CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Plastics wastes are on the rise yearly and are creating a nuisance in the immediate

environment (Muranaand Adbulkarim, 2020). Plastic wastes are increasing at an alarming rate and

adversely affecting environment as they are not easily degraded (IngabireandNtihemuka, 2018). The

non degradable thermoplastic polythene plastics used as commodity goods storage and packaging

purposes accounts for over 60 million tons of annual wastes generation worldwide (Justo and

Vaeeraragaven, 2002).

Today, availability of plastic waste is enormous; because nearly 50% to 60% of total plastic

are consumed as packing material (Zhu, 2014). The global demand for plastics was nearly 212

million tons in 2013 and was expected to reach 304 million tons by 2020 (GVR, 2015). Most of these

plastics end up in the landfills and ocean, contributing to the pollution of the environment and

endanger aquatic animals (Abukhettala, 2019; 2021). Owing to these challenges, this research aimed

to minimize the quantity of plastic wastes dumped in landfills by recycling it into construction

materials while considering both economic and environmental benefits.

Concrete is a family of different material like binding material (cement+ fly ash), fine

aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. Today construction cost is very high with using conventional

materials due to unavailability of natural materials. This problem can be solved by total replacement

of concrete with different material which is not convenient in terms of required properties. Due to

this limitation of unavailability of material which plays the vital role of concrete we have only

choice of partial replacement of concrete ingredients by waste materials (Patel and Patel, 2015).

Concrete is the most widely used man made construction material in the world and its second only

to water as the most utilized substance in the planet (Khandelwal, 2019).

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 Concrete is a composite material formed by bonding together aggregates and fluid cement

which hardens over time. The most commonly used concrete today is the Portland Cement Concrete

(Lahri and Dixit, 2015). Cement is considered as one of the oldest and irreplaceable building

material (Moses, 2011). One of the main constituents of concrete is cement which is harming the

environment at an alarming rate (Lahri and Dixit, 2015). Cement plays the role of a binder, a

substance that sets and hardens and might bind alternative materials along (Patel and Patel 2015). It

is estimated that about 0.9 tons of carbon dioxide is released in the environment for the production of

1 ton of cement. Carbon dioxide comes in the category of green house gas and is largely responsible

for global warming (Baikerikar, 2014).

The production of Portland cement is not only costly and energy intensive, but it also

produces large amounts of carbon emissions. The production of one ton of Portland cement produces

approximately one ton of carbondioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere (Naidu and Pandey, 2014).Over 3.3

billion tons of cement was consumed globally in 2010 based on survey of world coal association and

also cement production emits carbondioxide (CO2) in to the atmosphere which is harmful to the

nature. If we can partially replace the cement with the material with desirable properties then we can

save natural material and reduce emission of carbondioxide (CO2) in to the atmosphere. Thus by

finding suitable material as a partial replacement of cement then we can save cement and

environment also (Patel and Patel,2015)

This research is therefore focused on the utilization of recycled plastic wastes as partial

replacement of cement as binder in concrete. It is aimed at substituting a molten polymer

(fibre/plastic) waste as a cementitious substitute in the construction industry in Nigeria.

1.2 Problem Statement

Plastic waste is becoming extremely threatening to the environment due to their high

quantities generated which pose serious harm to both the environment and its inhabitants (Awoyera

and Adesina, 2020). It was also reported (Aremu, 2008) that 30 % of the domestic waste in a typical

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Nigerian city comprises of the polythene and plastic products in very large quantities; whose disposal

has continued to constitute the great environmental pollution challenge and concern in big and small

cities.The overwhelming environmental problem created by the indiscriminate disposal of plastic

waste containers has led to a search for comprehensive research work seeking a viable alternative to

manage, process and dispose of used plastic containers (OgundairoandOlukanni, 2021).

In the construction industry, cement contributes to about 7% of the green house gas

emissions, in the form of carbondioxide (CO2), into the atmosphere. Also, today construction cost is

very high with using conventional materials due to unavailability of natural materials. This problem

can be solved by replacement of concrete with different material which is not convenient in terms of

required properties. If we find suitable material as a partial replacement of cement then we can save

cement and environment also. (Patel and Patel,2015) .

The primary objective of this study is to select plastic waste material and convert it to wealth

by partially replacing it with cement in concrete.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to assess the performance of molten polymer (fibre/ plastic) waste

as a cementitous substitute in the construction industry in Nigeria. A case of turning waste to wealth.

And the objectives includes;

i. To study the effect of molten plastic on compressive strength of concrete.

ii. To study the effect of molten plastic on flexural strength of concrete

iii. To determine the Setting time (final and initial setting time) when some percentage

cement has been partially replaced by molten polymer (fibre/ plastic).

1.4 Significance of the study

Plastic production has overtaken most man-made materials including metals and has long

been under environmental scrutiny. Most plastic wastes are accumulated in landfills, natural

environment and oceans. It is estimated that with the current trend of global production and waste

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management, approximately 120million metric tons of plastic waste will accumulate in landfills and

in the natural environment by the year 2050. Plastics have very poor recycling rates, and their

inherent menace is most pervasive in low-income, developing countries (KankamaandAnsa-Anrea,

2018).

In recent years, a serious environmental problem due to the amount of waste plastic bottles is

increasing being increased steadily and has become a global problem. So, the world focuses on

solving this problem by many methods such as recycling. It is one of the most important efforts

currently available to reduce this problem by providing opportunities to reduce the use of oil, carbon

dioxide emissions and the quantity of waste that requires disposal (Alzuhairiand Al-Ghaban, 2018).

During production of cement and hydration process of cement carbon dioxide is produced

based on experimental investigation it has been proved that 1 tons of clinker produces around 1 tons

of carbondioxide (CO2). This carbondioxide (CO2) production causes serious environmental

damages and this can be prevented either by the use of another binding material instead of cement

which is not feasible right now for unavailability of such a binding material or by the partial

replacement of cement by appropriate material. If we find suitable material as a partial replacement

of cement then we can save cement and environment also (Patel andPatel, 2015).

1.5 Scope of the Study

The scope of this research is limited to the use of molten polymer as partial cementitious substance

replacement in concrete. The concrete grade used in this research is M15

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Concept of Turning Waste to Wealth

Wastes generally render our environment unfriendly and the worst of them all are those

wastes that are non-biodegradable and as such, wastes of these forms pose a serious threat to our

environment. One of these categories of non-biodegradable wastes is pure water sachets (Fati and

Baba, 2020).Waste materials can result to environmental problem if we leave it directly to the

environment. Hence the reuse of waste material has been needed(Sharma and Verma, 2014).

New products can be produce from waste or waste materia and l can be used as admixtures

so that natural resources are used more efficiently and the environment is protected from waste

deposits. Marble stone industry generates both solid waste and stone slurry. Whereas solid waste

results from the rejects at the mine sites or at the processing units, stone slurry is a semi liquid

substance consisting of particles originating from the sawing and the polishing processes and water

used to cool and lubricate the sawing and polishing machines. Stone slurry generated during

processing corresponds to around 40% of the final product from stone industry. The disposal of these

waste material acquire large land area and remain scattered all around , spoiling the aesthetic of

entire region and natural fertility of the soil is spoiled. There are many reuse and recycling solutions

for this industrial by-product, both at an experimental phase and in practical applications (Sharma

and Verma2014).

2.2 Concrete as a Construction Material

Concrete is the most widely used man made construction material in the world and its second

only to water as the most utilized substance in the planet (Khandelwal, 2019). Concrete is basically a

mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water (Sharma and Sharma, 2018).Seeking

aggregates for concrete and to dispose of the waste from various commodities is the present concern.

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Today sustainability has got top priority in construction industry. In the present study the shredded

plastics were used to prepare the coarse aggregates thereby providing a sustainable option to deal

with the plastic waste. So these plastics will end up as earth fill. In this circumstance instead of

recycling it repeatedly, if it is utilized to prepare aggregates for concrete, it will be a boon to the

construction industry. Most of the failures in concrete structures occur due to the failure of concrete

by crushing of aggregates. PCAs which have low crushing values will not be crushed as easily as the

stone aggregates (Khandelwal, 2019).

Due to rapid industrialization and urbanization in the country lots of infrastructure

developments are taking place. this rapid development led to the acute shortage of construction

materials, increased dumping of waste materials. Hence to overcome the above said problems waste

products should be employed as a construction material. Fine aggregate used in concrete is replaced

partially by molten plastic in known percentages and properties are tested, the optimum percentage

at which higher strength is obtained is calculated (Khandelwal, 2019).

2.3 Concrete

Concrete is a family of different material like binding material (cement+ fly ash), fine

aggregate, coarse aggregate and water. Today construction cost is very high with using conventional

materials due to unavailability of natural materials. This problem can be solved by total replacement

of concrete with different material which is not convenient in terms of required properties. Due to

this limitation of unavailability of material which plays the vital role of concrete we have only choice

of partial replacement of concrete ingredients by waste materials (Pateland Patel, 2015).

2.4 Binders in Concrete

In the present world, concrete has become a vital part of our lives. With each passing day, the

use of concrete is increasing at a very high rate. One of the main constituents of concrete is Portland

cement. With the increase in use of concrete, the manufacturing and consumption of cement has

increased drastically. Although cement has exceptional binding properties and is very suitable for

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use in concrete, the manufacturing of cement results in emission of large amounts of

carbondioxide(CO2). Due to this, researchers have started finding alternatives to cement that are

economical as well as environment friendly. Fly ash, Silica Fume, Metakaolin and Ground

granulated blast furnace slag are industrial by-products which provide excellent binding properties

to concrete and serve as a replacement of cement. These alternatives are generally termed as

Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The use of these materials not only helps in reducing

the consumption of cement but also serves as an efficient method for their safe disposal (Lahri and

Dixit, 2015).

2.4.1 Cement as Binder

Cement is considered as one of the oldest and irreplaceable building material (Moses, 2011).

It is a soft and fine constituent of various mixtures of elements including limestone, shale and clay.

Cement when further mixed with water, sand and gravel forms into a hard solid mass called the

concrete (Poornima and Darshan 2019). Tremendous amount of thermal and electrical energy is

consumed during the manufacturing process of the cement which alone accounts for 40% of the

operational cost (Giddings and Pickering 2002).

Cement plays the role of a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and might bind

alternative materials along. The word "cement" comes from Romans, UN agency used the term

“opus caementiciumto” describe masonry resembling fashionable concrete that was made up of rock

with calcined lime as binder. The volcanic ash and small-grained brick additives(surkhi) that were

additional to the calcined lime to get a hydraulic binder were later brought up as cimentum, cäment,

and cement. Cement is widely used by human beings and it is second largest material after water

used by human beings. Based on recent survey total amount of cement is used during the financial

year of 2012 is 247 MT and it increases up to 550 MT for financial year 2020. India is second

largest country after china based on uses of cement (Patel and Patel, 2015).

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 Cement is a fine grey powdery substance made by burning a mixture of clay and lime that

sets hard when it is mixed with water. It is used with water and sand to make mortar or mixed with

sand, aggregate and water to form concrete. The manufacturing of cement involves crushing, milling

and proportioning of lime, silica, alumina, iron and gypsum. Cement is a binder material, that is, a

substance that helps in binding together different materials. This property makes it an excellent

constituent of concrete. The most common type of cement used in the construction industry is the

Portland cement (Lahri and Dixit, 2015). The chemical composition and physical properties of

Portland cement are given in Table 1.

Over 3.3 billion tons of cement was consumed globally in 2010 based on survey of world

coal association and also cement production emits carbondioxide (CO 2) in to the atmosphere which

is harmful to the nature. If we can partially replace the cement with the material with desirable

properties then we can save natural material and reduce emission of carbondioxide (CO 2) in to the

atmosphere. This industrial waste dumping to the nearest site which spoils the land and atmosphere

as well as it also affects aesthetics of urban environment so use of this waste material in concrete is

cost effective as well as environment friendly way to disposal of waste. The primary objective of

this study is to select the waste material which gives desirable properties with concrete. This study

includes previous investigation done on the mechanical and chemical properties of concrete

produced using partial replacement of cement by waste materials (Patel and Patel 2015).

During production of cement and hydration process of cement carbon dioxide is produced

based on experimental investigation it has been proved that 1 tons of clinker produces around 1 tons

of carbondioxide (CO2). This carbondioxide (CO2) production causes serious environmental

damages and this can be prevented by either by the use of another binding material instead of cement

which is not feasible right now for unavailability of such a binding material or by the partial

replacement of cement by appropriate material.The latter is quite simple because of lots of references

are available as well as enough appropriate material is also available. As per IS 10262:2009 code for

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practice for mix design of concrete we can save cement by replacing it with fly ash. As per this code

if we are designing concrete grade of M 40 with fly ash we can save cement around 80 kg/m^3

without loss in

Table 2.4.1: Comparison of Physical and Chemical Properties of Cement and its Alternatives

Constituent / Property Portland Cement

CaO % 62

Al2O3 % 5

SiO2 % 21
Fe2O3 % 3

SO3 % 2.86

MgO % 0.88
Surface area, m2/kg 300 – 500
Specific gravity 3.15
Color Dark Grey

Source: Lahri and Dixit, (2015)

performance of concrete so way-2 is more suitable for saving environment from harmful gases (Patel
and Patel, 2015).

Cement is a binding material, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind

other materials together. In ancient civilization the binding materials were of traditional type such as

jaggery, lead, jute, rice husk etc, now in modern civilization cement is main binding materials.The

production of Portland cement is not only costly and energy intensive, but it also produces large

amounts of carbon emissions. The production of one ton of Portland cement produces approximately

one ton of carbondioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere (Naidu and Pandey, 2014). If we find suitable

9
material as a partial replacement of cement then we can save cement and environment also (Patel and

Patel2015)

2.4.2 Fly Ash as a Binder

Fly ash is a by product of the combustion of pulverized coal and is collected by mechanical

and electrostatic separators from the fuel gases of thermal power plants, where coal is used as a fuel

(Naidu and Pandey 2014).Fly ash is one of the residues generated by coal combustion, and is

composed of the fine particles that are driven out of the boiler with the flue gases (Lahri and Dixit,

2015). Fly ash is used in Portland cement concrete to improve the performance of the concrete. The

Free state calcium oxide released during hydration of cement reacts with fly ash silicates to form

strong and durable cementing compounds and helps in improving the properties of concrete (Patiland

Nawle, 2013).

