveiling Spanishhistoryas an absurdseriesof ethnicand/orculturaldialectics:Basque/Castilian, In Leonese/Carolingian. the end, Cervantesindicatesthatto be able to Moor/Spaniard, contextualizeand to laugh at the tortuouscomplexity of Spanishhistory, so as not to become its patheticprotagonist,requiresthat one actively outmaneuverand defeat the fraudulent ideology of the ethnocentricSpanishnationalidentityand replaceit with the hybridizedtruth of said history-that is, with more historically accurate,less ideal, identities. The identity displacementsoffered by Cervantes'svision open the way for the readerto recognize the incredulousand resistantperspectiveof the native Morisco, who is presentlyexperiencingthe ill effects of Spanishnationalism. To see the social difficultyinvolved in realizingthis shift of subjectpositions, one need look no furtherthanthe 1605 novel's conclusion, which presentsyet anothersymbolic intersectionof sorts in the contrastbetween Don Quixote and CaptainRuy P6rez from captivityon the NorthAfricancoast, is de Viedma.The captain,who has returned referenceto Cervantes'sreturnfrom Algiers. His story, obviously an autobiographical "The Captive'sTale" [chapters39-41], is full of historicalreferences to the author's post-Lepantoexperience.The key differenceis that P6rez de Viedma not only returns from Algiers; he brings back his future bride Zoraida. Zoraida,in turn, is explicitly associatedwith the VirginMary.If the image of her on a donkey being led by P6rezde Viedmain searchof an inn is not an obvious-enoughallusion [461, 513], then she spells it out for the readerby objecting to her Arabic name with "iNo, no Zoraida:Maria, Maria!" [464]. In the simplest terms, "The Captive'sTale"expresses a desire to translate and expand the Christianfoundationmyth so as to include the Arab Otherin the
14. For studies of El retablode las maravillasas Cervantes'scritiqueof Castilian ethnocentrism,see E. Michael Gerli ("El retablode las maravillas")and EnriqueMartinezL6pez. 15. Ren"Girard'sdiagnosis of Don Quixote'sproblemas his "metaphysical desire" to imitate Amadis de Gaula makes a step towardsuggesting the complexityof Cervantes'spurposes, but it falls far short of unveilingthe historically specific irony of a desire that is not always so For clearly "metaphysical." example,the passage I havejust cited shows that the protagonist's ideological affectionsare swayed when he contemplatesBernardodel Carpio's cunninglymaterial oppositionto Roland'smagic.

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definition of the ChristianSelf. Such is Cervantes'sfinal appealfor a new Catholicism thatreturnsto the essence of the Christianmyth by shunninghostility,displayingcompassion, and seeking dialogue.16 Opposite this alternativemethod of Christianimperialismthroughself-restraint, we aresoon given a repriseof the antiquated varietyof Christian self-expressionthrough aggressionin chapter52. Here Don Quixote, in what is significantlyhis last act before being returnedhome in a cage, attacks a procession of local townsfolk who carry a statueof the VirginMary and make supplicationsto God for rain.The mad knight gets it into his head that the black-clad (read "raciallyveiled") Virginrequireshis rescue. of Moreover,Cervantesdescribesthe grouplaughterat the mad knight's interpretation a de realityas being the same as "ponerp61vora la c61lera don Quijote"[600] ("gunpowder thrownon to Don Quixote's anger"[454]). This potentially counterinterpellating laughterunfortunatelyresults in Don Quixote's unbridledrage, which makes for the antithesisof the Captive'sstrangeseductionof ZoraidafromIslamicAfrica.Don Quixote, as an interpellated individual,still insists on takingup the evangelicalswordfor a Christian cause that he has radically misunderstood;P6rez de Viedma, opting for a more beats a relativelypassionless retreatfromhis own militaristic diplomaticinterpellation, violence. Put anotherway, Don Quixote hears the call of Christianempire and thinks thathis VirginMarymust be aggressivelyrescuedfrom primitivepeoples, whereasthe "captainturnedcaptive"discovers thathis VirginMaryis the Islamic Other.

