Complete Mathematical Induction and Prime Numbers

Original Notes adopted from September 18, 2001 (Week 2)

P. Rosenthal , MAT246Y1, University of Toronto, Department of Mathematics typed by A. Ku Ong

Complete Mathematical Induction If S N such that: a) 1 S b) (k +1 ) S whenever { 1,2,3, ..., k } S, then S = N. Example: What is Wrong with this Proof? Thm: For each n N, every set of people consists of people the same age. Proof: True for n = 1. Use Complete Mathematical Induction Assume true for n = 1,2,3,...k. Some k. Consider case n = k +1. Let S be any set of k +1 people, say S = { x1, x2,... x k, x k+1} Let S0 = { x1, x2,... xk} k people, so all some age by induction hypothesis. Let S1 = { x2,x3,x4, ... x k, x k+1} k people, all same age. In particular, all same age as x2 etc. for elements of S0. Everyone in S same age as x2 By Mathematical Induction (Complete/Ordinary), every set of people consists of people the same age. Series with Positive Terms: a1 + a2 + a3 + .... aj > 0. Such a series Diverges if for every M, there is a j such that a1 + a2 + ... aj > M. Such a series Converges if there is a j such that aj + a j + 1 + ... + a j + k < 1/2 for every k. Eg. 1+3+5+ 7... diverges Eg. 1+ 1/2 +1/4 +1/8 ...converges. Harmonic Series 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/4.... diverges 1 + (1/2 + 1/3) + 1/4 + (1/5 +1/6 +1/7 +1/8) (> 1/4 +1/4) (1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8 + 1/8) > 1/2 > 1/2 1+ 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + ... converges.

Suppose {bn} is a sequence of natural numbers with bn+1> bn. Consider the series 1/b1 + 1/b2 +1/b3 + ... Case bn = n diverges Case bn = 2n converges Suppose bn is the nth prime number. 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/5 +1/7 + 1/11 + 1/13... Does it converge? Thm: If Pn is the nth prime number, then 1/p1 + 1/p2 + ... + 1/pj + ... diverges. Proof: Suppose it converges; Then there would be some j such that 1/pj+1 + 1/pj+2 + 1/pj+ k <1/2 for all k. Show that this is impossible: Each natural number n, (recall: every n 1 is a product of primes) Let F(n) be the number of natural numbers n that are products of primes all of which are in { P1, P2, ... Pn} We will estimate F(n) in Two different ways that will show, for large enough n there is a contradiction. Fix some n. For each m<= n, write m = s2t where s2 is the largest perfect square in m. At most n such s's arise as you go through all m <=n If m sets combined in F(n) then m = Pi, Pii, Piii = s 2t where all i's j Each t is a product of primes in {Pi,... Pj} In t, no two primes are the same, since t is "square free". Thus there are at most 2 j t's that arise from m's that set counted in F(n). * F(n) n 2j n F(n) is the number of natural numbers that are and have a prime factor among {Pj +1 , Pj + 2... } 1/Pj+1 + 1/Pj+2 + ... 1/ Pj+k <1/2. At most n/Pj + 1 numbers have Pj + 1 as a factor n- F(n) n/Pj + 1 + n/Pj + 2 + ... n/2 * F(n) n2j n F(n) n/2 n/2 F(n) n2j n 2 j+1 j, fixed. True for all n. But false for large n. Contradiction. Defn: A natural number is composite if it is not 1 & isn't prime.

Can you find 20 consecutive composite numbers? (21)! + 2, (21) ! + 3, (21)! +4..... (21)! +21 20 consecutive composites. Thm: For any k, there exist k consecutive composite numbers. Proof: (k+1)! +2, (k+1)! + 3,..., (k+1)! + k +1 are all composite. Let p(x) = x2 x + 41 p(1) = 41 prime p(2) = 43 prime p(3) = 47 prime p(4) = 53 prime Prime for x = 1,2,3.... 40. Thm: There is no polynomial (with integer coefficients) whose values are prime for all natural number values of the variable. p(x) = anxn + an - 1xn-1 + ... +a1x + a0 Z: set of integers...-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3 For n N, n+ (-n) =0. Want distributive law: a(b+c) = ab + ac. Then (-a)(-b) + (a)(-b) = (-a +a)(-b) = 0(-b) =0 ab + a(-b) = a(b + (-b) ) = a*0 = 0 (-a)(-b) + a(-b) = 0 ab + a(-b) (-a)(-b) =ab For a,b Z, a|b if there exists c Z such that b = ac. Eg. Is 229 + 3 divisible by 7? Let m be a fixed natural number. Def: a b (mod m) "a is congruent to be modulo m" if a b is divisible by a (For a,b Z) Suppose k,m N , k = mq +r (divide m into k, get quotient q and remainder r) k = r(mod m) ie) a natural number is congruent mod m to its remainder upon division by m. _