Wankhede and Fulari(2014) studied the effects of fly ash on the properties of concrete and

concluded that with 10 % and 20% replacement of cement with fly ash, the compressive strength was

increased whereas for 30 % replacement, the compressive strength was decreased. It was also

observed that the slump loss of concrete kept on increasing with the increase of quantity of fly ash.

Patil and Kale (2012) investigates the compressive strengths of concrete with partial replacement of

cement with fly ash. The cement is replaced with fly ash from 5% to 25% by an increment of 5%.

The rate of compressive strength development is maximum at 60 days for concrete with no

replacement of cement with fly ash. Concrete with 5% fly ash has maximum rate of compressive

strength development up to the age of 21 days and then the rate decreases. It is observed that 10% fly

ash addition gives the maximum strength at 90 days. Thus, for concrete with partial replacement of

cement with fly ash, the initial rate of strength development is less but ultimately the required

maximum strength is achieved.

Bremseth(2010) discussed the various advantages and disadvantages of using fly ash in concrete.

The most important advantage of fly ash concrete is the ability to resist alkali aggregate reaction

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whereas the greatest disadvantage of using Fly ash in concrete is Air entraining and lower rate of

strength gain.

Bargaheiser and Butalia (2007), reviewed the advantages of using high-volume fly ash concrete to

resist corrosion damage in structures. Carbon dioxide and chloride penetrating the concrete are main

reasons for corrosion of concrete. Use of Fly ash in concrete helps in reducing Carbon dioxide

emission, provides sustainable design and longer service life of its infrastructure, slows down the

ingress of moisture, oxygen, chlorides, Carbon Dioxide and aggressive chemicals in the concrete and

prevents the deleterious effect of corrosion in reinforced concrete structures.

Soni and Saini(2014) determined the compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of

elasticity of fly ash concrete at 80˚C, 100˚C, and 120˚C. The percentage of fly ash was taken as 30,

40 and 50% by weight of cement. It was observed that for concrete having cement replacement up to

30%, the compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of elasticity was comparable to the

concrete without fly ash where as for cement replacement of more than 30%, these values were

lower than the concrete with no cement replacement. The compressive strength of fly ash concrete

decreased at 120˚C as compare to room temperature.

2.4.3 Silica Fume as a Binder

Silica Fume Silica fume is an amorphous polymorph of silicon dioxide, silica. It is collected

as a byproduct of producing silicon metal or ferrosilicon alloys. One of the unique properties of silica

fume is its high surface area. It is a very good pozzolanic material and hence finds its use in high

performance concrete. Concrete containing silica fume can have very high strength and can be very

durable. Silica fume is often added to the concrete as admixtures or partial replacement of

cementLahri and Dixit, 2015).

Ghutke and Bhandari(2014) determined the optimum replacement percentages of cement with

silica fume which can be suitably used under the Indian conditions. It is observed that the optimum

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replacement percentage varies between 10 to 15% because after 15%, the compressive strength

decreases. Further investigation reveals that workability of concrete decreases with the increase in

percentage of silica fume.

Roy and Sil(2012) did a study on the nature of Silica Fume and observed how it affected the

properties of fresh and hardened concrete. Properties like ultimate compressive strength, Flexural

strength, splitting tensile strength are determined for various mix combinations of silica fume and

then compared with the conventional concrete. It is concluded that silica fume helps in achieving

lower water-cement ration and better hydration of cement particles. 10% replacement of cement with

silica fume gave the maximum compressive strength and also gave significant increase in tensile and

flexural strength. Silica Fume can also be used in construction places where chemical attack, frost

action etc are common. High early strength is achieved in silica fume concrete.

Srivastavaand Harison (2013) reviewed the effects of silica fume in concrete and came to the

conclusion that adding silica fume increases the compressive strength and bond strength of concrete.

The tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of silica fume concrete are

comparable to that of Portland cement concrete.

Amudhavalli and Mathew (2012) performed a detailed experimental study on M35 grade concrete,

partially replacing cement by silica fume by 0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%. The consistency of cement

increases upon addition of silica fume to the concrete. The increase in flexural strength was observed

upto 15% replacement of cement by silica fume. The gain in split tensile strength was significant

upto 10 % silica fume. The optimum compressive and flexural strength was obtained in the range of

10-15% replacement of cement by silica.

Pradhan and Dutta(2013) performed experiments to determine compressive strength, compacting

factor and slump of concrete of concrete incorporating silica fume. The optimum compressive

strength was observed when 20% of cement was replaced by silica fume. The compacting factor

ranged from 0.82 to 0.88 and the slump value from 20 to 50 mm when silica fume was added in

12
different proportion to the concrete. Improved pore structures at the transition zone of silica fume

concrete is the reason behind improved performance of concrete.

Shanmugapriya and Uma (2013) carried out experiments on concrete with mean strength of 60Mpa

having a water binder ratio as 0.32 and using CONPLAST SP 430 super plasticizer. 7.5% silica fume

by weight was inferred to be the optimum dosage for maximum performance of concrete.

Compressive strength increased by 15%, tensile strength increased by 20% and flexural strength

increased by 23%.

2.5 Previous Research on Partial Replacement of Cement in Concrete

Kuoand Chen (2013)has investigate an effect of ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS). He

has tested The mechanical and electricity properties to assess the correlations amongflow,

compressive strength, water absorption, and electricity at 50 V and 100 V. At the curing age of28

days, the compressive strength of the control group was in the range of 29.1– 1.7 MPa, whereas

thecompressive strength of PZT was in the range of 26.8–30.0 MPa. The control group exhibited

higherresults (1786–2075 X) in the electricity property test under 50 V, whereas PZT exhibited

lower results(1368–1562 X). The compressive strength and results of the electricity property tests

demonstrated thatthe compressive strength and electrical resistance decreased as the replacement of

GGBFS increased. Thestrength of the control group was higher than the strength of PZT because 5%

of the fine aggregate wasreplaced by the piezoelectric material and the piezoelectric material was

water-resistant. Thus, the piezoelectricmaterial could not be effectively combined with fine

aggregate and cement.

Baezaand Paya(2014)has done a research onBlending of industrial waste from different sources as

partial substitution of Portland cement in pastes and mortars. He has done Binary and ternary

combinations of sewage sludge ash (SSA) with marble dust (MD), fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash

(RHA) as replacement in Portland cement pastes, were assessed. He has carried out Several tests

were carried outat different curing ages: thermogravimetry, density, water absorption, ultrasonic

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pulse velocity andmechanical strengths. Pozzolanic effects of the mineral admixtures, densities

similar to control sample and improved absorptions when combining waste materials were identified.

In general, the compressivestrength reaches or exceeds the cement strength class, and blending SSA,

FA and RHA (30% cementreplacement) increase of strength by 9%, compared to the control sample,

was achieved.

Chan and Wu (2000)has conducted a study on the durability of concrete made from various non-

reactive waste materials, i.e. carbon black, silts and clays, and with various water contents were

investigated. He has studied different types of test like compressive strength; workability, sorptivity,

and water permeability of the concrete. He has also done a detail investigation based on the resulting

change in the microstructure and cement hydration in these concrete by X-ray diffraction(XRD),

scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy. Workability

can be increased by increasing the specific surface area or using super plasticizer. So in present study

he has used silt and clay for research in varying proportion and he has found that 25 vol.% of cement

replaced withsilts and clay using a water/cement (w/c) ratio of 0.5 gives durable concrete. That is,

the cement and water contents were less than those in OPC. Also, the cost ofconcrete will be

lowered.

Rodríguez and Kacimi (2013)has analysed the chemical, physical, morphological, mineralogical

and pozzolanic characteristicsof several reservoir sludges and assesses their potential for use as 20%

additions in blended cement manufacture.The studied sludges exhibit good pozzolanic properties,

especially sample 5 which has highSiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 contents. Blended cements prepared

with 20% sludge additions complied withthe European standard on compressive strength of one of

the standardized cements, above 32.5 MPa at28 days of curing; except for sample 5, which showed

similar compressive strength values to the referencecement and up to 2% higher values at long

curing times.

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Khmiriand Chaabouni (2013)investigatedpozzolanic activity of finely ground waste glass, when

used as partial cementreplacement in mortars. The behaviour of this by-product was examined

through two sets of tests: alime–glass test to assess and explain the pozzolanic phenomena and a

compressive strength test carriedout to monitor the strength development. Analyses by DSC, XRD

and SEM of samples containing 25%Ca(OH)2 and 75% of ground glass demonstrated that this

admixture induced the formation of calciumsilicate and calcium aluminosilicate hydrates at the

expense of lime as well as hydrated sodium carbonate.The formation of the latter phase allowed us to

explain the size stability of prepared mortars byhydrated sodium silicate formation. Compressive

strength of mortars containing ground glass with particlessize in the range 100–80 lm; 80–40 lm; <40

lm and < 20 lm finenesses indicated that the 20 lmclass exhibited a good pozzolanicbehaviour. The

corresponding strength activity indexes were 82%, 95%and 102% at 7, 28 and 90 days respectively.

Matos and Sousa-Coutinho(2012) has derived effect of waste glass on properties of concrete.In this

research he has used Crushed waste glass was ground (WGP) and used in mortar as a partial cement

replacement (0%, 10%and 20%) material to ascertain applicability in concrete.An extensive

experimental program was carried out including pozzolanic activity, setting time, soundness,specific

gravity, chemical analyses, laser particle size distribution, X-ray diffraction and scanningelectron

microscopy (SEM) on WGP and resistance to alkali silica reaction (ASR), chloride ion

penetrationresistance, absorption by capillarity, accelerated carbonation and external sulphate

resistance on mortarcontaining WGP.Glass particles well encapsulated into dense and mature gel

observed by SEM, may help explainingenhanced durability results and thus confirming that waste

glass powder can further contribute to sustainabilityin construction. He has concluded that Higher

resistance to chloride penetration was obtained for WGPcontaining mortar, increasing with dosage

replacement;Sorptivity of glass mixes was equivalent to control due to theeffect of similar particle

size distribution;Carbonation depth for all blended cement mixtures was greaterthan for the Portland

cement mixture, increasing with replacementdosage in the trend for pozzolanic materials.

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Karimand Zain,(2013)has fabricated a new non-cement binder (NCB) using slag, palm oil fuel ash

(POFA)and rice husk ash (RHA). To activate these materials, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was used at

2.5%, 5.0%and 7.5% by weight of NCB. Four different mix ratios of the slag, POFA and RHA were

designed to fabricatethe NCB. Mortar-prisms of NCB were casted using water-to-binder ratio of 0.5

and 0.6 with required superplasticizer.Mortar specimens were immersed in a water bath for curing.

NCB was tested for itsconsistency, setting time, flow, flexural and compressive strengths. XRD,

SEM and FTIR analyses of NCBmortarswere also obtained. The results revealed that the

consistency, setting time, flow and strength ofNCB-paste/mortars are greatly influenced by the mix

proportion and fineness of constituent materials ofNCB, and NaOH doses. Amongst all mixes NCB-

mortar containing 42% slag, 28% POFA and 30% RHA with 5% NaOHachievesthe highest

compressive strength of 40.68 MPa and a flexural strength of 6.57 MPa at 28 days. He has also

concluded FromtheFTIR analysis, NCB-mortars are observed to have silica–hydrate bond with

sodium or other inorganicmetals (i.e., sodium–silica–hydrate–alumina gel). Therefore, NCB could be

fabricated from the aforementionedmaterials (Patel and Patel, 2015).

Tkaczewska(2014)has studied the effect of the superplasticizer type on the properties of fly ash

blended cement – in termsof hydration heat, setting time and compressive strength. The used

admixtures were sulfonatedmelamine-formaldehyde condensate (SMF), sulfonated naphthalene-

formaldehyde condensate(SNF), polycarboxylate (PC) and polycarboxylate ether (PCE). Control

sample was Portland fly ash cementCEM II/A-V 42.5R. Superplasticized Portland fly ash cement

mortars were prepared taking the values ofstandard water of consistency with different addition of

each type of superplasticizers used. Resultsrevealed that the decrease in water content required was

15% for SMF, 31% for SNF, 42% for PC and47% for PCE. Polycarboxylates were found to have to

higher efficiency in improving the hydration heatevolution, setting time and mechanical properties of

cement than that of traditional superplasticizersSMF and SNF. Addition to control fly ash blended

cement polycarboxylate ether-based superplasticizergives cement CEM II/A-V 52.5N. So based on

16
this research we can say that this waste material affects differently while using with different

superplasticizers in varying proportion.

Elchalakani(2014)Masdar City (MC) is leading the Middle East in the development of energy and

resource efficient low-carbon construction in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) .One of its major

goals is to develop and specify materials and processes that will help to reducing its environmental

footprint through resource and energy conservation, as well as renewable energy generation. In 2010

MC announced on its website a prizedcompetition for the best proposal of ‘‘Sustainable Concrete’’

and ‘‘Lowest Carbon Footprint’’ to build MC with a total of two million cubic meter of concrete on

4 years period. This paper presents the experimental test results of 13 types of concrete mixes made

with high volume of ground granulated blast furnace slag(GGBFS)cement with 50%,60%,70% and

80% replacement of ordinary Portland cement(OPC) to reduce the carbon emissions. A fly ash-

blended mix made with 30% fly ash was also tested. The paper provides more information on the

mix design parameter, full justification of carbondioxide (CO2) footprint, and cost reduction for each

concrete type. The hardened and plastic properties and durability test parameters for each mix are

presented. The results show that the slag concrete mixes significantly reduce the carbon footprint and

meet the requirements of MC. An economical mix with 80% GGBFS and 20% OPC was nominated

for use in the future construction of MC with 154kg/m3 carbon foot print.