Conclusion ReadingDon Quixote side by side with Althusserand Said we have analyzedsome of the details of Cervantes's dual process of diplomatic interpellationand ideological of counterinterpellation Castilianidentity.But since Cervantes'stext is generallyconsidered a work of art ratherthan social criticism, a word is in order on Althusser's of one understanding art.At one extremeof the criticalspectrum, mightexpectAlthusser is not socialist realism is bourgeois to adoptthe classic marxistline that any art which ideological nonsense, little differentfrom the academic philosophy that Lenin called (quoting Dietzgen) the "refined,elevated professorialreligion of muddled idealists" [cited by Althusser 30]. Yet Althusseroffers a surprisinglymoderate,and even elitist, commentaryon art:"Ido not rankreal art among the ideologies, althoughartdoes have a quite particular and specific relationship with ideology" [221]. In his essay on of relaCremonini,he displays furthercommittedregardfor the representation abstract tions [229-42]. It can be surprisingto find that such an irascible materialistdoes not rank"realart"among the ideologies.17 Surely this must be Althusser'ssingle most ideis alistic and quixotic gesture.If interpellation the means by which the dominantideology controls the subject, then the exception thatAlthusser grantsto the sophisticated abstractionsof "realart"suggests a materialistagenda,meaning that "realart"has the potential to "counterinterpellate"the dominant rationale of the reading subject. Cervantes'sDon Quixoteanticipatesthis definitionof "realart"as a purposefulmeans of of breakinghis society's structures misrecognition.

16. For a succinct readingof "TheCaptive'sTale"as an intercultural versionof the story of Mary and Joseph as well as an inversionof the La Cava myth,see E. Michael Gerli [Refiguring Authority40-60]. 17. Thiselitismis by no meansthe exception AdornoandHorkeimer amongmarxisthumanists. the Frankfurtschool regardhigh art as an appropriatesocial suicide performedby the eduof cated elite.

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In reading art as social criticism, we grant it a modicum of authorialintention, at at discourse. Wimsatt acknowledging leastthe author's attempt the logic of a persuasive andBeardsley'sinsistencethat"thedesign or intentionof the authoris neitheravailable nor desirableas a standard judging the success of a work of literaryart"[3] should for not precludeus from attendingto the culturalandhistoricalspecificity of whathappens when a text intentionallyfails to work, as it does at the end of chapter8 of Don Quixote. In the broadculturaland geopoliticaltermsto which the text is historicallypredisposed and that thus require no substantiationthrough authorialintent, we might say that Cervantes'stext marksthe crossroadsof the interdependent birthsof modem imperialism, colonialism, and capitalism.But in Don QuixoteCervantesdoes more thanrecord his historicalcontext; he purposefullyreveals how Spain, owing to its hybridcultural between Africa and Europe, history and its geographicallocation as an intercontinent cannot evince the same kind of easy colonialist orientalismas Franceand England.In the Spain the more enduringpresenceof the Arab"disorients" Europeanto a fargreater degree thanin the rest of Europe.At the firstmajorbreakof his novel, when Cervantes interruptsDon Quixote's battle with the Basque in orderto have a ToledanMorisco laugh at an Arabicjoke scribbledin the marginof a passage about a Spanish identity crisis, he has inserted a metatextualobstacle, a kind of narrativetrajectorythat approaches,but always resists, an asymptoteof the gratificationof Castilianaggression. nationalismof Perhapsa tragedyof early modem Spanishhistoryis thatthe antiquated Don Quixote won and the marketplacehumorof the ToledanMorisco lost. But in his novels, Cervanteswould have his readersboth comprehendand desire the economic laughterof the Otherin orderto move in a directionoppositethatof actualhistory-that is, oppositethe dominanthistoryexemplifiedby Don Quixote.In this sense, the character Don Quixote is a portrait of perpetually misdirected aggression around which Cervantesconstructsthe novel Don Quixote as an apparatusfor its rationalcontainment. Thus in the 1605 novel's conclusion Don Quixote arrivesliterallyin a cage at the center of his town's plaza."8And given Cervantes's stated purpose of placing a multiperspectivistliterary game in the public plaza of his republic (see this paper's epigraph),it would seem thatthe body of Don Quixoteis to servean analogouspurpose. The scene very much implies that Don Quixote is to be punishedor sacrificedfor the public good, the simple irony being that such public humiliationwas common in the treatmentof hereticsratherthanheroes. Malcom Read has pointed out that Cervantes'srationalismis "not to be confused with the scientific empiricismand mechanicalrationalismthat correspondto the next stage of bourgeoisdevelopment,which was to take place in Englandand France"[6]. Yet the image of Don Quixote's hopeless and laughablebattle with the windmill both of anticipatesand complicatesLenin's understanding imperialismas the highest stage of capitalism.The precapitalist scenarioof chapters8 and9 shows the imperialisthopeof lessly battlingagainstthe onset of the dehumanization capitalism,andfailing at that, immediatelyreturningto his old ways, sublimatinghis own defeat into a renewed aggression againstOtherslike Basques, Moors,Arabs,and Moriscos. If, on the one hand, as Fernand Braudelhas claimed,"the'imperialidea' had its roots in the historicSpanish crusade"[418], on the other,the most famous episode of Don Quixote allows that the imperialismand colonialism of HapsburgSpain was also dynamically related to the from the north.To the extent that Don Quixote is a bourgeois materialismthreatening negative exemplar of the abuses of Hapsburg imperialism against various Others, Cervantesalso seems to be makinga qualifiedappealfor the very scientific empiricism
18. For the ontological disquietudeimplied by the conclusion of part 2, where the cage is placed in Don Quixote'sown hands, see Jacques Lezra [246-56].

