APPLIED LINGUISTICS

FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING

COMPARISON

MAURY MEDINA - 052150812020

ALEJANDRA JIMENEZ - 052150202020

LANGUAGE FIRST LANGUAGE FOREIGN LANGUAGE

LEARNING AND ACQUISITION PRINCIPLES LEARNING PRINCIPLES &
TEACHING & THEORIES THEORIES

Perspectives on Behavioral:
Human Learning
Language is a fundamental part of human behavior and
behaviorists have examined it such and sought to formulate
consistent theories of first acquisition (Robert, 1964: 23).

Cognitive:

Children also normally display some general patterns in L1

development, such as the frequent occurrence in utterance in
the final position, syllabicity, for example –ing and 's, absence
of homophony, few or no exceptions in the way grammar rules
are applied, allomorphic invariance, and clearly discernible
semantic function (Norbahira Mohamad Nor & Radzuwan Ab
Rashid, 2018).

Social constructivist:

Language is an arbitrary system of speech sounds or

sequences of speech sounds which can be used in
interpersonal communication by an aggregation of human
beings and rather exhaustively catalogs things, processes and
events in human environment (Ramelan, 1984:15).

Individual Differences Learning Styles:

Dewaele, 2009;
Dornyei, 2009) According to Wenner, children who are bilinguals can solve
problems much more easily compared to their monolingual
counterparts. In addition, possessing knowledge of L2, despite
it having been learned in adolescence, will affect reading in L1
because after learning L2, people never look at the words the
same way as they did before learning L2 (Norbahira Mohamad
Nor & Radzuwan Ab Rashid, 2018).

Autonomy & Awareness:

 As a result of many repetitions and examples of the –s marker
in different verbs, the child will acquire sophisticated knowledge
that, in English, verbs must be marked with an –s morpheme in
the third singular form (Ambridge & Lieven, 2011; Pine, Conti-
Ramsden, Joseph, Lieven & Serratrice, 2008; Theakson &
Lieven, 2005).

Self-Regulation:

Firstly, children who received balanced exposure to two

languages develop both languages in the same way as
monolinguals. In the beginning, children work from a single set
of rules and in the process of learning, generally mix up both
languages but gradually, both sets of rules for separate
languages will become differentiated. Secondly, if, however,
the exposure to both languages is less balanced, continual
linguistic transfer may exist and there may be a high frequency
of the introduction of the vocabulary from L1 into the
grammatical system of L2 and vice versa. Thirdly, it is believed
that there is a single language system that underlies both
languages of the bilinguals. Fourthly, bilinguals develop two
subsystems for L1 and L2 to make inferences about the
structural complexity of both languages (Norbahira Mohamad
Nor & Radzuwan Ab Rashid, 2018).

Strategies:

According to O'Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller

(2004), children adopt three strategies in learning the meanings
of new words; firstly, the whole object assumption: where a
new word refers to a whole object, secondly, the type
assumption: where a new word refers to a type of thing, not just
a particular thing, and thirdly, basic level assumption: where a
new word refers to types of objects that are alike in basic ways.

Learner Children's L1 acquisition The effect of age on learning a

Characteristics continues to flourish with the
holophrastic stage where they
utter single words. When they
are around 18 months–24
months, they are able to
combine words in two-word
stages. By the age of around
24 months–30 months, they
develop to the telegraphic
stage where they are capable
of uttering a clear phrase
structure with head-
complement and subject-VP
second language, commonly
known as the critical period
hypothesis (HPH), is perhaps
one of the most controversial
research topics in the area of
second language (L2)
acquisition. The concept of
CPH is conceptualized by the
general public as "earlier is the
better" in L2 attainment and is
so entrenched that it appears
to have become a folk
psychology theory (Becky,
2013).
 patterns (Norbahira Mohamad
Nor & Radzuwan Ab Rashid,
2018).
Linguistic Factors Brown and Hanlon (1970)
found that the frequency of
occurrence of a linguistic item
in the speech of the mothers
was a strong predictor of the
order of emergence of those
items in their children‟s
speech.
Learning Processes Piaget (1972) He claimed that
cognitive development is at the
very center of the human
organism and that language is
dependent upon and springs
from cognitive development.
Children often exhibit non-
adult-like interpretation of a
given linguistic expression. in
such case, there are two
possibilities:
1. Children have not yet
acquired the linguistic
knowledge that is
required to implement
the full, adult-like
representation of the
given expression.
2. Children do possess
the linguistic knowledge
required for the full
representation of the
given expression, but
are not yet able to
successfully utilize it,
incorporating all the
necessary information
into the actual
processing/computation
of the meaning.
(Utako, 2015:288)
Next definition from Zoltan
Dornyei (2001) developed a
process-oriented model of
motivation that consist of three
phase. The first phase; 'choice
motivation" refers to getting
started and to setting goals,
the second; "executive
motivation", is about carrying
out the necessary task to
maintain motivation, and the
third phase; "motivation
retrospection", refers to