Ramos and Matos, (2013) has surveyed that Granitic quarry sludge is an abundant waste from

granite rock processing, causing serious environmental concern. The effect of granitic sludge from a

quarry in northern Portugal was analyzed as a partial cementreplacement in mortar in terms of

strength and durability, so as to envisage its use in concrete.The experimental program included

chemical analyses, laser particle size distribution and scanningelectron microscopy of granitic quarry

sludge, as well as mechanical strength, expansion due to alkali silicareaction and chloride penetration

resistance on mortars containing different dosages of cementreplacement with granitic quarry sludge

waste ground to different fineness levels.Results showed that granitic quarry sludge waste, if ground

17
to sufficient fineness, produces a densermatrix promoting up to 38% reduction in expansion due to

ASR and almost 70% improvement in resistanceto chlorides, without compromising workability and

strength. This surprising improvement interms of chloride resistance seems to derive from

captivation of chlorides by aluminates present in thewaste with formation of chloroaluminates.

Shoaiband Balaha (2000)has estimated Large quantities of cement kiln dust (CKD) are produced

during the manufacture of cement clinker by the dry process. The technical andeconomic problems

that arise for the semi-manufacture of raw materials used, energy and transportation of dust from the

plant to outside, aswell as the severe pollution to the surrounding atmosphere show the necessity of

utilizing cement dust as one of the main objectives of his investigation. The cement dust contains a

mixture of raw feed as well as calcined materials with some volatile salts. The aim of the work was

to study the effect of cement dust substitution instead of ordinary Portland cement (OPC), blast

furnace slag cement (BFSC), andsulphate resistance cement (SRC) on the mechanical properties of

some concrete mixes containing them, and also, to determine the optimumquantity of CKD which

could be recycled in the manufacture of these types of cements.Useful conclusions and

recommendations concerningthe use of different amounts of CKD in the production of some blended

cements as a partial substitution from different types of cements wereobtained.Also, it wasfound that

the high limit for substitution is not more than30% for SRC, and 20% for BFSC, and 10% for OPC

whichgives high ultimate compressive strength for SRC andBFSC, and a critical value for OPC,

respectively.Generally, it could be said that direct replacement (mixing)of CKD with SRC or BFSC

is more effective than therecycling of dust with cement raw materials, which formsunfavored clinker

phase during the firing in cement kilns,which was attributed to the effect of high alkalinity of dust

onthe nature of clinker phases.

18
2.6 Plastic Waste

Plastics wastes are on the rise yearly and are creating a nuisance in the immediate

environment (Murana and Abdulkarim, 2020; Zhu, 2014). The quantity of solid plastic waste

generated from material packages like plastic bottle and similar utilities within the kingdom of Saudi

Arabia (KSA) has skyrocketed. Today, availability of plastic waste is enormous; because nearly 50%

to 60% of total plastic are consumed as packing material (Zhu, 2014). 80 percent of the plastic water

bottles we buy end up in landfills. Landfills globally are overflowing with more than 2 million tons

of discarded water bottles. Utilization of this waste for purpose of construction will no doubt be a

welcome development. This work was to evaluate the influence of polyethylene from WPS as a

modifier for bitumen in HMA (Murana and Abdulkarim, 2020).

In our society, plastics are generally utilized in different categories of daily applications.

Plastics are universal materials used in the manufacturing and food industry, transportation, medical,

and in households to solve a variety of challenges. Conventional plastic packaging shields our food

and goods from pollution (Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017). Furthermore, clean water can be

provided using plastic water distribution systems and storage containers. Also, plastic materials are

used for protective apparels, safety and security apparatus (e.g., textile impervious to fire, head

protectors such as helmets, airbags) avert injuries. In the same way, plastic products for medical

purposes lead to enhanced health conditions (e.g., tubing, blood bags, prosthesis, and disposable

syringes). Equally, low-density plastic materials are used as alternatives for metals and ceramics in

airplanes and motor vehicles. The use of plastic in different ways creates a variety of waste streams.

Plastic packaging is produced in substantial quantities and usually discarded in the waste stream

typically when used once within a limited time of purchase (about 40 percent of plastics products

have an average life expectancy of under one month) (Kamaruddin and Andullah, 2017). This

massive waste causes significant environmental management challenges (Ogundairoand Olukanni,

2021).

19
 Plastic wastes are non-biodegradable and can stay in the ecosystem for many decades. It can

go through aging processes resulting from physical, chemical, and biological actions with the

potential to harm habitats and weaken the life-supporting environment. The overwhelming

environmental problem created by the indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste containers has led to a

search for comprehensive research work seeking a viable alternative to manage, process and dispose

of used plastic containers. Hence, researchers have found alternative use to its recovery. The waste

can be recycled, reused or reprocessed as substitutes for construction materials because construction

applications take up significant amounts of aggregates and cement. Its use is also applicable in

bitumen modification, soil stabilization, geosynthetic materials, bricks, plastic reinforcement, and as

natural aggregates, which all assist in reducing the quantity of natural aggregates that can be

extracted for use in the construction industry (Ogundairo and Olukanni, 2021).

The global demand for plastics was nearly 212 million tons in 2013 and was expected to

reach 304 million tons by 2020 (GVR, 2015). Most of these plastics end up in the landfills and

ocean, contributing to the pollution of the environment and endanger aquatic animals (Abukhettala,

2019; 2021). By considering wastes as resources instead of a problem to be solved, some researchers

come up with alternatives providing social, environmental and economic benefits. Among these, is

the use of plastics wastes (melted or not) to develop construction materials, such as mortar or

concrete (Thiama and Falla, 2021).

Indeed, several researchers (Rebeiz, 1996; Soroushian and Eldarwish, 1999; Sam and Tam,

2002; Choi and Moon, 2005; Batayneh and Marie, 2007; Marzouk and Dheilly, 2007; Kou and Lee,

2009; Adam and Dawood, 2020; Merlo and Lavagna, 2020) showed the possibility of using plastic

waste aggregates as substitute of sand/gravel or additive (e.g., fiber) in concrete/mortar. With the

density and compressive strength ranging between 1000− 2000kg/m3 and 5− 60MPa, respectively,

they come to the conclusion that the compressive strength decreases with an increase of plastic

aggregate proportion in the given concrete/mortar when the replacement ratio is higher than 0.5 %,

20
and the corresponding material is more resistant to cracks than the conventional concrete (Thiama

and Falla,2021).

Al-Manaseer and Dalal(1997) observed ductile behaviour for concrete containing car

bumpers plastic as aggregate, which contribute to reduce cracks in the corresponding concrete.

Marzoukand Dheilly, (2007) found that using plastic aggregates in concrete can lead to an attractive

low-cost material, which can be an alternative to conventional concrete and contribute in solving

solid wastes related problem, especially its high pollution. Soloaga and Oshiro, (2014) observed

lower emission (footprint) for 1m3 of concrete mix containing 20 % of plastic waste aggregates

compared to the same amount of conventional concrete with natural aggregates (Thiama and Falla,

2021).

In contrast to the studies devoted to the incorporation of plastic waste in concrete as

aggregates or additives, there is a scarcity of studies on the use of plastic as a binder in mortar or

concrete materials. In recent years, some initiatives have been proposed to use melted plastic wastes

to form different products, such as road signs, soil pavers, slabs for gutters and latrines (Doublier and

Bowler-Ailloud,2009; Jnr and Yunana, 2018; Agyeman and Obeng-Ahekora, 2019; Horakova and

Novak, 2019). Doublierand Bowler-Ailloud,(2009) proposed various examples of artisanal products

(paving materials) that use plastic waste as the binding phase. Moreover, some previous studies

(Mahdi and Abbas 2010; Vidales and Hern’andez, 2014; Mendivil-Escalante and G’omez-Sober’on,

2017; Tukimat and Sarbini, 2017) assessed the use of an unsaturated polyester resin (derived from

recycling polyethylene terephthalate (PET) by a glycolysis process) as the only binding phase to

develop concrete or mortar materials. The results obtained indicated an increase in compressive

strength with increasing resin content. A refinement of the pore structure or porosity reduction due to

the use of resin was also observed. However, the high cost and high energy requirement related to

the preparation of the unsaturated polyester resin have restricted the application of the

aforementioned polyester resin concrete materials in building and construction practice. Moreover,

21
the other types of plastic wastes (high density polyethylene (HDPE), low density polyethylene

(LHPE) were ignored in the aforementioned studies. Thus, other researchers (Jnr and Yunana, 2018;

Agyeman and Obeng-Ahenkora, 2019; Dalhat and Wahhab, 2016) performed experimental studies to

assess the potential use of recycled plastics (e.g., HDPE, Polypropylene (PP)) to make recycle

plastic-only bounded cemented materials/structures, such as pavers. They obtained encouraging

results with respect to the mechanical performance of the proposed cement-less concrete. However,

long curing time (≥2.0h) at high temperatures (≥195 ◦C) is required in most of the previous studies to

prepare the proposed recycle plastic-only bounded concrete. This high energy consumption

associated with this curing time negatively impacts the cost of this product, thereby impeding its

quick adoption in construction practice (Thiama and Falla, 2021).

The production of plastics and its use dates to 1950 (Geyer and Jambeck, 2017). They have

become a crucial part of everyday living (Hassan and ulHaq, 2019). Nigeria is ranked ninth of the

rundown of twenty nations, not managing plastic waste in a responsible manner (Geyer and Jambeck,

2017). In 2010, the worldwide volume of plastic waste not properly managed was 851,493 tons, and

quantities are estimated to increase to 2,481,008 tons by 2020 (Geyer and Jambeck, 2017). Plastics

consist of synthetic organic materials; this is easily shaped in the desired form when compressed then

placed within slightly elastic and stiff shapes. The use of plastic is versatile, and examples are found

in the medical industry, transportation, construction, household products such as electronics and

foodpackaging (Badejo and Adekunle, 2017). The consumer motivation to plastics is its economics,

lightweight and chemical resistance, resilience to the natural deterioration. Its utilization has a direct

connotation with the volume explosion of plastic waste for domestic and industrial use in recent

times (Scalenghe, 2018; Babayemi and Ogundiran, 2018; Duru and Ikpeama, 2019).

The increasing population in Nigeria is directly related to the increase in plastic waste. The

average growth rate for the population between 2000 and 2017 in Nigeria was 2.37% (Duru and

Ikpeama, 2019). It is relative to the growth of general municipal solid waste (MSW) as well as

22
plastic waste. The global production of plastics was estimated at 260 million metric tonnes per

annum in 2007, with 67% of the production been thermoplastic resins (Babayemi and Ogundiran,

2018; Duru and Ikpeama, 2019). The estimated increase per annum in 2017 was 348 million metric

tons (Duru and Ikpeama, 2019). However, single-use plastic such as consumer goods and packaging

accounts for 50% of plastic produced (Duru and Ikpeama, 2019). The end of life management of

plastics is a global issue, especially in developing countries that have non-existent or ineffective

waste management practices. Consequently, the dumping of plastic waste in landfill sites and water

bodies is widespread (Badejo and Adekunle, 2017; Babayemi and Ogundiran, 2018; Duru and

Ikpeama, 2019; Akinwunmi and Booth, 2018; Olukani and Adeleke, 2016).

The bottled water industry in Nigeria is growing at an astonishing rate; it is a healthy

alternative to carbonated drinks. It is a low-cost and convenient way of getting good quality, easy to

open, safe drinking water. The Nigerian government has not been able to provide clean drinking

water for its populace; as a result, bottled water is a trusted option (Badejo and Adekunle2017).

Therefore, the Nigerian private sector has keyed into the United Nations Sustainable Development

Goal; access to clean water and sanitation. The industry provides hygienically bottled, safe drinking

water in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) containers (this is commonly called 'bottled water'), and it

is affordable to the low and middle class in the population. The disposal of the empty bottle

containers after use is a significant environmental challenge as it is dumped without prejudice.

Plastics are versatile, not susceptible to biodegradation, and can stay in the soil without degradation

for 450 years (Pandi and Raghav2017). The large volume per unit mass poses disposal and

environmental problem. Although plastics in municipal waste streams account for only 79% of the

overall waste stream weight, this signifies 20-30% by volume (Badejo and Adekunle, 2017; Duru

and Ikepeama, 2019; Singh, 2016; Majeed and Kurian, 2019; Duggal and Shisodia, 2020).

It is distressing that in Nigeria and other developing countries, there is a lack of efficient

means for dealing with the volume of waste generated. Many consumers are not aware that their

23
choices influence the quantity of waste produced and managed (Olukanni and Pius-Imue, 2020). The

government in Nigeria at all levels– federal, state, and local–is facing this massive task in the

management of nylon and plastic waste (Olukanni and Oresanya, 2018). A popular sight on the

highway is bottled water containers, and this blocks drainage and obstructs the free flow of

stormwater (Olukanni and Adebayo, 2014). Figure1 shows plastic waste blocking the drainage

system. Also, when disposed into natural water bodies, they cause an obstruction and endanger

aquatic life. Plastic waste hinders the environment remarkably, triggering a reduction in ecological

diversity and the aesthetic quality of urban parks and beaches (Vethaak and Leslie, 2016; Mrowiec,

2018). Therefore, proper management of plastic waste assists in improving the wellbeing of society

(Duru, 2019; Adekomaya and Ojo, 2016). The overwhelming environmental problem created by the

indiscriminate disposal of plastic waste containers has led to a search for comprehensive research

work seeking a viable alternative to manage, process and dispose of used plastic containers

(Ogundairo and Olukanni, 2021).

2.7 Uses of Plastic and Plastic Waste

With a growing dedication to environmental sustainability, the engineering sector is enthusiastic

about reusing and recycling plastics and polymers considered as plastic waste. The construction

industry is dependent on raw materials; therefore, the motivation for the utilization of plastic waste is

an implication of the significant quantities of plastic used, and the exponential volume of plastic

waste generated (Duru and Ikpeama, 2019; Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017). Likewise, the

escalating cost of building materials also inspires recovering of plastic waste as a value-added

product in construction applications. This emerges as an unconventional alternative solution for the

utilization of plastic waste. Instead of littering the environment, plastic wastes have been used in

civil engineering, as soil stabilizers and alternative aggregates for concrete and asphalt production.

Plastic waste can replace a specific portion of aggregates, conventional stabilizers, or lightweight

24
concrete pavement, reinforced geo-pavements, or can be used in low-volume asphalt

pavements(Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017).

Consequently, the amount of waste going to the landfill reduces, thereby improving resource

management and ultimately reducing the cost of construction. The use of these green substitutes has

a positive influence on the environment. Moreover, the adaptability of plastic waste for homes, road

infrastructure, or energy generation in the construction industry must be economical, efficient, and

safe. Furthermore, some unconventional uses of plastic waste are high-grade polymers such as

automobile parts, home equipment, fabrics, building insulation, and films that are manufactured from

plastic waste. Consequently, plastic waste treatment and recycling procedures can be distributed into

four main classes that are recycling, chemical, mechanical, and waste to energy recovery(Ogundairo

and Olukanni, 2021).

