LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND

THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF

BILINGUALISM

UNIT 1:
LANGUAGES, BRAINS AND
BILINGUAL EDUCATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Introduction
2. The perfect triangle: languages, brains and bilingual education
3. The acquisition of the mother tongue (L1)
4. L1 and L2 acquisition/learning: similarities, differences & factors
4.1. Similarities
4.2. Differences
4.3. Summary of similarities and differences

1. INTRODUCTION

One of the main theories which this subject and unit is based on is psycholinguistics,

that is, the link between Linguistics and Psychology. The study of this first unit delves

into the role of the brain, and its structure, as well as into the acquisition/learning of

languages in children. We should bear in mind that this subject studies how

bilingualism is developed in the early years, which leaves aside bilingualism in adults,

which will be studied in other subjects of this Master’s Degree.

Focusing on the first aspect of the previous paragraph, Psycholinguistics is the theory

which studies the complex processes that take place in our brains, that is, how we learn

new vocabulary, understand the meaning of those new words, how we perceive, reason,

learn to write and read, as well as organize and have access to what we have stored in

our memories. Furthermore, this theory makes use of all this knowledge to acquire,

learn and use other languages, which is the basis upon educators in the language

classroom can understand the different processes through which students go, so as to

present new and improved methodologies.

Hence, the objectives of this unit are:

• To understand the close connection there is between languages and the brain.

• To examine the process of acquisition of the mother tongue (L1) and any other

language (L2, L3, …).

• To study the similarities affecting the L1 and L2 acquisition/learning.

• To study the differences affecting the L1 and L2 acquisition/learning.

• To analyze and contrast the factors affecting the L1 and L2 acquisition/learning.

• To research on the development of literacy.

2. THE PERFECT TRIANGLE: LANGUAGES,

BRAINS AND BILINGUAL EDUCATION

Psycholinguistics studies the mental processes that are related to the codification

and decodification of communication messages, as well as the existent connection there

is between languages and the speaker’s brain. For this reason, languages, brains and

bilingual education form a perfect triangle interconnected that needs to be studied in

order to understand how children acquire their mother tongue (from now on L1) and a

second language (from now on L2). Let’s analyze these three vertexes individually.

As for the brain, we should firstly bear in mind the fact that it is a complex organ of the

human body involved, among other functions, in language processing. For this reason,

we could understand that learning one foreign language may be connected to the

previous acquisition of the mother tongue. Furthermore, the brain and all the different

parts that form it (the brain stem, the cortex, the sulcus, the lobes, the hippocampus, the
thalamus, the cerebellum, the amygdalae, …) play an important role in this process of

language acquisition/learning and are all involved, to a greater or lesser extent, in this

process. Finally, but not least important, countless neurons also represent an important

part in this process of transmission, although greater research should be carried out in

order to deeply understand what goes on inside our brain. The following figure

Figure 1: The Human Brain and its Parts.

Source: Creative Commons

represents the brain and its parts:

It is important to locate at this stage the two hemispheres of the brain: the right

hemisphere and the left hemisphere. Each of them are responsible for different

functions. The left hemisphere dominates, among others, the linguistic skills, while the

Figure 2: Cerebral Hemispheres.

Source: Creative Commons
right one focuses on memory, vision or hearing, among other functions.

There are different authors and researchers of the field that

attest that language is developed and processed in different

compartments of the brain (Fodor, 1983; Dörnyei, 2009), and

not located at a specific part. These authors advocate for the

interconnection of several parts. On the other hand, there are Figure 4: Broca’s and Wernicke’s
áreas. Source: Own Ellaboration.
other authors that state that language processing is located in

one or another part, as there is research that supports that language is affected when the

Broca (yellow circle) and/or the Wernicke’s areas (blue circle) are damaged. Regardless

of these theories, these two areas are located in the left hemisphere of the brain, which

Figure 3: Brain Lateralization. Source: Creative Commons

leads us to the concept of “lateralization”.

Research has shown that language lateralization is quite consistent and that when one of

the hemispheres has been damaged, the abilities located there can be relocated in the

opposite hemisphere, although this situation is more frequent and easier to occur in

children than in adults, due to their brain plasticity.

As the previous paragraphs have shown, language and brain are strongly connected and

what happens inside the brain is connected to the way children learn their mother

tongue or a second language, both at different times or at the same time (bilingual

education).

3. THE ACQUISITION OF THE MOTHER TONGUE

(L1)
We should firstly bear in mind that the linguistic competence is acquired, naturally and

universally, by all children, regardless of the social or individual (physical or cognitive)

circumstances that surround them. All children communicate from a very early age,

mainly within their family context, and they are able to effectively communicate at the

age of four or five years old. This process takes place spontaneously and without neither

explicit intention nor instruction, as it is the result of the need to fulfil basic needs like,

for instance, the need to eat or be loved. Although the language community does not

really affect the development of the children’s L1, the role of the caretaker seems vital.