Age : The Critical Eric Lenneberg's argument
Period Hypothesis was that various capacities
mature according to a fairly
fixed schedule during which
language emerges in children
when anatomical,
physiological, motor, neural,
and cognitive development
allow it to emerge. He added
that there is a critical,
biologically determined period
of language acquisition
between the ages of 2 and 12
(McLaughlin, 1987).
Classroom 1. Classroom instruction was
Instructions conducted exclusively in the
target language
2. Only everyday vocabulary
and sentences were taught
3. Oral communication skills
were built up in a carefully
graded progression organized
around question-and-answer
exchanges between teachers
and students in small,
intensive classes.
4. Grammar was taught
inductively.
5. New teaching points were
introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary was
taught through demonstration,
objects, and pictures; abstract
vocabulary was taught by
association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening
comprehensions are taught.
students' appraisal of and
reaction to their performance.
Thomas Scovel (1969, in
Brown, 1994) put forward that
there is a relationship between
lateralization and second
language acquisition. Scovel
suggests that the plasticity of
the brain before puberty
enables first and second
language acquisition to take
place easily. After puberty, the
brain looses its plasticity and
lateralization is accomplished.
He argues that lateralization
makes it difficult for people to
be able ever again to easily
acquire fluent control of the
second language or native-like
pronunciation.
Learning a new language
cannot be a passive
experience; get your students
involved utilizing games and
role-playing. Grammar
exercises can be turned into
participatory games that
encourage students to think on
their feet. Role-playing is
essential for recreating real-
world scenarios in which
students would use their
language skills. If your
students are a bit younger,
using rewards can help foster
participation and engagement.
(Anonymous, 2016)
 8. Correct pronunciation and
grammar are emphasized.
Competence & Rashid (2011), for instance,
Performance found that less proficient,
young adults in Malaysian
secondary schools learned
English better when the
teacher used children's stories
as they did not feel threatened
by the high-level vocabulary
and complexities of the
sentences.
Comprehension and This view of language and
production cognition has important
philosophical antecedents,
especially in the
phenomenological tradition
(see Gallese, 2007, 2008),
which argues that meaning
does not inhabit a pre-given
Platonic world of ideal and
eternal truths to which mental
representations connect and
conform. Instead,
phenomenology entertains a
perspective compatible with
many empirical results of
contemporary cognitive
neuroscience: meaning is the
outcome of our situated
interactions with the world.
Nature or Nurture Noam Chomsky claims that
Furthermore, in judging
utterances in the modern
language classroom and
responses on various tests,
teachers need to be cautiously
attentive to the discrepancy
between performance on a
given day or in a given context
and competence in a second
language in general.
Remember that one isolated
sample of second language
speech may on the surface
appear to he rather malformed
until you consider that sample
in comparison with the
everyday mistakes and errors
of native speakers. (H.
Douglas Brown, 2014)
So teaching involves attending
to both comprehension and
production and the full
consideration of the gaps and
differences between the two.
Adult second language
learners will, like children,
often hear a distinction but not
be able to produce it. The
inability to produce an item,
therefore, should not be taken
to mean that the learner
cannot comprehend the item.
(H. Douglas Brown, 2014)
What we do know is that adults
 children are biologically
programmed for language and
that language develops in the
child in just the same way that
other biological functions
develop.
Imitation There are two types of imitation:
- Surface structure imitation:
where a person repeats or
mimics the surface strings,
attending to a phonological code
rather than a semantic code. -
Deep structure imitation: where a
person concentrates on
language as a meaningful and
communicative tool. * (Brown,
2002, pp. 38-39)
and children alike appear to
have the capacity to ACQUIRE
a second language at any age.
The only trick that nature might
play on adults is to virtually
rule out the acquisition of
authentic accent. As you have
seen above, this still leaves a
wide swath of language
properties that may actually be
more efficiently acquired in an
adult. If an adult does not
acquire a second language
successfully, it is probably
because of intervening
cognitive or affective variables
and not the absence of innate
capacities. Defining those
intervening variables appears
to be more relevant than
probing the properties of
innateness. (H. Douglas
Brown, 2014)
While children are good deep-
structure imitators (centering
on meaning, not surface
features), adults can tare much
better in imitating surface
structure (by rote mechanisms)
if they are explicitly directed to
do so. Sometimes their ability
to center on surface
distinctions is a distracting
factor; at other times it is
helpful. Adults learning a
second language might do well
to attend consciously to truth
value and to be less aware of
surface structure as they
communicate. The implication
is that meaningful contexts for
language learning are
necessary; second language
learners ought not to become