2.8 Problems Arising from Plastic Waste Pollution

Plastic pollution in the environment influence air quality as greenhouse gases are released during the

production of plastic. Plastic waste burning discharges black carbon (soot); this adds to global

warming and contamination of the air. The other toxic chemicals released from plastic waste burning

are gases like polychlorinated biphenyls (BCPs), mercury, dioxins and furans. These gases present a

hazard to human, animal wellbeing and vegetation when released into the air (Verma and Vinoda,

2016). These toxic chemicals likewise impact water and soil. After plastic waste is dumped on the

ground, it slowly releases phthalates and biphenyls into the soil, groundwater, and other water bodies

(Verma and Vinoda, 2016; Ren and Zhou, 2020).

The world’s plastic production from the 1950s-2014 has increased by 200% (Li and Tse,

2016). The creation of disposable plastics is growing at an alarming rate, and the world is

overwhelmed by its inability to address the problem. About 448 million tonnes of plastic was

produced globally in 2015, 58 percent of waste plastic was thrown away or deposited, and about 18

percent recycled in 2015. Plastic production is expected to double by 2050 (Parker, 2019; Zheng and

25
Shu, 2019). Every year about 8 million tonnes of plastic waste from activities on land enter the

world's ocean, and this is equivalent to five full trash bags of rubbish along each foot of the global

ocean (Parker, 2019). Millions of birds, fish, and other marine organisms every year die as a result of

plastic waste pollution (Parker, 2019).

Consequently, the most pressing environmental challenges in developing countries like Asian

and African remain plastic pollution. Plastic pollution is significantly evident because waste

collection programs are mostly ineffective or non-existent (Olukanni and Oresanya, 2018).

Notwithstanding, it is challenging to collect discarded plastics in Europe and America within areas of

the country that have low recycling rates. The chemical industry contributes to around 15% to the

global anthropogenic GHG (Green House Gas) emissions. The universal collective application of

plastic GHG world life-cycle emissions in 2015 was 1.7 Gt (Gigatonne) of carbondioxide (CO 2) -

equivalent (CO2e), increasing to a composite annual growth rate of 8.4% by 2050. The global

emissions and negative environmental impacts associated with plastic production have triggered the

United Nations to start plans to draw up a global treaty (Parker, 2019). There is, therefore, a need to

reduce and creatively discover ways to recycle and reuse plastics waste (Zheng and Shu, 2019).

2.9 Plastic Waste as Construction Material

The review focuses on the utilization of recycled plastic waste as a construction material. The

incorporation of plastic waste in concrete either as an aggregate or as cement-based materials such as

cement mixtures or concrete mixes or as a soil stabilizer are better options for plastic waste disposal

(Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017). When plastic waste is substituted or replaced within a concrete

mix, it has environmental and economic benefits. Also, plastic waste modification is utilized as a

lightweight, low-strength concrete pavement, or low volume asphaltic pavements, and soil stabilizers

in geo-pavements (Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017).

Numerous researchers have used plastic waste as cementitious materials or aggregates or as

soil stabilizers in theconstruction industry. Plastic products such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET

26
bottle), high-density polyethylene (HDPE),glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), expanded polystyrene

foam (EPS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe, spent plastic waste, polypropylene fiber, polycarbonate,

and thermoplastic recycled polystyrene (Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017).

2.10 Plastic Waste Materials Used in Civil Engineering Applications

In civil engineering applications, plastic waste is used as modified bitumen, fine and coarse

aggregates in concrete, soil stabilization, geosynthetics, bricks, plastic waste reinforcement, and

plastic waste cement (Ogundairo and Olukanni, 2021).

2.10.1 Modified Bitumen

Bhatgnar and Kumar (2019) and Singh and Khan (2019) investigated physical properties such

as strength, durability using PET (polyethylene-tetra phthalate in bituminous roads at the various

percentage (5%, 10%, 15%) and results reported were satisfactory. (Rajput and Yadav, 2016)

evaluated the application of PE (polyethylene) plastic waste as a modifier in semidense bituminous

concrete. In the research, shredded plastic waste was mixed in the hot aggregate, and the plastic was

used to modify the mixture at 6%, 8%, 10%, 12%, and 14% plastic by weight of bitumen. The

outcome observed that Marshall stability's highest value was at 12% plastic waste content. (Tiwari

and Rao, 2017) investigated the inclusion of HDPE and LDPE (high-density polyethylene and

lowdensity polyethylene) shredded plastic waste in the bituminous concrete, and the result shows a

significant increase in the Marshall characteristics and stability value in the combined mixture. The

study reported that the utilization of 8% HFPE and LDPE plastic waste in bituminous concrete is

secure and suitable for light, medium, and heavy traffic roads. The application of polyethylene

terephthalate (PET) as a strength modifier in asphalt road construction was examined (Badejo and

Adekunle, 2017). The samples were collected and thoroughly cleaned, naturally dried, and shredded.

The results from the sampling regime were compared with the ASTM, Nigeria Federal Ministry of

Works, and AASHTO standards and the result showed that optimum binder content (OBC) by

weight of aggregate was 1% (BadejoandAdekunle, 2017). The proportion of PET content was 15%

27
by weight of bitumen, Bulk density (BD) 2.38 kg / m3; Void in Total Mix (VTM) 3.33%; Void

Filled with Bitumen (VFB) 82.20%; Marshall Flow (MF) 4.00 mm and Marshall Stability MS 17.01

kN(Badejo and Adekunle, 2017). The improved asphalt with 1% PET was observed to be useful for

pavement construction and showed better binding properties, strength, density, and water resistance

(Badejo and Adekunle, 2017). Utilizing the concrete modified blend alongside treated plastic waste

of around 5–10% by weight of bitumen prompts a significant enhancement in the fatigue cycle,

strength, and different characteristics necessary in bituminous concrete. As a result, it increases the

service life cycle and road surface quality with small but substantial savings in bitumen constructed

roads. Likewise, another study coated stone aggregates with molten plastic and concluded that

coating aggregates with plastic decrease porosity, moisture absorption, and increased soundness. The

combination of plastic waste with stone mastic bitumen demonstrated significant improvements in

the mechanical and volumetric properties of the mix. It also revealed that the utilization of plastic

waste is efficient and convenient in reducing plastic waste and the associated cost of highway

construction (Duggaland Shisodia, 2020; Sulyman and Haponik 2016; Kader and Jaya, 2017; Singh

and Hui, 2017). Thus, the inclusion of plastic waste is feasible for the production of modified

bitumen for road construction with its adequate binding properties and cost-saving potentials

(Ogundairo and Olukanni, 2021).

2.10.2 Fine and Coarse Aggregates in Concrete

Aggregate plays a vital role in the production of concrete mix and accounts for 65-85% of the

standard concrete mix mass volume. The development of concrete strength is dependent on its

aggregates and categorized by physical and chemical properties such as fresh properties of the mix,

workability, slump test values, compressive strength, flexural strength, and the effects of sulfide

attack. The substitution of aggregates with plastic waste either as part or complete replacement acts

as an alternative solution. Some studies investigated partly replacing fine aggregates and coarse

aggregate with Plastic fiber (PF), sliced polypropylene (PP) debris polyethylene (PE) pellets. Plastic

28
aggregates (PA) have a lower bulk density than basalt, granite, or limestone. Therefore, utilized for

lightweight concrete. The effect of fresh concrete density, workability, and hardened concrete

density, compressive strength, water assimilation was evaluated (Almesha and Tayeh2020). The

findings indicated that plastic waste has a beneficial impact on fresh concrete characteristics: the

workability of the concrete improves and is lighter. Regrettably, the hardened concrete with high

plastic waste content has an adverse effect: the compressive strength was altered and reduced with

the increase of plastic waste in the concrete (Bahij and Omary, 2020), mode of failure changes from

brittle (rapid) failure to more ductile failure (Jibrael and Peter, 2016). However, waterabsorption, in

turn, increased. However, the result observed, that maintaining the same value of concrete

workability, there are opportunities to decrease water and cement ratio, and this, in turn, provide

strength loss, and water absorption increase compensation (Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017;

Sulyman and Haponiuk, 2016; Bahadori-Jahromi, 2019; Gu and Ozbzkkaloglu, 2016; Skominas and

Zyinakevicius, 2017). Plastic waste was partly substituted as sand in an innovative mix for structural

concrete. For the evaluation of the mix, eleven concrete mixes were assessed, measuring the aspect

ratio, plastic content, and particle dimensions to entirely create a suitable material that can partially

replace sand. The outcome of the research states that 10% substitution of plastic can replace sand by

volume, and will save about 820milloin tons of sand yearly. However, plastic waste should be used

with the right design mix considering the structure (Thorneycroft and Orr, 2018; Orr, 2019). Vehicle

plastic waste was studied for possible use in concrete as a substitute for sand. The study found

concrete's impact strength properties in 2.5%, 5%, 10%, and 20%, respectively, of plastic waste

particles as a substitute for sand at different content.

The concrete mix showed the tendency to withstand a significant amount of energy from

impact (Al-Tayeb, 2017). (Bahadori-Jahromi, 2019) evaluated the partial substitution of fine

aggregates with polypropylene in the mixed model, and the compressive strength of concrete was

tested by utilizing test regimes of six concrete mix samples prepared with substitutes of

29
polypropylene varying from 0.5 to 3.0%. With the inclusion of plastic aggregate, the results showed

a reduction in compressive strength, and this was regulated as plastic waste content increased the

concrete mix. Subsequently, the results from two samples reported attaining the ST5 standard

criteria at 28days for concrete mix compressive strength. The percentage proportion of plastic

aggregates used was 1.5% and 2.5%; this confirms the possibility that recycled polypropylene can be

used in structural applications as a part by mass of fine aggregate substitute in the concrete mix. E-

waste plastics are utilized to substitute fine and coarse aggregates in concrete. The compressive

strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength of concrete are evaluated with replacement ranges

from 0, 10, 20, and 30% and without E-waste plastic aggregates (Kanwar and Shukla, 2020). The

results from the analysis reported that compressive strength at 10% optimum content of E-waste

plastic in the concrete mix yielded stability and a recent compressive strength at grade 53 (Jassim,

2017). (Islam and Meherier, 2016) examines the impact of plastic on various fresh and hard concrete

properties as an alternative coarse aggregate. The thermoplastic polymer polyethylene terephthalate

(PET) is evaluated as an artificial aggregate and replaced by natural coarse aggregate such as brick

chips. The PET aggregate is acquired when the collected waste PET bottles are shredded, melted,

and crushed. Figure 2 showed an example of the shredding process. The focus of the study is to

examine PET aggregate concrete (PAC) compressive strength and unit weight along with its

workability in comparison to concrete mixed with natural aggregate (NAC) (Islam and Meherier,

2016). PAC at 20 per cent PET substitution has a compressive strength at 0.42 w / c of 30.3 MPa;

this is 9 per cent lower than the NAC. The observed slump rate of 1.8 cm, indicates PAC has

substantially high workability. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) plastic was utilized as a partial

substitution for sand in cement mortar (Weimer, 1987; Ojemeng and Ekolu, 2019). The sand was

substituted with LDPE waste at different percentage ratios from 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60%.

The mortar mixture was one part of cement to three parts of plastic fine aggregate at water/cement

ratio. The sample was then cast into cubes and prisms. The outcome of the experiments showed that

30
performance decreases substantially as the percentage of LDPE in mortar increases, but mixtures

containing 50–60% LDPE meet the performance requirements for mortar masonry (Ojemeng and

Ekolu, 2019). However, a model for predicting the compressive strength of mortars containing waste

plastics was proposed based on experimental data. The validation of the model generally provided

accurate predictions of mortar strengths made from various types of plastics (Ojemeng and Ekolu,

2019). Subsequently, the addition of plastic waste is viable for the production of fine and coarse

aggregates in concrete with satisfactory workability and energy on impact (Ogundairo and Olukanni,

2021).

2.10.3 Soil Stabilization

For practical application of plastic waste to stabilize unstable and weak soils, the most

important properties are shear strength, compaction (CBR; California bearing ratio, MDD;

Maximum dry density, OMC; Optimum moisture content), relative density specific gravity,

permeability, consolidation, consistency limits, particle size and resilient modulus (for road

pavements) (Chittoori and Puppala, 2012; Rout and Ruttanapormakul, 2012; Farah and Nalbantogly,

2019). Several researchers have utilized different types of plastic waste as a soil conditioner, and the

influence of compressive strength is that it increases to some extent (Singh and Mittal, 2019; Zhao

and Lee, 2015). (Kumar and Vageesh, 2017; Peddaiah and Burman, 2018) reported that bearing

capacities of black cotton soil or silty soil increased with an increasing quantity of waste plastics.

(Kumar and Vageesh, 2017) studied the effect of plastic waste in black cotton soil, and the test

reported a low specific gravity for plastic. (Salim and AL-Soudany, 2018) measured the specific

gravity of dry soils using plastic fibers as an additive for the soils. The outcome of laboratory tests

showed that there is an exceptional effect on the specific gravity of clayey soil with plastic fiber.

(Kumar and Das, 2016) evaluated the properties of dune sand modified withLDPE waste by Variable

Head Permeability test. The outcome of the test demonstrated that the use of LDPE waste between

0.06 and 1% helps to improve the strength of dune sand and assists in altering the dune sand

31
properties, thereby improving the subgrade soil. Onyelowe and Bui Van, (2019) tested four soils

mixed with crushed waste ceramic (CWC) and crushed waste plastics (CWP) and subjected to

laboratory conditions to test for subgrade stiffness. The sample soils are mixed with 10 to 120% by

weight with these geomaterials. Lateral deformation from modified triaxial compression consistently

decreased with the amplified CWC and CWP proportions. Salim and Al-Soudany, (2018) studied

utilizing plastic fiber as an additive to clay soil for soil stabilization. Atterberg limits tests were

conducted on soft clayey soil with and without plastic fiber at 1, 2, and 4% by the proportion of

stabilizing material to the net weight of soil. The laboratory tests showed a significant impact on the

liquid limit and observed that plastic fiber content has a remarkable effect on the grain size

distribution. The modulus (Mr) of clayey soil, and ordinary soil mixed with recycled polyethylene

terephthalate (PET), and its impact as soil reinforcement exhibited significant improvement. The

repeated-loading triaxial tests reveal Mr of 0.6% PET-reinforced samples increased by 58%. In

contrast to Mr of the control sample (0) percent PET) (Hafez and Mousa, 2018). Similarly, resilient

modulus Mr, R-value, and stiffness of subgrade soils mixed with crushed waste ceramic (CWC) and

crushed waste plastics (CWP) were investigated (Peddaiahand Burman, 2018). It was observed that

the soil improved steadily with increased CWC and CWP. Therefore, the inclusion of plastic waste

for soil stabilization improved the geotechnical properties of the soil considerably.