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and mechanicalrationalismthat Don Quixote would resist. Such an attitudemay well be the secularandeconomic corollaryof Erasmism,whatJavierHerrerohas called "the new, to a great extent bourgeois, Christianitywhich descendedto the South of Europe from the Low Countries"[77].19

WORKS CITED Abi-Ayad,Ahmed. "Argel:una etapadecisiva en la obray pensamientode Cervantes." Ed. Actas del II CongresoInternacionalde la Asociaci6n de Cervantistas. Giuseppe Grilli. Napoli: Istitutouniversitarioorientale,1994. 133-42. Adorno, Theodor W., and Max Horkheimer.Dialectic of Enlightenment.New York: Continuum,1993. Althusser,Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and OtherEssays. Trans.Ben Brewster.New York:MonthlyReview, 1971. The of Anderson,Ellen M. "Playingat Moslem andChristian: Construction Genderand of the Representation Faith in Cervantes'CaptivityPlays." Cervantes 13 (1993): 37-59. Arrabal,Fernando.Un esclavo llamado Cervantes.Madrid:Espasa, 1996. Bakhtin,Mikhail.ProblemsofDostoevsky'sPoetics. Trans.CarylEmerson.Minneapolis: U of MinnesotaP, 1984. . Rabelaisand His World. Trans.H61ene UP, Iswolsky.Bloomington:Indiana 1984. Trad.AntonioAltatorre.Mexico, D. F.: Fondo de Marcel.Erasmoy Espania. Bataillon, CulturaEcon6mica, 1950. Bloom, Harold.Shakespeare:TheInventionof the Human.New York:Riverhead,1998. Ficciones. BuenosAires:Emec6, Menard,autordel Quijote." Borges, JorgeLuis. "Pierre 1956. 47-59. Brooks, Peter. Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative. New York: Knopf, 1984. Bubovna,Tatiana."El cronotipodel encuentroy la idea del otroen 'El amanteliberal."' Actas del II CongresoInternacionalde la Asociaci6nde Cervantistas. Giuseppe Ed. Grilli. Napoli: Istitutouniversitarioorientale, 1994. 587-99. Canavaggio,Jean. Cervantes.Paris:Mazarine,1986. CaroBaroja,Julio. "Disertaci6nsobre los molinos de viento."Revista de dialectologia y tradicionespopulares 8.2 (1952): 212-366. and IdeCascardi,AnthonyJ. "Secularization LiterarySelf-Assertionin Don Quijote." ologies of History in the SpanishGoldenAge. UniversityPark:PennsylvaniaState UP, 1996. 209-45. "Romance, Ideology and Iconoclasm in Cervantes." Cervantes and His --. PostmodernConstituencies.Ed. Anne J. Cruz and CarrollB. Johnson.New York: Garland,1999. 22-42. a nueva luz." Cervantesy los casticismos Castro,Am6rico. "Cervantes el <<Quijote>> y Madrid: 1966. 17-143. espanioles. Alfagiiara, CervantesSaavedra,Miguel de. El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha. Ed. Luis Andr6sMurillo.Madrid:Castalia, 1978. . Don Quixote.Trans.J. M. Cohen. New York:Penguin, 1950. "ThePolitics of GoldenAge SpanishTragicomedy." RenaissanceTragiCohen,Walter. in Genreand Politics. Ed. Nancy Klein Maguire.New York: comedy:Explorations AMS, 1987. 155-76. 19. For theprobable Dutchdesignof theparticular windmills Don Quixote, Julio in see CaroBaroja [287-96].

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