Practice & Frequency Vygotsky (1962, 1978) claimed
that social interaction, through
language, is a prerequisite to
cognitive development.
Input Have all shown that order of
emergence of particular verbs
is significantly correlated with
the frequency of use in
language addressed to the
children.Villiers (1985),
Naigles and Hoff-Ginsberg
(1998) and Theakston et al.
(2004)
Myths Children learn languages
more easily and quickly than
adults.
Archibald (2005) states “it is
much more difficult to predict
knowledge or ability in any of
the other areas of
communicative competence
(syntax, cohesion,
sociolinguistics, etc.) based
too preoccupied with form lest
they lose sight of the function
and purpose of language. (H.
Douglas Brown, 2014)
While some researchers
quibble on the issue of
frequency (Ellis, 2002), in the
case of second language
learning, it appears that
contextualized, appropriate,
meaningful communication in
the second language seems to
be the best possible practice
the second language learner
could engage in. (H. Douglas
Brown, 2014)
In the case of classroom
second language learning,
parental input is replaced by
teacher input. Teachers might
do well to be as deliberate, but
meaningful, in their
communications with students
as the parent is to the chdd
since input is as important to
the second language learner
as it is to the first language
learner. And that input should
foster meaningful
communicative use of the
language in appropriate
contexts. (H. Douglas Brown,
2014)
Scovel (1988, p. 176) in Lang's
article, admits that the
existence of even a few
exceptional adults who can
pass as native speakers of a
language which they have
acquired after their
adolescence challenges the
strong version of the critical
period hypothesis.
 on age of acquisition” (p.420).
Because pronunciation is one
of the first characteristics of
language use that we notice,
good pronunciation can result
in the perception that
language skills are higher
than they actually are. And
poor pronunciation can mask
significant knowledge of
words and structures.