2.10.4 Geosynthetics

Plastic waste is used to make geocell and geogrid for soil reinforcement. The geocell and

geogrid plastic waste were positioned from the top of the CBR mould at distinct depths. The CBR

test was conducted for the unsoaked state of natural soil and reinforced soil, and load-versus-

penetration behaviour was examined. Results show that by positioning the reinforcement of plastic

waste at varying depths, the strength of the reinforced pavement soil in comparison to natural soil

experienced a considerable increase. The confined geocell structure showed a significant

improvement in strength compared to the geogrid of plastic waste. The findings indicate that at a

32
certain depth, the considerable enhancement in soil strength using both geosynthetic materials has

been successful. This study shows that it is an excellent option to use plastic waste to increase

pavement soil capacity. For pavements, plastic waste can be used as an economical solution (Shah

and Modha, 2020). (Dave and Thaker, 2017) investigated the reuse of plastic waste bottles to

formulate reinforcement comparable to conventional geogrid for prospective application to advance

load – settlement behaviour of soil. River sand was used to prepare soil beds at a relative density of

70%. The experiment was conducted using a load plate test compare unreinforced soil, conventional

geogrid reinforced soil and plastic reinforced soil. The results in terms of cost efficiency between

geogrid and plastic bottle reinforcement specified 60% savings when the plastic waste is utilized for

soil reinforcement. The maximum bearing capacity for unreinforced soil is 254 kPa, geogrid

reinforced soil 310 kPa (22% increase), and plastic reinforced soil 292 kPa (15% increase). The

incorporation of plastic waste in geosynthetics records considerable increase in strength properties

and significant cost savings.

2.10.5 Bricks

The research aimed to investigate the appropriateness of the production compressed earth

bricks (CEBs) with a mix of soil and differing percentages of shredded plastic waste at (0, 1, 3, and

7%) (Akinwumiand Domo-Spiff, 2019). Test on the technological properties of the soil, specific

gravity, particle size distribution, Atterberg limits, and compaction experiments are conducted on the

soil. The CEB's compressive strengths and erosion levels were established and calculated for the

untreated soil and soil mixture at differing ratios of two-sizes (< 6.3 mm and > 9.6 mm) of the

shredded plastic waste. Classification of the soil as clayey sand (SC). For the CEB, which contains

one plastic waste of sizes < 6.3 mm, the highest compressive strength was obtained, and its

compressive strength increase by 244.4% (Akinwumiand Domo-Spiff, 2019). The specimen

comprising 1% waste plastic with sizes < 6.3 mm also had the least erosion level of the CEB

specimens stabilized with shredded plastic waste. Correspondingly, provided that the external wall

33
surfaces created using the CEB were safe from erosion, it was advised to use 1% shredded plastic

waste with particle sizes < 6.3 mm (Akinwumi and Domo-Spiff, 2019). Plastic waste that would

have been a threat to the atmosphere would create more reliable and more durable bricks to provide

affordable housing (Akinwumi and Domo-Spiff, 2019; Jalaluddin, 2017). Plastic waste is used to

manufacture concrete paver blocks, and from the results obtained, it is to equal compressive strength

of the conventional paver blocks. From the observation, they are used for footpaths and parks

(Agarwal and Gupta, 2017). (Ghugeand Surale, 2019; Mondaland Bose, 2019) studied three types of

waste thermoplastics, namely, polystyrenes,mixed plastics, and polycarbonates to make eco-friendly

bricks. Experiments were conducted by using different proportions of waste thermoplastics (0 – 10%

by weight) and sand (60 – 70% by weight), keeping a constant 15% (by weight each) proportions for

fly ash and ordinary Portland cement. Three separate sets of bricks were placed underwater for 28

days, some of the samples were positioned in the oven from temperatures ranging from 90 °C to

110 °C for two hours to allow the plastics melt and form structure voids. The observation from the

experiments states that the thermal conductivity of the bricks reduced, and compressive strength

increased sufficiently. Hence, the addition of plastic waste in bricks to produce eco-friendly bricks

with acceptable compressive strength.

2.10.6 Plastic Waste Reinforcement

The principal disadvantage of steel fibers as concrete reinforcement is that it is prone to

corrosion. There is the probability that seawater or saltwater can impact steel members if concrete

surfaces are left unprotected. Foti(2016) investigated the use of plastic reinforcement by conducting

a series of pilot tests on concrete beam samples utilizing Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste and

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP). The plastic waste in the form of PET and CFRP was

made into strips and bars and arranged in a continuous position in the same manner steel

reinforcement is arranged in a reinforced concrete structure. The results from the tests report that

they both limit cracks and eliminate/ reduce corrosion in reinforced concrete structures. However,

34
the CFRP samples exhibited improved behaviour. Similarly, plastic waste converted into Plastic fiber

(PF) is utilized to reinforce structures by substituting it with traditional steel fibers enhanced

structural stability and durability of the concrete element (Kamaruddin and Abdullah, 2017).

Therefore, the inclusion of plastic fiber seems to produce functional reinforcement in terms of

strength, reduction of corrosion, and durability in concrete.

2.10.7 Plastic Cement

High-density polyethylene wastes are combined with Portland cement to examine the

prospect of plastic cement production and to test the impact of substituting sand with fine

polyethylene wastes with the various proportion of product characteristics (Almeshaland Tayeh,

2020). The tests were conducted utilizing the waste of polyethylene packages as a short

reinforcement structure, including bottle and food crates in the span of 10% to 80% by volume as

reinforcement with compact structure. The outcome of the test indicated that by using 60% and 40%,

respectively, plastic cement can be made from polyethylene waste and Portland cement.

Furthermore, the density of plastic cement reduced, there was an increase in ductility, and

workability improved; hence, lightweight materials were produced (Jassim, 2017). (Dalhat and

Wahhab, 2016) Formulated a cement that was made from recycled plastic waste. The recycled plastic

bounded concretes (RPBCs) containing zero asphalt binder, and zero Portland cement was studied to

evaluate the Mechanical properties of the RPBCs concerning Portland Cement Concretes (PCCs) and

Asphalt Concretes (ACs). The compressive strength of some RPBCs is like ACs; however, some are

like strong PCCs. The RPBCs samples showed significant moisture resistance compared to ACs. It

observed that RPBCs shows improved stiffens and flexural strength, about three times compared to

that of PCC and five times ACs. The RPBC's crack healing performance is 92 percent compared to 9

percent, according to AC's. The RPBCs establish much reduced thermal sensitivity and improved

moisture resistance than the ACs. (Ahmad, 2019) examines the dry density characteristics of

concrete utilizing plastic waste and polymer fiber to substitute cement. Tests conducted on concrete

35
samples for compressive, tensile, and flexural strength, and lastly, a comparison reported on the

concrete quality that utilized plastic waste and polymer fiber against the concrete with plastic waste.

A detailed experimental study was conducted using plastic waste in concrete with a proportion range

of 10 %, 20%, and 30% and polymer fiber proportion range of 2%, 4%, and 6%, respectively. The

finding exhibited a lower density pattern in altered concrete in the polymer (Dalhat and Wahhab,

2016). The utilization of plastic waste to replace cement decreases concrete compressive and flexural

strength. This is possible as a result of fibers bridging activity that stores more energy and halts the

concrete from sudden failure. However, low mechanical properties of the modified concrete that

utilized plastic wastes and polymer fibers were documented (Ahmad, 2019). Consequently, the

production of plastic cement in concrete produces an effective, lightweight material with sufficient

mechanical and strength properties.

2.11 Chemical Physical and Mechanical Properties of Plastic (Polymers)

2.11.1 Chemical, Composition and Molecular Structure

According to Shestoperov (2015), the chemical composition of polymers compounds is so

specific, that polymers chemistry has lately separated as an individual field of knowledge from the

general organic chemistry. Whereas, physics – oriented classification of polymers enable one to

select from among the existing materials, one with the most suitable mechanical properties.

However, chemical classification provides information on the reactivity, chemical stability,

solubility and other important chemical characteristics of polymers. Hence, in classifying high

polymers, use is made of the existing classification of low – molecular weight cyclic and

heterocyclic compounds (Shestoperov, 2015). According to such a classification, high polymers may

be divided into the following two groups.

36
 Group A – carbon chain polymers, whose macro molecules chains are compound of carbon

atoms alone, and

Group B – heterogeneous chain polymers with macromolecule chains containing not only

carbon atoms, but also other atoms (referred to as hereroatoms) such as O, N, S, Si et cetera.

2.12 Physical and Mechanical Properties

According to Shestoperov (2015), the physical and mechanical properties of polymer

materials (or plastics) are diversified. According to their plasticity, the materials are classified into

the following three groups: elastometer plastics (or simply elastomers), plastomers plastics (or

plastomers) and fibres.

2.12.1 Elastomers

Elastomers possess a high elastic extensibility of about 100%, and a lower initial elastic

modulus between 7 to 7kH/m2 (Shestoperov, 2015). They become brittle at low temperatures and

when being extended, these soft, easily deformable material become noticeably more rigid. The wide

use of elastomers, has given a new impetus to the development of medicine, electrical engineering,

transport, and many other industries. Hence, most elastomers can strentch from 50% - 100%

elongation and return to their original lengths without any trouble (Masuelli, 2013).

2.12.2 Plastomers

Plastomers are characterized by a much high elastic modulus of between 700 to 7000kN/m2,

their deformability limit ranges between 100% and 200%, growing higher with risen temeperature

(Shestoperov, 2015). These plastomer characteristic is temperature dependent, and hence behave

differently upon repeated heating and cooling. With these characteristics plastomers are classed into

thermoplastics, thermosetting and thermostable types.

2.12.3 Thermoplastics

There are plastic materials which becomes fluid upon heating above a certain temperature

frequently called heat distortion temperature, and can be fabricated in this state into finished articles

37
by compression, moulding, transfer moulding, injections moulding or extrusion. Upon cooling,

thermoplastics set to an elastic solid, retaining the shape imparted to them by moulding process

(Shestoperov, 2015). Such plastics can be repeatedly heated many times, since no primary chemical

bond are normally made or broken in the process. Typical examples of thermoplastics are

polystyrene, polyester resin et cetera.

2.12.4 Thermosetting Plastics

According to Shestoperov (2015), this type of plastics is distinct from thermoplastics, and

may normally be heated to the fluid state only once. The chemical structure of a thermosetting

plastics is altered by heat, and cross linked products are formed which cannot be re-softened by

repeated heat application.

Chemically, the molecules of a thermosetting resin cross linked irreversibly through primary

chemical bonds to form one large molecule. Materials in this category include phenol- formaldehyde

resins, urea-formaldehyde resins et cetera.

2.12.5 Thermostable Plastics

These are plastics materials which do not become plastics upon heating and almost do

notchange their physical properties until heated to the temperature of thermal decomposition. They

include polyster resins, polytetrafluoroethylene, and other materials featuring well oriented linear

macromolecules or cross-linked macromolecules.

2.13 Elastic Modulus and Tensile Strength Properties of Plastic

According to their physical and mechanical properties, plastics are classed into rigid, semi-

rigid, and non-rigid types.

2.13.1 Rigid Plastics

The plastics are hard elastic materials of amorphous structure featuring a high elastic

modulus (over 106kN/m2) and an insignificant tensile elongation; when being stresses in a certain

temperature interval, thus they retain their shape, showing but a slight extension strain. Figures 2.6

38
and 2.7 shows the plastics stress-strain response during homogeneous deformation and its toughness

respectively.

2.13.2 Semi-Rigid Plastics

These are also hard and elastic, but in contrast to rigid plastics, they feature a crystalline

structure and a lower elastic modulus (not less than 4 x 10 5kN/m2). These materials have a high

tensile elongation, and their permanent elongation can be completely recovered by heating them to

the melting point of the polymer binder.

2.13.3 Non-Rigid Plastics

These are soft plastics materials having the lowest elastic modulus (not more than 2 x 104

kN/m2). Although their elongation at rupture is high, their permanent elongation is insignificant and

partly recoverable even at room temperature.

2.14 Concrete – Plastic Bonding Qualities

Epoxy resins are used for protection and repairs of concrete; for adhesive bonding concrete to

wood or concrete;

- For adhesive bonding concrete to reinforced concrete

- For adhesive bonding reinforced concrete to reinforced concrete

- For protecting metal against corrosion

Polymer materials are also used for making mastics and porous strips to seal joints in road

and air field pavements. Polymer materials and plastics are equally used in road building (by placing

a thin film of polyethylene on the subgrade concrete pavement), bridge building, airport building,

and hydraulic engineering

Non-rigid, polyisobutylene and polyethylene films and roll materials are widely used for water

proofing purposes in building bridges and tunnels.

39
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Materials and Method

The materials required in the comparative effect of substituting a molten polymer (fibre /

plastic) waste as a cemetitious substitute in the construction industry will be collected:

3.1.1 Material collection

i. Fine Aggregate

The fine aggregate (sand) for this research was obtained fromOye-Ekiti, Ekiti state,

Nigeria.

ii. Coarse Aggregate

The coarse aggregate for this research was obtained from Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti state,

Nigeria.

iii. Cement

The cement for this research was Dangote brand of Portland cement and

waspurchased at a retail shop within Ekiti state, Nigeria.

iv. Polymer (Plastic)

Polymer will be obtained from a Refuse Waste Dumping site somewhere around Oye

Ekiti.

iv. Mixing Water

Water free from impurities was used for the preparation of fresh concrete. The water

used in the concreting work is potable water as supplied in the structures laboratory.