The way people, normally parents, speak to children is normally different from the way

adults speak among themselves, this is because the caretaker makes adaptations to the

language used and he or she adjusts the level of vocabulary, grammar, speed of speech

and vocalizing so that the child understands the message. This type of speech is called

“motherese” and it has a complex structure (Pinker, 1994), as well as some common

features:
 FEATURES OF MOTHERESE

Phonology Lexicon Morphology Syntax Pragmatics

Clearer and Repetition of Frequent use Short Frequent use

slower words of diminutives messages of expressions
pronunciation connected to
Slower speech Limited Limited use of the present
rate vocabulary subordinate time
and
coordinated
clauses
Exaggerated Use of Frequent use
intonation synonyms of questions
Louder tone Few idioms
Longer and and phrasal
abundant verbs
pauses
Figure 5: Features of motherese in L1. Source: Adapted from Snow and Ferguson (1977).

It should be noted that the use of this speech is frequent in the Western cultures, but not

so much in other cultures.

Children acquire their mother tongue, as we have previously mentioned, due to the

quality and amount of language input they receive at home or in their social

environment. It is where the greatest amount of language features are obtained.

Furthermore, not all of it depends on external features, as the acquisition of the L1 also

entails a process of creative construction. What do we mean by creative construction?

Children need to use the language, in a correct or not so correct way, to achieve a full

competence, as well as the correct forms, vocabulary and grammar constructions.

Nobody explains children how grammar or lexicon work, but it is their intuitive

knowledge that allows them to invent words or expressions by analogy, when they do
not possess the necessary knowledge yet. What we may consider as mistakes, can be a

result of following logical grammar (i.e., overgeneralizations).

This last concept leads us to one of the most defended theories regarding L1 language

acquisition by Noam Chomsky. This postulates that language is an innate ability and

that we are all born with an ability for language acquisition. If you wish to read into this

theory, we recommend watching the following video called Noam Chomksy: Language

and Other Cognitive Processes (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6i_W6Afed2k).

4. L1 and L2 acquisition/learning: similarities,

differences & factors

Is learning a L2 different from acquiring our L1? Does it follow the same

process? Which factors determine how we learn languages from an early age? The

reason behind the need for learning a L1 or a L2 is clearly different. While the former is

the result of the need to interact with the world that surrounds the child, as well as

develop socially and academically, the latter is the result, in some occasions, of the

person’s needs, as well as life or work situations. What is clear is that the more the

individual is exposed to a L2, the more naturally he or she will acquire it. In this sense,

the L1 and L2 may be acquired similarly, but it will all depend on the presence of the

L2 in the social context or even on the differences or similarities there could exist

between both languages.

4.1. Similarities

As for the similarities these focus on the system of rules and principles of each

language and the similar processes of language acquisition/learning of L1 and L2.

Evidence shows that when we acquire or learn a L1 or a L2 learners go through three

different developmental stages: (1) a silent period, (2) a formulaic speech period and (3)

a structural and semantic simplification of language period.

1. Silent period: this is the stage in which learners only listen.

2. Formulaic speech period: learners start using expressions as whole chunks of

language (routines).

3. Structural and semantic simplification of language: learners make use of the

simplest form of the language, usually omitting grammar aspects.

Another similarity between learning/acquiring an L1 or an L2 is determined by the

order of acquisition of grammar. Some researchers defend the existence of a fixed order

of acquisition of grammatical aspects (Lightbown and Spada, 2006; Krashen, 1981),

which they call the “Natural Order Hypothesis”, while others state that there are

different learning sequences occurring in the two processes (McLaughlin, 1987).

Another very popular theory is the so-called “Universal Grammar” of Chomsky

(2006), which determines that all languages share some common characteristics.

Greenberg (1966) also delved into this linguistic universal and stated that all languages

that belong to the same family, share some features. These would be divided into the

easiest transferrable ones from the L1 to the L2 (unmarked features), which would be
easily learnt by language learners, and the more complicated ones (marked features) that

would not be easily acquired/learnt by language learners, as they are more specific

characteristics of a given language. It is not the same that an English speaker learns

Chinese than if he or she learns Spanish. The learner would grasp the features of the

Spanish language more easily than if he or she learns a language, in this case Chinese,

that differs greatly from his or her mother tongue. Either the case, it is important for

teachers to take these things into account when presenting the language to students,

because he or she would be able to make use of common features of the language to

present it to the students in a more or less easy way.