Neurobiological Neurobiological Neurobiological

Considerations: Considerations:Lenneberg's
Hemispheric (1967) book, Biological
Lateralization, Foundations of Language, in
which he hypothesized a
Biological Timetables
changing neural substrate of
language during childhood, was
one of the first overviews of
developmental neuropsychology.
In reconsidering the literature on
the cognitive effects of brain
damage in children that was
available 20 years ago (Witelson,
1966), it is evident how relatively
undeveloped the field of
developmental neuropsychology
was then. Hebb's (1942) article
on the intellectual sequelae of
early versus late brain damage
was one of the early papers, and
this paper itself was based
on clinical data gathered by
others (Strauss, 1939) on very
heterogeneous groups of
neurologically impaired children.
Of the other reports available,
most were based on children
with diffuse brain damage
resulting from nonlocalized
trauma, perinatal anoxia, and
meningitis. Brain-behavior
relationships in children were
virtually unstudied.
Hemispheric
Lateralization:New evidence is
Considerations:
One of the most promising
areas of inquiry in age and
acquisition research has been
the study of the function of the
brain in the process of
acquisition (Schumann et al.,
2004; Singleton & Ryan,
2004;and Obler & Gierlow,
1999)
Hemispheric Lateralization:
There is evidence in
neurological research that as
the human brain matures,
certain functions are assigned,
or "lateralized," to the left
hemisphere of the brain, and
certain other functions to the
right hemisphere Intellectual,
logical, and analytic functions
appear to be largely located in
the left hemisphere, white the
right hemisphere controls
functions related to emotional
and social needs. (H. Douglas
Brown, 2014, p. 60)
Biological Timetables:
Scovel's evidence pointed
toward the development of a
presented that modifies socially bonding accent at
Lenneberg's (1967) proposed puberty, enabling species (1)
critical period of language to form an identity with their
acquisition. The development of own community as they
lateralization is complete much
anticipate roles of parenting
earlier than puberty and is thus
and leadership, and (2) to
not a barrier to accent free
second language learning by attract mates of "their own
adults. Rather, the development kind" in an instinctive drive to
of lateralization may correspond maintain their own species. (H.
to normal first language Douglas Brown, 2014, p. 61).
acquisition. Also, the case of
Genie, a girl who endured 11
years of enforced isolation,
shows that some first language
acquisition is possible after the
critical period, although
mechanisms outside of the left
hemisphere may be involved.
Genie's slow but steady progress
also implies that adult
achievement in learning second
languages should not be pre-
judged.
Biological Timetables:
Biologically determined period of
line when language can be
acquired more easily and beyond
which time language is
increasingly difficult to acquire.
Eric Lenneberg (1967) argued
that the LAD, like other biological
functions, works successfully
only when it is stimulated at the
right time – a time which is
referred to as the critical period‟
This notion that there is a
specific and limited time period
for language acquisition is
referred to as the critical period
hypothesis (CPH).
There are two versions of the
CPH:
The strong version suggests that
children must acquire their first
language by puberty or they will
never be able to learn from
subsequent exposure.
The weak version is that
 language learning will be more
difficult and incomplete after
puberty.
The Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH) claims that there is such a
biological timetable.
Initially the notion of a critical
period was connected only to
first language acquisition.
This must be viewed in the light
of what it really means to be
successful in learning a second
language.
The Significance of Cognitive Consideration:
Accent: The cognitive theory of
language acquisition is based
Cognitive, Affective &
Linguistic on the aspect that a child
Considerations develops language as he
develops intellect. The
inherent theory focuses on the
innate aspects of the brain
that allows children to
formulate verbal processes.
The sociocultural is the idea
that the interactions that a
child has with his environment
leads to the development of
language. As a child interacts
with environment, he develops
a series of hypotheses that he
then implements into his
verbal speech (Berko 1958).
Affective
Consideration:Pinker
summarizes the first two years
of neurological development
relating to language
use:Before birth, virtually all
neurons (nerve cells) are
formed, and they migrate to
their proper locations in the
brain. But head size, brain
weight, and thickness of the
cerebral cortex (gray matter),
Cognitive Consideration:
Ausubel (1964) hinted at the
relevance of such a connection
when he noted that adults
learning a second language
could profit from certain
grammatical explanations and
deductive thinking that
obviously would be pointless
for a child. Whether adults do
in fact profit from such
explanations depends, of
course, on the suitability and
efficiency of the explanation,
the teacher, the context, and
other pedagogical variables.
Affective Consideration:
Several decades ago,
Alexander Guiora, a
researcher in the study of
personality' variables in
second language learning,
proposed what he called the
language ego (Guiora et al..
1972b; see also Ddrnyei,
2005; Ehrman, 1993) to
account for the identity a
person develops in reference
to the language he or she
speaks.
where the synapses
(junctions) subserving mental Linguistic Consideration:
computation take place, In some cases the acquisition
continue to increase rapidly in of both languages in bilingual
the year after birth. Long- children is slightly slower than
distance connections (white the normal schedule for first
matter are not complete until language acquisition.
nine months, and continue to However, a respectable
grow in their speed-inducing stockpile of research (see
myelin insulation throughout Reynolds, 1991: Schinke-
childhood. Synapses continue Llano, 1989) shows a
to develop peaking in number considerable cognitive benefit
between nine months and two of early chUdhood
years (depending on the brain bilingualism. supporting
region), at which point the Lambert's (1972) contention
child has 50% more synapses that bilingual children are more
that the adult. Metabolic facile at concept formation and
activity in the brain reaches have a greater mental
adult levels by nine to ten flexibility.
months , and soon exceeds it,
peaking around the age of
four. In addition, huge
numbers of neurons die in
utero, and the dying continues
during the first two years
before leveling off at age
seven. Synapses whither from
the age of two through the
rest of childhood and into
adolescence, when the brain's
metabolic rate falls back to
adult levels."
The brain can also recover
from damage to crucial
language areas by
reassigning functions to
unaffected areas, while adults
cannot perform similar types
of recovery after the same
types of damage.
While these are the most
important factors affecting
development of language,
children can also have other
characteristics that aid in rapid
 acquisition-- they are
unselfconscious, learn clear
positive advantages
associated with successful
communication (getting food,
attention, etc.), and have no
other language to fall back on.
These types of advantages
play a role in how fast and
well children acquire
language. In second language
acquisition similar factors
determine whether or not the
language is acquired at all.
Linguistic
Consideration:The
"Innateness Hypothesis" of
child language acquisition,
proposed by Noam Chomsky,
states that the human species
is pre-wired to acquire
language, and that the kind of
language is also determined.
Many factors have led to this
hypothesis such as the ease
and rapidity of language
acquisition despite
impoverished input as well as
the uniformity of languages.
All children will learn a
language, and children will
also learn more than one
language if they are exposed
to it. Children follow the same
general stages when learning
a language, although the
linguistic input is widely
varied.