Water used for mixing and curing is clean and free from injurious amounts of oils,

acids, alkalies, salts and sugar, organic materials or other substances that may be

deleterious to concrete. Potable water is generally considered satisfactory for mixing

40
 and curing of concrete. Accordingly potable tap water was used for the preparation of

all concrete specimens.

3.2.1 Particle Size Analysis of Fine Aggregate

British Standard sieve sizes of 4.75 mm and 200μm was used in preparing the samples. The

fine aggregates that were used are those that passed through the 4.75 mm but were retained on the

200 μm. Natural sand which is easily available and low in cost wasused in the research. Sand which

is used here was obtained from Oye-Ekiti, Ekiti State. Sieve analysis was carried to find out fineness

modulus which comes out to be 3.14% which is under limit as per BS Standard.

3.2.2 Particle Size Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Sieve analysis was performed on the coarse aggregates to be used to obtain the complete

analysis of 12mm size of coarse aggregate. Sieve size of 12mm was used. This procedure was

repeated until a the required quantity of 12mm size materials retained on 10mm, 8mm and 4.75 mm

is obtained.The coarse aggregate was alsotested for various properties like impact value test,

crushing value test, to check their suitability for the experiment

41
Plate 3.2a: Set of sieves used in particle size analysis

42
Plate 3.2b: Aggregates on Sieves

43
3.2.3 Plastic Fiber Polymer

PET fiber obtained from waste collection points within FUOYE was thoroughly washed and

grinded to nearly uniform sizes using a shredding machine at new saw mill area in OyeEkiti.

3.3 Mix Design

Concrete of grade M15 has been designed confirming BS as conventional concrete specimen

and the same procedure was adopted for other mixes mentioned below

3.3.1 Mixing Proportion

A mix ratio of 1:2:4 (Cementitious material: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate) was used in

casting the concrete cubes and prism (for determining flexural strength) in other to achieve the

desired grade of concrete which will be expected for the control mix. The method of batching that

was used in this research is by weighing. 0.50 water-cement ratio was adopted. The addition of fiber

in the concrete was in percentages. Steel mould of 150x150x150mm size was used for the casting of

the concrete cubes.

44
Plate 3.3: Concrete Cubes used in Compressive Strength test

45
3.4 Testing Method

The required tests that were carried out in this research include; Grain size analysis of

aggregates, Specific gravity test, Fineness Modulus, Free Moisture Content, Water Absorption

Test,Compressive test, Splliting Tensile test and Flexural strength tests.

3.4.1 Properties of the Aggregates

Tests were carried out on the materials used in the concrete. The tests carried out includes

particle size analysis of the aggregates, specific gravity test, fineness module, water absorption,

aggregate impact value and aggregate crushing value

3.4.1.1 Grain Size Analysis

Apparatus

i. Weighing Balance

ii. Set of sieves

iii. Cleaning brush

iv. Sieve shake

Procedures

i. Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the

analysis.

ii. Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.

iii. Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of

sieve numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200

sieve. Carefully pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.

iv. Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10 minutes.

46
 v. Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each

sieve with its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of

the bottom pan with its retained fine soil.

vi. Obtain the mass of soil retained on each sieve by subtracting the weight of the empty

sieve from the mass of the sieve + retained soil, and record this mass as the weight

retained on the data sheet. The sum of these retained masses should be approximately

equals the initial mass of the soil sample. A loss of more than two percent is

unsatisfactory.

vii. Calculate the percent retained on each sieve by dividing the weight retained on each

sieve by the original sample mass.

viii. Calculate the percent passing (or percent finer) by starting with 100 percent and

subtracting the percent retained on each sieve as a cumulative procedure.

ix. Make a semilogarithmic plot of grain size vs. percent finer.

x. Compute Cc and Cu for the soil.

3.4.1.2 Specific Gravity Test

3.4.1.2.1 Specific Gravity of Fine aggregates

Apparatus

i. Pycnometer

ii. Balance weight

Procedures

i. Clean the pycnometer, dry it, Find the weight of the pycnometer. W1

ii. Take about 200gm of coarse aggregate sample in the pycnometer. Weight the

pycnometer. Note the weight W2 .

iii. Fill the remaining part of pycnometer with distilled water and weight W3

iv. Empty the pycnometer and clean it and fill it with distilled water. Note the weight W4

47
The specific gravity of fine aggregate , G = W2-W1

(W2-W1) – (W3-W4) …Eqn(1)

Where W1 = Empty weight of pycnometer

W2 = Weight of pcynometer+ sample

W3 = Weight of pycnomete+ sample+water

W4 = Weight of pycnometer+ water

3.4.1.2.1 Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregates

Apparatus

i. Weighing Balance: A balance or scale of about 3 kg capacity to weigh accurately up

to 0.5 g, and of such a type and shape, so as to permit within the basket containing the

aggregates when suspended in water

ii. Oven: A well-ventilated oven, which can be controlled thermostatically and it

maintains a temperature of 100 to 110 ˚C.

iii. Wire Basket (Density Basket): A wire basket or density basket of not more than 6.3

mm mesh or a perforated container of convenient size with wire hangers for

suspending it from the balance.

iv. Watertight Container: A stout watertight container in which the basket can be freely

suspended.

v. Dry Clothes: Two dry, soft, and good quality absorbent clothes of size 75 x 45 cm.

vi. Shallow Tray: A shallow tray of the area not less than 650 cm

Procedures

i. Take a sample of 2 kg of aggregates. Wash the sample thoroughly to remove finer

particles and dust from it.

48
ii. After washing, place aggregates in the wire basket and immerse it in distilled water at

a temperature between 22°C and 32°C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the

top of the basket.

iii. Immediately, after immersion, remove the entrapped air from the sample by lifting the

basket containing aggregates 25 mm above from the base of the tank and allow it to

drop again. Continue this process at least 25 times at the rate of about one drop per

second. The basket and aggregates shall remain completely immersed during this

process as well as for a period of 24 ± ½ hours afterwards.

iv. Then the basket and the sample are jolted and weighed in the water at a temperature

of 22 to 32°C. If it is necessary for them to be transferred to a different tank for

weighing, they are jolted 25 times as described above in the new tank before

weighing. Note down this weight of aggregates and basket in water as A1.

v. After that, remove the basket and the aggregates from the water and allow to drain for

a few minutes. After that, empty the aggregates from the basket on the dry clothes and

return the empty basket to the water, jolt it 25 times and weigh in water. Note down

the weight of basket suspended in water as A2.

vi. Gently dry those aggregates with the dry cloth. Transfer aggregates to the second dry

cloth if the first one cannot remove optimum moisture residue from them. After that

spread out them in one layer for at least 10 minutes for surface to get dry completely

and avoid direct sunlight on them. Then take the weight of these dry aggregates,

which are saturated and note it as B.

vii. Next, place the aggregates in the oven on the shallow tray at a temperature of 100 to

110°C and maintain this temperature for next 24 ± 1/2 hours. Then remove aggregates

from the oven and cool in an airtight container. After that, measure the weight of the

aggregates and note down this weight of oven-dry aggregates as C.

49
Specific Gravity = C

C - A ….Equ.(2)

Where, A = The weight in g of the saturated aggregate in water (A1 – A2)

A1 = Mass of aggregate + basket in water

A2 = Mass of wire basket suspended in water

B = The weight in g of the saturated surface-dry aggregate in air

C = The weight in g of the oven-dried aggregate in air

3.4.1.2.1 Specific Gravity Test Procedure for Cement

The specific gravity test procedure contains only four steps. Followings are the four steps to be

followed to perform specific gravity test of cement:

i. The Flask should be free from the liquid that means it should be fully dry. Weigh the

empty flask. Which is W1.

ii. Next, fill the cement on the bottle up to half of the flask around 50gm and weigh with

its stopper. And it is W2.

iii. Add Kerosene to the cement up to the top of the bottle. Mix well to remove the air

bubbles in it. Weigh the flask with cement and kerosene. And it is W3.

iv. Empty the flask. Fill the bottle with kerosene up to the top and weigh the flask for

counting W4.

Specific Gravity is then calculated using Eqn. (3)

Sg = W2 - W1

(W2 - W1 ) - (W3 - W4) x 0.79 …Eqn. (3)

Where W1 = Weight of empty flask

W2 = Weight of empty flask + cement

W3 = Weight of empty flask + cement + kerosene

50
 W4 = Weight of empty flask + kerosene

3.4.1.3 Fineness Modulus Test

Apparatus

i. Set of sieves,

ii. mechanical sieve shaker,

iii. dry oven

iv. Weighing Balance.

Preparation of Samples

i. Take a sample of fine aggregate in pan and placed it in dry oven at a temperature of

100 – 110oC.

ii. After drying take the sample and note down its weight.

Procedures

i. Take the sieves and arrange them in descending order with the largest sieve on top. If

mechanical shaker is using then put the ordered sieves in position and pour the sample

in the top sieve and then close it with sieve plate. Then switch on the machine and

shaking of sieves should be done at least 5 minutes.

ii. If shaking is done by the hands then pour the sample in the top sieve and close it then

hold the top two sieves and shake it inwards and outwards, vertically and horizontally.

After some time shake the 3rd and 4th sieves and finally last sieves.

iii. After sieving, record the sample weights retained on each sieve.

iv. Then find the cumulative weight retained.

v. Finally determine the cumulative percentage retained on each sieves. Add the all

cumulative percentage values and divide with 100 then we will get the value of

fineness modulus.

3.4.1.4 Aggregate Impact Value

51
Apparatus

i. A testing machine weighing 45 to 60 kg and having a metal base with a plane lower

surface of not less than 30 cm in diameter. Level and plane concrete floor of

minimum 45 cm thickness are used to support it. The base of the machine should also

have provisions for fixing its base.

ii. A cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 102 mm, depth 50 mm and minimum

thickness 6.3 mm.

iii. A metal hammer or tup weighting 13.5 to 14.0 kg the lower end is cylindrical in

shape, is 50 mm long, 100.0 mm in diameter, with a 2 mm chamfer at the lower edge

and case hardened. The hammer is arranged in such a way that it should slide freely

between vertical guides and be concentric with the cup. It is arranged that the free fall

of the hammer should be within 380±5 mm.

iv. A cylindrical metal measure having an internal diameter of 75 mm and depth 50 mm

for measuring aggregates.

v. One end rounded tamping rod 10 mm in diameter and 230 mm long.

vi. A balance of capacity not less than 500 g, and readable and accurate up to 0.1 g.

Procedures

The test sample: normally aggregates sized 10.0 mm to 12.5 mm. the aggregates should be dried by

heating at 100-110 0C for a period of 4 hours and cooled.

i. Sieve the material through 12.5mm and 10.0 mm IS sieves. The aggregates passing

through 12.5 mm sieve comprises the test material.

ii. Then, just 1/3 rd depth of measuring cylinder is filled by aggregate by pouring.

iii. Compact the material by giving 25 gentle blows with the rounded end of the tamping

rod in the cylinder.

iv. Two more layers are added in a similar manner, to make cylinder full.

52
 v. Strike off the surplus aggregates.

vi. Determine the net weight of the aggregates to the nearest gram (W1).

vii. Bring the impact machine to rest without wedging or packing upon the level plate,

block or floor, so that it is rigid and hammer guide columns are vertical.

viii. 25 gentle strokes with tamping rod are used to compact the test sample by fixing the

cup firmly in position on the base of the machine with placing the whole of the test

sample in it.

ix. After that raise the hammer until its lower face is 380 mm above the surface of the

aggregate in the cup and allow it to fall freely on the aggregate sample. 15 such blows

at an interval of not less than one second between successive falls are acted on it.

x. Remove the crushed aggregate from the cup and sieve it through 2.36 mm IS sieves

until no further significant amount passes in one minute. Weight the fraction passing

the sieve to an accuracy of 1 gm (W2). The fraction retained in the sieve is weighted.

xi. Note down the observations in the performance and compute the aggregate impact

value. The ‘Aggregate Impact Value’ is the mean of two observations, rounded to a

nearest whole number.

3.4.1.5 Aggregate Crushing Value

Apparatus

i. A 15 cm dia. Steel cylinder with plunger and base plate.

ii. A straight metal tamping rod 16mm in diameter and 45 to 60cm long rounded at one

end.

iii. A Weigh balance of accuracy up to 1 gam.

iv. IS sieves of sizes 12.5mm, 10mm, and 2.36mm

v. A compression testing machine.

vi. The cylindrical measure has a diameter of 11.5 cm and 18cm in height.

53
 vii. A compression testing machine has a loading capacity of 40 tons and can be operated

to give a uniform rate of loading so that the maximum load is reached in 10 minutes.

Preparation of Samples

For the Aggregate crushing value test, an aggregate sample passing through a 12.5 mm IS

sieve and retained on a 10mm IS sieve is selected and dried to a temperature of 105 ºC to 110 ºC then

cooled to room temperature. To fill the cylindrical measure mold about 6.5 kg of a sample of

aggregate is sufficient.

Procedures

i. Take the Empty weight of cylindrical measure as W1.

ii. Fill aggregate sample passing through 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm IS sieve in

measuring cylinder in 3 equal layers such that each layer is subjected to 25 strokes

using the tamping rod. Take the weight of aggregate with the measuring cylinder as

W2.

iii. Find out the weight of aggregate sample W = W2 – W1

iv. Now, fill the aggregate sample in a 15 cm dia. and 13 cm height steel cylinder and

level the surface of aggregate carefully and insert the plunger so that it rests

horizontally on the surface.

v. Place a steel cylinder with a plunger on the loading plate of the compression testing

machine.

vi. Operate a Compression machine such that 40 tonnes of the load is applied on

aggregate in approximately 10 min.

vii. Release load and remove the steel cylinder from the machine.

viii. Take out the crushed aggregate sample and sieve on with a 2.36mm IS sieve, care

being taken to avoid loss of fines.

ix. Take off the weight of fraction passing through 2.36 mm IS sieve as (W3).

54
“Aggregate crushing value is determined by taking a percentage of weight crushed aggregate sample

passing through 2.36 mm IS Sieve divided by weight of aggregate sample taken for test”

The crushing strength of aggregate can be found by the following formula,

Aggregate crushing value = W3

W …Eqn(4)

Where W1 = Empty weight of cylindrical Measure.