Krashen defends the importance of quality and abundant language input, as this

is extremely related to the language output produced by the learner. This is another

similarity between the acquisition/learning of an L1 or an L2, as the more exposed the

student is to the language, the more opportunities he or she will have to communicate

and make use of the language. This is closely related to the behaviorist approach (to be

seen in the next unit), which claims that children imitate the language they hear, but

bearing in mind that language acquisition/learning also entails a process of creative

construction.

Another theory that focuses on the similarities of L1 and L2 acquisition is the

so-called Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) of Vygotsky (1962). This theory states

that what the student knows and what he or she does not know is separated by a “Zone

of Proximal Development” that is promoted by the teacher or peer that helps the

student, that is, it is the “zone” that represents what the students can do with help. This
theory is supported by the theory of Bruner (1966) and his concept of “scaffolding”,

which is the help that the teacher or peer offers the student to understand a certain

concept, that is, the use of images to learn the vocabulary related with animals, or the

sound and gestures used by the teacher to help the student with new vocabulary. Both

perspectives of this theory are backed by Piaget’s “constructivist” approach, which

claims that students are the ones building their own knowledge using what they already

know.

4.2. Differences

After describing some of the theories stating that acquiring and learning a L1

and a L2 are similar processes, we are going to introduce some of the authors that have

claimed that they are different processes which are conditioned by different factors

(motivation, age, input, etc.) and therefore need to be clearly distinguished from each.

Let’s distinguish first between the terms: “acquisition” and “learning”. When referring

to the acquisition of a language we are talking about a subconscious process in which

the learner, without him or her knowing it, is developing competence through

meaningful communicative situations. On the other hand, the process of learning occurs

in a conscious way as it is normally when the learner, in a formal context (normally at

school), receives instruction on vocabulary, grammar, syntax, pronunciation, etc.

The age of the learner is a determining factor in L2 learning. Some authors

(Lenneberg, 1975; Schmidt, 1967) state that there is a critical period (Critical Period

Hypothesis) after which the acquisition of other languages is impossible or hindered.

The debate about this theory is still open since there are researchers that defend it and
others that, on the contrary, claim that everyone can learn an additional language at any

age (Piaget). This Critical Period happens, according to these authors, between 2 and 12

years.

The input is another factor that determines how we acquire or learn a language.

The regular exposure to the language has different effects. In earlier L2 learning stages,

adults and older children (between 8 and 12 years old) progress quicker than children

aged 3 to 8. In later L2 learning stages, children achieve a higher command than adults

do. Also, we shout not forget the context in which the L1 and the L2 is acquired/learnt.

While the L1 is developed in an environment in which the language is naturally spoken

when interacting with the caretaker, the L2 is normally placed at a school with a few

lessons a week and in a not-so-natural context with mostly non-native speakers. The

former is a more quality input, and the latter is limited to some lessons a week and in an

artificial environment.

Motivation also determines how we learn languages. This is closely related to

the “affective factor”. When acquiring their L1, students are not aware of their

motivation, whereas in an L2 situation learners have interests and needs for

communicating in one specific language. It is well known that it is not the same to learn

a language while being obliged than learning it purely for pleasure. The motivation is

not the same and, consequently, the speed to learn will also vary.

There are other individual differences, aside from motivation, which can have an

effect on the acquisition and learning of additional languages: the learner’s personality,
memory, learning style and the intellectual capacity. The more extrovert the learner is,

the more rapid advances he or she will make. However, the shier the learner is, the more

afraid of making mistakes he or she will be and, consequently, the slower he or she will

advance on his or her learning process.

4.3. Summary of similarities and differences

To sum up what has bee previously mentioned, there are several factors that

affect the acquisition and learning of a L1 and a L2. The following figure gives account

of all the factors described and the debates that are still open nowadays:

SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES

• Order of grammar • Acquisition vs. learning

• Language universals • Age

• Language input • Language input

• Language learning by imitation • Motivation

• Language learning within the • Individual differences

ZPD and through scaffolding.

Figure 6: Differences and Similarities when acquiring and learning an L1 and an L2.
REFERENCES

Brunner, J.S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction. Harvard: Harvard University

Press.

Chomsky, N. (2006). Language and mind. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

Fodor, J.A. (1983). The modularity of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Greenberg, J. (1966). Universals of Language. London: MIT Press.

Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and learning. New York: Pergamon.

Lenneberg, E. (1975). Fundamentos biológicos del lenguaje, con dos apéndices por
Noam
Chomsky y Otto Marx, versión española de Natividad Sánchez Sáinz-Trápaga y
Antonio Montesinos, Madrid, Alianza Editorial, 1975,

Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (2006). Explaining second language learning. How

Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second language learning. London: Edward

Arnold.

Pinker. S. (1994). Language Learnability and Language Development. Harvard:

Harvard University Press.
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied
Linguistics 11, 129–58.

Snow, C. B. & Ferguson, C. A. (1977). Talking to children: language input and

acquisition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Vygotsky, L. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.