Interference Between A good deal of the research on nonsimultaneous second

First and Foreign language acquisition, in both children and adults, has focused
Languages on the interfering effects of the first and second languages. For
the most part, research confirms that the linguistic and
cognitive processes of second language learning in young
 children are in general similar to first language processes.
Hansen-Bede (1975), Milon (1974), Ervin-Tripp (1974), Dutay
and Burt (1974a), Natalicio and Natal icio (1971), and Ravem
(1963), among others, concluded that similar strategies and
linguistic features are present in both first and second language
learning in children.

Behavioral Behav According to Skinner,

Approaches: Lightbown and Spada ioral verbal behavior, like
(2001) observe that persp
B. F acquisition occurs other behavior, is
ective
Skinne during the formative controlled by its
s:
r's years of one’s life - consequences.
usually commencing in Author
Verbal s 1. When
early childhood before
Behavi age three - and that it Struct consequences
or is learned as part of ural: are rewarding,
(1957) growing up among Freem behavior is
and people who speak it an maintained and
fluently. Twadd
operan is increased in
ell)
t overtly strength and
conditi observ perhaps
oning able frequency.
data 2. When
consequences
Descri
are punishing,
ptive:
B.F or when there
Skinn is a total lack of
er reinforcement,
(1957) the behavior is
Charle weakened and
s eventually
Osgoo
extinguished.
d
(1957)

Nativist Approaches Lenne Before generative Noam Noam Chomsky

berg linguistics came into Chom claims that children
(1967) vogue, Jean Berko sky are biologically
Spolsk (1958) demonstrated (1960) programmed for
y that children learn , language and that
(1989) language not as a Ferdin language develops in
series of separate and the child in just the
Ellis discrete items, but as de same way that other
(2006
an integrated Sauss biological functions
system. 5 Using a ure develop.
simple nonsense- (1916)
word test, Berko
 discovered that
English-speaking
children as young as
four years of age
applied rules for the
formation of plural,
present progressive,
past tense, third
singular, and
possessives.