W2 = Weight of Aggregate with Cylindrical Measure

W = W2 – W1 = Weight of Aggregate Sample

W3 = Weight of crushed aggregate sample passed through 2.36 mm IS Sieve.

3.4.2 Tests Carried out on Concrete Cubes

3.4.2.1 Water Absorption test on Oven dried Concrete Material

The immersed pavers were removed from the water bath and dried in the oven before

measuring their saturated weights. The results were recorded in table 4.4.1 below

3.4.2.2 Water Absorption test on Air Dry Plastic Concrete Material 3

The immersed pavers were removed from the water bath and dried naturally in air before

measuring their saturated weights. The results were recorded in 4.4.2 table below

3.4.2.3 Splitting Tensile Strength

Split Tensile strength of concrete is tested on cylinders at different percentage of marble

powder content in concrete. The strength of concrete has been tested on cylinder cured for 7days,

14days, 21days and 28 days. Compression testing machine is used for testing the Split Tensile

strength test on concrete along with two wooden boards. At the time of testing the cylinder taken out

of water and dried and then tested

Apparatus includes:

i. Compression testing machine,

55
 ii. Two packing strips of plywood 30 cm long and 12 mm wide,

iii. Moulds,

iv. Tamping bar (steel bar of 16 mm diameter, 60 cm long),

v. Trowel,

vi. Glass or metal plate

Preparation of Samples

i. The sample size is cylinder of diameter 15 cm and height of 30 cm. The mould used is

metal with mean internal diameter of the mould is 15 cm ± 0.2 mm and the height is

30 +/- 0.1 cm. The mould should be coated with a thin film of mould oil before use to

prevent adhesion of concrete.

ii. Concrete is placed into the mould in layers of approximately 5 cm thickness. Each

layer is compacted either by hand or by vibration. When compacting by hand, the

tamping bar is utilized and the stroke of the bar shall be distributed in a uniform way.

The number of strokes for each layer should not at least 30. The stroke should

penetrate in to the underlying layer and the bottom layer should be rodded throughout

its depth.

iii. After compacting the top layer, the surface of the concrete should be finished level

with the top of the mould, using a trowel and covered with a glass or metal plate to

prevent evaporation of water.

iv. Curing: The test specimen should be stored in a place at a temperature of 27° +/- 2°C

for 24 hrs. After this period, specimens are removed from the moulds to be submerged

in clean fresh water or saturated lime solution for the specified curing period (such as

7 or 28 days). The water or solution should be renewed every 7 days.

Procedures

i. After curing, wipe out water from the surface of specimen

56
 ii. Using a marker, draw diametrical lines on the two ends of the specimen to verify that

they are on the same axial place.

iii. Measure the dimensions of the specimen.

iv. Keep the plywood strip on the lower plate and place the specimen.

v. Align the specimen so that the lines marked on the ends are vertical and centered over

the bottom plate.

vi. Place the other plywood strip above the specimen and bring down the upper plate to

touch the plywood strip.

vii. Apply the load continuously without shock at a rate of approximately 14- 21

kg/cm2/minute (Which corresponds to a total load of 9.9 ton/minute to 14.85

ton/minute)

viii. Write the breaking load (P)

The splitting tensile strength, Tsp = 2P / π DL …Eqn.(5)

3.4.2.4 Flexural Strength

The age of the test is 7days, 14 days, 21 days and 28 days and three specimens for each test was

prepared.The specimen is stored in water at 24-30oC for 48hours and then tested.

Apparatus

i. Steel, iron cast, or other nonabsorbent material molds with size of (150mmX150mmX

750mm)

ii. Tamping rods: ASTM specify large rode (16mm diameter and 600mm long) and

small rode (10mm diameter and 300mm long)

iii. Testing machine capable of applying loads at a uniform rate without interruption of

shocks

iv. Scoop

v. Trowel

57
 vi. Balance with accuracy of 1g

vii. Power driven concrete mixer

viii. Table vibration in the case of using vibration to compact concrete in molds .

Preparation of Samples

i. Determine proportions of materials including cement, sand, aggregate and water.

ii. Mix the materials using either by hand or using suitable mixing machine in batches

with size of 10 percent greater than molding test specimen.

iii. Measure the slump of each concrete batch after blending.

iv. Place molds on horizontal surface and lubricate inside surface with proper lubricant

material and excessive lubrication should be prevented.

v. Pour fresh concrete into the molds in three layers. .

vi. Compact each layer with 16mm rode and apply 25 strokes for each layer or fill the

mold completely and compact concrete using vibration table.

vii. Remove excess concrete from the top of the mold and smoothen it without imposing

pressure on it.

viii. Cover top of specimens in the molds and store them in a temperature room for 24

hours.

ix. Remove the molds and moist cure specimens at 23+/-2 o C till the time of testing.

Procedures

i. The test should be conducted on the specimen immediately after taken out of the

curing condition so as to prevent surface drying which decline flexural strength.

ii. Place the specimen on the loading points.

iii. The hand finished surface of the specimen should not be in contact with loading

points. This will ensure an acceptable contact between the specimen and loading

points.

58
 iv. Center the loading system in relation to the applied force.

v. Bring the block applying force in contact with the specimen surface at the loading

points.

vi. Applying loads between 2 to 6 percent of the computed ultimate load.

vii. Employing 0.10 mm and 0.38 mm leaf-type feeler gages, specify whether any space

between the specimen and the load-applying or support blocks is greater or less than

each of the gages over a length of 25 mm or more.

viii. Eliminate any gap greater than 0.10mm using leather shims (6.4mm thick and 25 to

50mm long) and it should extend the full width of the specimen.

ix. Capping or grinding should be considered to remove gaps in excess of 0.38mm.

x. Load the specimen continuously without shock till the point of failure at a constant

rate (loading rate of and 180kg/min for 100mm specimen, stress increase rate 0.06+/-

0.04N/mm2 .s according to British standard).

The loading rate as per ASTM standard can be computed based on the following equation:

R = S b d2

L …Eqn(6)

Where R = loading rate

S = rate of increase of extreme fiber

B = average specimen width d: average specimen depth

L = span length

Finally, measure the cross section of the tested specimen at each end and at center to calculate

average depth and height.

59
3.4.2.5 Compressive Strength

The compressive strength test was done in conformity with BS EN 12390-3:2009 after

specimen fire resistivity test, and cool for 24hours. Then, the compressive strength was determined at

7, 14, 21, and 28 days.

In this research two different compressive tests were carried out; The compressive strength

test was carried out on the cubes after 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of curing period using compression

testing machine. 12 cubes were subjected to fire after 28 days of curing to observe the effect of fire

on the compressive strength of fibre reinforced concrete. Each of the cube’s characteristics strength

was determined by dividing the maximum failure load of specimen during the compressive strength

test by the cross-sectional area of the specimen

3.4.2.6 Compressive Strength Test for Ordinary Concrete

Concrete cubes of 150mm X 150mm x 150mm has been cast according to the specifications

mentioned in the BS code. The Concrete specimens were cast based on the specifications and tested

to determine the feasibility of egg shell powder in concreteThe mix ratio used was 1: 2. Three

specimens of each curing days were tested. Results are shown in Table 4.7.1 below.

60
3.4.2.7Compressive strength Test Result for Plastic Concrete

Concrete cubes of 100mm X 100mm x 100mm has been cast according to the specifications

mentioned in the BS code. The Concrete specimens were cast based on the specifications and tested

to determine the feasibility of plastic powder in concrete. The mix ratio used was 1: 2. Results are

shown in Table 4.7.2 below.

Apparatus

i. Compression testing machine

Procedure

i. Remove the specimen from the water after specified curing time and wipe out excess

water from the surface.

ii. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m

iii. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine

iv. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to

the opposite sides of the cube cast

61
v. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

vi. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the

specimen.

vii. Apply the load gradually without shock and continuously at the rate of 140

kg/cm2/minute till the specimen fails.

viii. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

62
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Tests and Results

The tests was carried out through the study of compressive strength, flexural strength and

splitting tensile strength of the concrete cubes with and without cement partially replaced with plastic

powder. Tests were carried out on the materials used in the concrete. The tests carried out includes

particle size analysis of the aggregates, specific gravity test, fineness module, water absorption,

aggregate impact value and aggregate crushing value

4.2 Particle Size Distribution Analysis of Aggregate

Grain size distribution of the soil samples were carried out in accordance with BS 1377:Part

2: (1990), as it is a basic requirement in any soil investigation. Sieve Analysis was carried out to

determine the particle size distribution of the soil samples. The grain size distribution is shown on

table 4.2.1and 4.2.2 and the grain size distribution curves are depicted in chart 4.2.1 and 4.2.1

4.2.1 Particle Size Distribution Analysis of Fine Aggregate

Table 4.2.1:Particle size analysis of fine aggregate

S/N Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Weight Passing

(%)

1 2.00 92.25

2 1.18 90.65

3 0.85 90.02

4 0.6 38.68

5 0.425 20.69

6 0.150 5.59

63
 7 Pan 0.0

Percentage passing D10 - 0.8

D30 - 0.2

D60 - 0.48

Coefficient of Uniformity Cu = 6.0

Coefficient of Curvature Cc = 1.04

Chart 4.2.1:Chart of Grain size analysis of Fine Aggregates

64
4.2.2 Particle Size Distribution Analysis of Coarse Aggregate

Table 4.2.2: Particle size analysis of coarse aggregate

S/N Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Weight Passing

(%)

1 75.00 100

2 63.00 72.5

3 37.50 45.5

4 20.00 36.0

5 14.00 26.0

6 10.00 21.0

7 5.0 8.5

8 2.36 0.0

Percentage passing D10 - 4.0

D30 - 12.5

D60 - 40.0

Coefficient of Uniformity Cu = 10

Coefficient of Curvature Cc = 0.98

65
Chart 4.2.2: Chart of Grain size analysis of Coarse Aggregates

66
4.2.3 Discussion of Result

The results of sieve analysis as presented in Table 4.2.1 and 4.2.2reveal the values of D60,

D30 and D10 as 0.48, 0.2 and 0.8respectively in fine aggregates and reveal the values of D60, D30

and D10 as 4.0., 12.5 and 4.0respectively in coarse aggregates.

According to Unified Soil Classification System (USCS), if Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu)

value of soilis range between 4 to 10 and Coefficient of Curvature(Cc) value is range between 1 and

3 then, the soil particle is well-graded. But when Cu value is less than 4 and Cc value is less than 1,

the soil particle is uniformly graded.

The values of Cu and Cc according to calculations from Table 4.2.1 and 4.2.12reveals that Cu

and Cc of the fine aggregates to be 6.0 and 1.04 respectively and Cu and Cc of the coarse aggregate

to be 10 and 0.98 respectively. The resultindicates that the fine aggregate and the coarse aggregateare

well graded and therefore suitable for construction.

4.3 Properties of the Aggregates

The properties of fine and coarse aggregates were determined, and the results are presented in

section 4.3.1 and 4.3.2.

4.3.1 Properties of Fine Aggregates

Table 4.3.1: Properties of Fine Aggregates

S/N Properties Values

1 Fineness modulus 2.77

3 Specific Gravity 2.86

67
4.3.2 Properties of Coarse Aggregates

Table 4.3.2: Properties of Coarse Aggregates

S/N Properties Values

1 Fineness modulus 2.92

2 Specific Gravity 2.75

3 Aggregate Impact Value 13%

4 Aggregate Crushing Value 33.27%

4.4 Water Absorption Test

Water absorption tests were carried out on the oven dried concrete material and the air dried

plastic-concrete material and the results are recorder in section 4.4.1 and 4.4.2

Table 4.4.1: Water Absorption Test on Oven Dried Concrete Material

Sample No Dry weight Wet Weight Change in Water Average Water

of material of Material mass (g) absorption absorption (%)

(WA) (WB) (%)

Sample 1 2.38 2.48 0.01 4.20

2.85

Sample 2 1.97 2.00 0.02 1.5

68
Table 4.4.2: Water Absorption test on Air Dry Plastic Concrete Material

Sample No Dry weight Wet Weight Change in Water Average Water

of material of Material mass (g) absorption absorption (%)

(WA) (WB) (%)

Sample 1 2.38 2.39 0.01 0.42

0.63

Sample 2 2.38 2.40 0.02 0.84

69
4.4.3 Discussion of Result

The water absorption for the two series of concrete is shown in table 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 and. It

can be seen in the tables that the water absorption for both series increases as was 2.85% and 0.63%

respectively. As shown in the tables the addition of plastic powder decreased the concrete’s water

sorptivity value. As was expected the use of supplementary materials reduces the soprtivity of

concrete. The low sorptivity is because plastic powder has smaller particles than cement, making

concrete has less pore, which leads to low sorptivity, so the water infiltration is not as many as the

plain concrete.

The increase in weight of concrete because of water absorption is shown in table 4.4.1 and

4.4.2 above. As can be seen, the partial replacement of cement with plastic powder, reduces

concrete’s water absorption capacity. This is majorly because in normal circumstances,

supplementary materials registers water absorption of less than 0.02%. As such, the low water

absorption observed can only be attributed to the absence of pore formation.

4.5 Spilt Tensile Strength

Comparison between Split Tensile strength of Cement Concrete and Plastic Concrete.

Cylindrical concrete cubes of 100mm diameter and 250mm in heights were used.

Table 4.5: Average Spilt Tensile Strength of Cement Concrete and Plastic Concrete

Specimen Average split Average split tensile Average split Average split

tensile strength strength test at 14 tensile strength test tensile strength test

test at 7 Days in Days in N/mm at 21 Days in at 28 Days in

N/mm N/mm N/mm

Cement 0.9 1.17 1.49 1.54

Concrete

Plastic 1.1 1.01 1.1 1.12

70
Concrete

Chart 4.5: Splitting Tensile Strength of Specimen

71
4.5.1: Discussion of Result

The results of the Splitting Tensile for the different mix ratios of plain (0% plastic) concrete

and plastic concrete are presented in Tables 4.5. The average tensile strength of plastic concrete

ranged from 1.1 to 1.12 N/mm2, while the average tensile strength of plain concretewas found to be

range from 0.9 to 0.3 N/mm2

A plot of the tensile strength of plain concrete and plastic concrete showed an intialincrease

in the tensile strength at 7days of curing followed by a general decrease at 14days, 21days and 28

days.