Functional Lois Dan Slobin (1971; Slavin Functional

Approaches Bloom 1986), among others, (2003) Approach:
Cognition and (1971) demonstrated that in all More recently, with an
languages, semantic Vygot
Language sky increase in
learning depends on
Development: (1978) constructivist
cognitive development
The approaches to the
and that sequences of
development are
Zone study of language,
of there has been a shift
determined more by
Proxi in patterns of
semantic complexity
mal
than by structural research. The shift
Devel
complexity opme has not been so much
nt, away from the
generative/cognitive
Mikhai side of the continuum,
l but perhaps better
Bakhti
described as a move
n
(1986, even more deeply into
1990) the essence of
(Lang language. Two
uage emphases have
as a emerged:
social 1. Researchers
and
began to see
Cultur
al that language
contex was one
t) manifestation
Ausub of the cognitive
el and affective
(1968) ability to deal
with the world,
with others,
and with the
self.
2. Moreover, the
 generative
rules that were
proposed
under the
nativistic
framework
were abstract,
formal, explicit,
and quite
logical, yet they
dealt
specifically with
the forms of
language and
not with the
deeper
functional
levels of
meaning
constructed
from social
interaction.

Cognition and
Language
Development:
In all languages,
semantic learning
depends on cognitive
development and that
sequences of
development are
determined more by
semantic complexity
than by structural
complexity.

Social Interaction and Holzm Studies in the field of Carl Since language is
Language an social psychology, as Roger used for interactive
Development (1984) well as studies of s communication, it is
intercultural (1983)
Berko- only fitting that one
communication have
Gleas provided insights into Paulo study the
on the linguistic and social Freire communicative
(1988) skills, knowledge and
(1970) functions of language:
attitudes needed to What do children
Lock
 communicate know and learn about
(1991) effectively and talking with others?
appropriately in about connected
intercultural contact pieces of discourse
situations.(Wiseman &
(relations between
Koster, 1993)
sentences)? the
Further claim that the interaction between
primary focus of hearer and speaker?
teaching based on the conversational cues?
intercultural approach Within such a
is on the target perspective, the very
cultures, yet, it also heart of language-its
includes comparisons communicative and
between the learner’s pragmatic function-is
own country and target being tackled in all its
country, thereby
variability.
helping learners to
develop a reflective
attitude to the culture
and civilization of their
own countries.
Kramsch and
McConnell-Ginet
(1992)

Types of Learning: Robert Signal learning: Signal learning- the simplest

Gagné Behaviourist, form of learning known as
- Signal (1965) Children imitate classical conditioning. The
Learning
adults. Their correct learner is conditioned to
- Stimulus- utterances are produce a desired (involuntary)
response reinforced when they response as a result of a
Learning get what they want or stimulus that would not
are praised. Skinner normally produce that
- Chaining
Innateness,A child's response i.e a salivation
- Verbal brain contains (condition) at the sound of a
Association special language- bell (stimulus) (Maheshwari,
learning mechanisms 2013).
- Multiple at birth.Chomsky
Discriminatio
Cognitive, Language Stimulus-response learning-
n
is just one aspect of this is a voluntary response to
- Concept a child's overall learning that may be used in
Learning intellectual acquiring verbal skills as well
development.Piaget as physical movements
- Principle
Interaction, This (Maheshwari, 2013). This type
Learning
theory emphasises of learning can occur when the
- Problem the interaction instructor praises the learner
 between children and for deeper thinking or provides
Solving their care-givers. constructive criticism during
Bruner. reflection or debriefing.
Stimulus-response
learning:One of the Chain learning- occurs when
earliest scientific the learner is able to connect
explanations of two or more previously learned
language acquisition stimulus-response bond into a
was provided by linked order; more complexed
Skinner (1957). As psychomotor skills are learned,
one of the pioneers but they tend to occur naturally
of Stimulus- (Maheshwari, 2013) i.e.
Response Theory, learning how to tie shoestrings
he accounted for or buttoning a shirt.
language
development by Verbal association- occurs
means of when the learner makes
environmental associations using verbal
influence (Ambridge connections (Specht, 2008); it
and Lieven, 2011). is the key process in language
Skinner argued that skill development
children learn (Maheshwari, 2013). For
language based on example a student nurse being
behaviorist able to define medical
reinforcement terminology and apply it to
principles by clinical situation.
associating words Multiple Discrimination
with meanings. learning- is seen when the
Correct utterances learner is able to perform
are positively different responses to a series
reinforced when the of similar stimuli that may differ
child realizes the in a systematic way.
communicative value Discrimination learning is
of words and made more difficult when the
phrases. Stimulus- learner comes across road
response (S-R) blocks or interference that
theories are central inhibits continual learning
to the principles of (Maheshwari, 2013). For
conditioning. They example a patient complaining
are based on the of abdominal pain after
assumption that abdominal surgery. The
human behaviour is student must learn how to
learned. differentiate this pain from that
Chain learning: of gas, intrabdominal bleeding,
Gold’s Theorem (1), incisional pain or infection.
which implies that Interference may present itself
there are classes of when the student can not see
even regular other key factors that may
languages (2) which contribute to the pain;
contain members therefore not allowing the
that cannot be student to fully address or
identified by learners manage the patient’s pain
who rely on positive appropriately.
examples alone.
Gold’s result has Concept learning- involves
been interpreted to the ability to make consistent
mean that human responses to different stimuli
children could not (Maheshwari, 2013); it is the
succeed in learning process in which the learner
natural language learns how to organize
without substantially learning in a systematic
informative innate structure and foster deeper
constraints, following learning. The student’s
arguments from behavior is controlled by the
Chomsky (3). Gold’s abstract properties of each
result gave rise to stimulus (Maheshwari, 2013).
detailed formal The student nurse must realize
theories of learning interventions, or behaviors,
under similar appropriate for one patient, or
assumptions (4–8). stimulus, may not be
Learnability proofs appropriate for the next
for certain classes of patient.
grammars have also
been formulated (9– Principle learning- this
16), as well as involves being able to learn
closely related relationships between two or
theories of induction more concepts and apply them
in computer science. in different situations, new or
Verbal association: old; it is the basis of learning
"The basic processes general rules or procedures
and relations which (Maheshwari, 2013). This can
give verbal behaviour be seen when the student can
its special apply advocacy and
characteristics are confidentiality to a patient
now fairly well situation.
understood. Much of
the experimental Problem solving- involves
work responsible for developing the ability to invent
this advance has a complex rule or procedure
been carried out on for the purpose of solving one
other species, but particular problem and other
the results have problems of a similar nature
proved to be (Maheshwari, 2013); this can
surprisingly free of be accomplished through case
species restrictions. studies and reflection. Nursing
Recent work has students can improve on
shown that the problem solving through the
methods can be nursing process: assessing,
extended to human formulating a nursing
behaviour without diagnosis, analyzing data
serious specific to the problem,
modifications." (cited formulating a plan of action,
in Lowe and implementing the plan, and
Graham, 1998, p68) evaluating the effectiveness of
Skinner suggested the plan.
that a child imitates
the language of its
parents or carers.
Successful attempts
are rewarded
because an adult
who recognises a
word spoken by a
child will praise the
child and/or give it
what it is asking for.
Successful
utterances are
therefore reinforced
while unsuccessful
ones are forgotten.
Multiple
Discrimination
learning:English
teaching through the
communicative
approach has been
brought into question
because of its
neutrality. The
discourse that
portrays English as a
neutral language
envisions it as simply
a means of
communication.
Guerrero and
Quintero (2009)
affirm that this
perspective on
language teaching
arises from the idea
that language is used
to transmit a set of
fixed rules. The idea
is that language is
not seen as a vehicle
by which inequality,
discrimination,
sexism, racism, and
power can be
executed. They refer
to the communicative
approach as a
prescriptive teaching
method ''that
presents a language
which does not have
real speakers and,
therefore, no
conflicts of any sort''
(pp. 138-139).
Concept learning:
There are two main
guiding principles in
first-language
acquisition: speech
perception always
precedes speech
production, and the
gradually evolving
system by which a
child learns a
language is built up
one step at a time,
beginning with the
distinction between
individual phonemes.
Principle learning:
Language acquisition
usually refers to first-
language acquisition,
which studies infants'
acquisition of their
native language,
whether that be
spoken language or
signed
language,though it
can also refer to
bilingual first
language acquisition
(BFLA), which refers
to an infant's
simultaneous
acquisition of two
native
languages.This is
distinguished from
second-language
acquisition, which
deals with the
acquisition (in both
children and adults)
of additional
languages. In
addition to speech,
reading and writing a
language with an
entirely different
script compounds the
complexities of true
foreign language
literacy. Language
acquisition is one of
the quintessential
human traits.
Problem
solving:According to
this analysis, the
input to the learner is
too inconsistent and
incomplete to
determine the
acquisition of
grammar. Moreover,
when corrective
feedback is provided,
children tend to
ignore it. As a result,
language learning
must rely on
additional constraints
from universal
grammar. To solve
this logical problem,
theorists have
proposed a series of
constraints and
parameterizations on
the form of universal
grammar. Plausible
alternatives to these
constraints include:
conservatism, item-
based learning,
indirect negative
evidence,
competition, cue
construction, and
monitoring. Careful
analysis of child
language corpora
has cast doubt on
claims regarding the
absence of positive
exemplars. Using
demonstrably
available positive
data, simple learning
procedures can be
formulated for each
of the syntactic
structures that have
traditionally
motivated invocation
of the logical
problem. Within the
perspective of
emergentist theory
 (MacWhinney, 2001),
the operation of a set
of mutually
supportive processes
is viewed as
providing multiple
buffering for
developmental
outcomes. However,
the fact that some
syntactic structures
are more difficult to
learn than others can
be used to highlight
areas of intense
grammatical
competition and
processing load.