The splitting tensile strength of plain concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing

was 0.9N/mm2, 1.17N/mm2, 1.49 N/mm2 and 1.54N/mm2 respectively. While the splittingstrength of

plastic concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing was 1.1N/mm 2, 1.01N/mm2,

1.1N/mm2 and 1.12N/mm2 respectively

There is an increase of 22.22%, at 7days of curing respectively. While at 14 days, 21 days and

28days there was a 13.68%, 26.17%, and 27.27%decrease respectively in the Splitting Tensile

strength of the specimen.

From the results, splitting tensilestrength of 1.1N/mm 2, 1.01N/mm2, 1.1N/mm2 and

1.12N/mm2was recorded (Table 4.6) this strength meets the design standard requirement of concrete

block paving

4.6 Flexure Strength

Flexure Strength Comparison between flexure strength of Cement Concrete and Plastic

Concrete. Concrete beamsof size 100m x 100m x 400m were used in this test.

72
Table 4.6: Flexure Strength of Cement Concrete and Plastic Concrete

Specimen Average flexure Average flexure Average flexure Average

strength test at 7 strength test at 14 strength test at 21 flexurestrength test

Days in N/mm Days in N/mm Days in N/mm at 28 Days in

N/mm

Cement 2.17 2.81 3.26 4.53

Concrete

Plastic 4.31 4.15 4.22 4.37

Concrete

73
Chart 4.6: Flexural Strength of Specimen

4.6.1 Discussion of Result

The flexural strength results of plain (0% plastic) concrete and plastic concrete are presented

in Table 4.6 (see Appendix A) and chart 4.6.

The chart above shows impressive developments in flexural strengths of plastic concrete to cement.

The flexural strength of cement concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing was

2.17N/mm2, 2.81N/mm2, 3.26 N/mm2 and 4.53N/mm2 respectively. While the flexural strength of

plastic concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing was 4.31N/mm 2, 4.15N/mm2,

4.22N/mm2 and 4.37N/mm2 respectively

There is an increase of 98.62%, 47.67%, and 29.45% at 7days, 14 days and 21 days of curing

respectively. While at 28days there was a 3.53% decrease in the flexural strength of the specimen.

The findings of this research indicates that partial replacement of cement with plastic leads to

improvement in flexural strength up to a given level before the strength begins to reduce as shown in

Table 4.6 and Chart 4.6.

From the results, flexural strength of 4.31N/mm2, 4.15N/mm2, 4.22N/mm2 and

4.37N/mm2was recorded (Table 4.6) this strength meets the design standard requirement of concrete

block paving

4.7 Compressive Strength Test

Compressive tests were carried out on the cement concrete and the plastic-cement concrete.

The results are presented in section 4.7.1 and 4.7.2.

74
Table 4.7.1:Compressive strength Test for Ordinary Concrete

S/N Days Weight Final load Fcu Average Fcu (N/mm2) Slump value

(kg) (kN) (N/mm2)

1 7 7.00 316.90 14.08

2 7 7.00 300.10 13.34 13.85 0

3 7 7.10 318.20 14.14

4 14 7.00 328.07 14.58

5 14 7.20 330.08 14.67 14.77 0

6 14 7.40 338.98 15.07

7 21 7.80 390.01 17.33

8 21 7.90 400.09 17.78 18.05 0

9 21 8.0 428.20 19.03

10 28 8.0 430.99 19.16

11 28 8.21 450.78 20.03 20.19 0

12 28 8.36 480.78 21.37

75
Table 4.7.2: Compressive strength Test Result for Plastic Concrete

S/N Days Weight (kg) Final load (kN) Fcu (N/mm2) Average Slump value

Fcu

1 7 2.0 200.18 20.02

2 7 2.0 200.00 20.00 19.87 0

3 7 1.9 195.90 19.59

4 14 1.9 194.86 19.49

5 14 1.8 190.98 19.10 19.30 0

6 14 1.9 192.99 19.30

7 21 1.8 190.89 19.10

8 21 1.8 192.00 19.20 19.10 0

9 21 1.9 190.00 19.00

10 28 1.8 193.00 19.30

11 28 1.9 191.01 19.10 19.29 0

12 28 1.9 194.81 19.98

76
Chart 4.7: Compressive Strength of Specimen

77
4.7.3 Discussion of Result

The compressive strength results of plain (0% plastic) concrete and plastic concrete are

presented in table 4.7.1 and 4.7.2 (see Appendix A) and chart 4.7.

The chart above shows impressive developments in compressive strengths plastic concrete to

cement.The compressive strength of cement concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing

was 13.85N/mm2, 14.77N/mm2, 18.05 N/mm2 and 20.19N/mm2 respectively. While the compressive

strength of plastic concrete at 7day, 14days, 21days and 28days of curing was 19.87N/mm 2,

19.30N/mm2, 19.10N/mm2 and 19.29N/mm2 respectively.

As can be seen, the use of supplementary material increases the compressive strength of concrete.

There is an increase of 43.47%, 28.84%, and 5.81% at 7days, 14 days and 21 days of curing

respectively. While at 28days there was a 4.46% decrease in the compressive strength of the

specimen.

The findings of this research indicates that partial replacement of cement with plastic leads to

improvement in compressive strength up to a given level before the strength begins to reduce as

shown in Table 4.7 and Chart 4.7. It could be seen that the compressive strength of the plastic

concrete decreases as the curing days increases. This result can be compared to as Kuo and Lee,

(2013)research. In his research, the compressive strength and results decreased as the replacement of

GGBFS increased

From the compressive test results, strength of 19.87N/mm2, 19.30N/mm2, 19.10N/mm2, and

19.29N/mm2 was recorded (Table 4.7.2) this strength meets the design standard requirement of

concrete block paving

78
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

i. Plastic concrete has lower water sorptivity value as compared with plain concrete

ii. Plastic concrete gives better compressive strength, and flexural strength at 21days

curing time and could economically be used in the construction industry.

iii. Supplementary materials like plastic powder have an optimum value as if used too

much as cement replacement makes the concrete becomes weaker and the concrete

sorptivity becomes insignificant

iv. When supplementary materials needs to be used for strengthening concrete, the

optimum value needs to be determined first. Otherwise the concrete will not be as

durable as expected.

5.2 Recommendations

At the end of this research, other researches are recommended by varying the percentages of

plastic powder added as supplementary material to the concrete in order to determine the optimum

percentage of replacing plastic powder as a supplementary material to cement in concrete .

ii.

79
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 APPENDIX
Appendix 1: Particle Size Analysis

Particle Size Analysis of Fine Aggregates

S/N Sieve Size Sieve Sieve Weight % % weight Cumulative

(mm) Weight weight + retained Weight passing weight
(g) weight retained retained
retained
1 2.00 271.63 354.00 82.37 7.75 92.25 7.75
2 1.18 299.07 316.00 16.93 1.59 90.65 9.34
3 0.85 299.22 306.00 6.78 0.64 90.02 9.98
4 0.6 335.71 350.00 14.29 1.34 38.68 11.32
5 0.425 313.10 1036.00 722.90 69.99 20.69 79.32
6 0.150 273.31 434.00 160.69 15.11 5.59 94.42
7 Pan 246.80 306.00 59.28 5.57 0.0 100
From the graph

D60 = 0.48 D30 = 0.2 D10 = 0.8

Cu = D60 / D10 = 0.48/0.08 = 6.0

Cc = (D30)2 / D10D60 = 0.22/0.8 x 0.48 = 1.04

Particle Size Analysis of Coarse Aggregates

S/N Sieve Size (mm) Weight % Weight % weight

retained (%) retained (%) passing (%)

1 75.0 - - 100
2 63.0 150 37.5 62.5
3 37.5 68 17.0 45.5
4 20.0 38 9.50 36.0
5 14.0 40 10.0 26.0
6 10.0 20 5.0 21.0
7 5.0 50 12.50 8.5
8 2.36 34 8.5 0
From the graph

D60 = 40.0 D30 = 12.5 D10 = 4.0

Cu = D60 / D10 = 40.0/4.0 = 10

Cc = (D30)2 / D10D60 = 12.52/40.0 x4.0 = 0.98

95
Appendix 2: Specific Gravity of Materials used in Concrete

Determination of Specific Gravity in Fine Aggregates

Sample 1 Sample 2
Weight of Crucible + fine aggregates, M1 138g 142g
Weight of Crucible, M2 37g 43g
Weight of fine aggregates, M3 101g 99g
Volume of water, 100ml/s 100ml/s
Weight of Water displaced, M5 38 33
Specific Gravity, M5/ (M4-M3) 2.78 2.94
Average Specific Gravity 2.86

Determination of Specific Gravity in Coarse Aggregates

Sample 1 Sample 2
Weight of Crucible + coarse aggregates, M1 565g 555g
Weight of Crucible, M2 138g 142g
Weight of coarse aggregates, M3 427g 413g
Volume of water, 100ml/s 100ml/s
Weight of Water displaced, M5 215g 191g
Specific Gravity, M5/ (M4-M3) 2.78 2.72
Average Specific Gravity 2.75

Specific Gravity of Materials used in Concrete

Materials used in Specific Gravity

concrete
Cement 3.15
Fine Aggregate 2.86
Coarse Aggregate 2.75
Plastic powder 2.6

96
Appendix 3: Aggregate Impact and Crushing Value

Aggregate Crushing Value (Granite) used

Soil Samples Weight

Weight retained on 10mm B.S sieve, W1 485.0g

Weight retained on 2.36mm B.S sieve, W2 302.0g

Weight passing through 2.36mm B.S sieve, W3 157.0g

Aggregate Crushing Value = (W3/W1) x 100% 32.37%

Aggregate Impact Value (Granite) used

Soil Samples Sample 1

Total weight of dry sample taken, W1 450.0g

Weight retained on 2.36mm B.S sieve, W2 283.0g

Weight passing through 2.36mm B.S sieve M3 167.0g

Aggregate Impact Value = (W3/W1) x 100% 37.11%

97
Appendix 4: Fineness Modulus of Aggregates

Determination of Fineness modulus in Fine Aggregates

Sample Fineness Modulus Average

Sample A 2.463 2.77

Sample B 3.077

Determination of Fineness modulus in Coarse Aggregates

Sample Fineness Modulus Average

Sample A 7.44 7.31

Sample B 7.18

98
Appendix 5: Water absorption Test

Water Absorption test on Oven dried Concrete Material

Sample 1 Sample 2

Dry weight of material (WA) 2.38 1.97

Wet Weight of Material (WB) 2.48 2.00
Aggregate Water Absorption Sample (WB – WA) / WA x 100 4.20% 1.5%

Average Water Absorption 2.85%

Water Absorption test on Air Dry Plastic Concrete Material

Sample 1 Sample 2

Dry weight of material (WA) 2.38 2.38

Wet Weight of Material (WB) 2.39 2.40

Aggregate Water Absorption Sample (WB – WA) / WA x 100 0.42% 0.84%

Average Water Absorption 0.63%

99
Appendix 7: Spilting Tensile Strength

Spiltting tensile Strength (Fc (N/mm2) for concrete

S/N Days Weight (kg) Splitting tensile strength Average Splitting tensile strength
(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
1 7 2.0 0.90
7 1.99 0.80 0.9
7 2.10 1.00
2 14 2.0 1.07
14 2.2 1.17 1.17
14 2.2 1.28
3 21 2.3 1.49
21 2.2 1.38 1.49
21 2.3 1.59
4 28 2.5 1.44
28 3.0 1.54 1.54
28 3.0 1.65

Spiltting tensile Strength (Ft (N/mm2) for Plastic concrete

S/N Days Weight Spilting Tensile Strength Fc Average Splitting tensile

(N/mm2) strength (N/mm2)
1 7 1.95 1.1
7 2.0 1.1
7 1.99
2 14 1.98
14 1.8 1.01 1.01
14 1.7
3 21 1.9
21 1.9 1.1 1.1
21 2.0
4 28 2.1
28 1.9 1.12 1.12
28 2.12

100
Appendix 8: Flexural Strength of Concrete

Flexural test of Concrete beam size 100 x 100 x 400

S/N Days Weight Flexural Strength Average Flexural

(N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2)
1 7 9.30 1.77 2.17
7 9.40 2.56
2 14 9.70 2.97 2.81
14 9.70 2.65
3 21 9.10 3.46 3.26
21 9.00 3.06
4 28 10.00 5.30 4.53
28 9.10 3.76

Flexural test of Plastic Concrete beam size 100 x 100 x 400

S/N Days Weight Flexural Strength Average Flexural

(N/mm2) Strength (N/mm2)
1 7 10.89 4.20 4.31
7 11.01 4.45
2 14 10.02 4.20 4.15
14 10.10 4.10
3 21 10.11 4.38 4.22
21 10.02 4.05
4 28 10.10 4.35 4.37
28 10.10 4.38

101
Appendix 9: Compressive strength of Concrete

Compressive strength test result for concrete

S/N Days Weight (kg) Final load (kN) Fcu (N/mm2) Average Slump value
Fcu
1 7 7.00 316.90 14.08
2 7 7.00 300.10 13.34 13.85 0
3 7 7.10 318.20 14.14
4 14 7.00 328.07 14.58
5 14 7.20 330.08 14.67 14.77 0
6 14 7.40 338.98 15.07
7 21 7.80 390.01 17.33
8 21 7.90 400.09 17.78 18.05 0
9 21 8.0 428.20 19.03
10 28 8.0 430.99 19.16
11 28 8.21 450.78 20.03 20.19 0
12 28 8.36 480.78 21.37

Compressive strength test result for plastic concrete

S/N Days Weight (kg) Final load (kN) Fcu (N/mm2) Average Slump value
Fcu
1 7 2.0 200.18 20.02
2 7 2.0 200.00 20.00 19.87 0
3 7 1.9 195.90 19.59
4 14 1.9 194.86 19.49
5 14 1.8 190.98 19.10 19.30 0
6 14 1.9 192.99 19.30
7 21 1.8 190.89 19.10
8 21 1.8 192.00 19.20 19.10 0
9 21 1.9 190.00 19.00
10 28 1.8 193.00 19.30
11 28 1.9 191.01 19.10 19.29 0
12 28 1.9 194.81 19.98

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