Linguistic Linguistic imperialism can be Linguistic imperialism (LI)

Imperialism and seen as an instance of
Language Rights linguicism. Linguicism has
(Canagarajah, 1999, been defined as 'ideologies,
Skutnabb Kangas, structures and practices which
2000. 2009) are used to legitimate,
effectuate, regulate and
reproduce an unequal division
of power and resources (both
material and immaterial)
between groups which are
defined on the basis of
language' (Skutnabb-Kangas
1988, 13). Most education
systems worldwide reflect
linguicism (Skutnabb-Kangas
2000).The evidence for or
against linguistic imperialism
can be investigated
empirically in a given context.
Likewise, evidence of
linguistic genocide and crimes
against humanity in education
can be (and has been)
investigated not only from a
sociolinguistic, educational,
refers to the imposition of a
language on other languages
and communities. As in other
cases of imperialism, this is an
exercise of power at the
transnational level with
geopolitical implications.
Though imperialism through
economic, cultural, political,
and military means has been
discussed widely, the
realization that language can
serve imperialistic purposes
has begun to be theorized in
its own right only recently.
 psychological or
socioeconomic point of view,
but also in international law
terms. We start with the state
and future prospects of the
world’s endangered
languages.
Language Policy: A Language learning policy in
language policy is a the twenty-first century. It
body of ideas, laws, underscores the ideological
regulations, rules and contestation underpinning
practices intended to early language learning policy.
achieve the planned It shows how early language
language change in the learning policies are so
societies, group or inherently embedded within
system. educational systems around
(Kamwangamalu, the world that any theoretical
2011; Auerbach, 1995; assertions against them will
Garcia, 2009, 2010 be to no avail. Language
policy would be more
progressive if it stimulated
research into creating
conditions that could help
teachers and early language
learners to succeed, rather
than dwelling on academic
debates on early second
language acquisition.
Abrahamsson, N., &
Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of
onset and nativelikeness in a
second language: Listener
perception versus linguistic
scrutiny. Language Learning,
59(2), 249–306.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9922.2009.00507.×
Communicative Teachers are now expected not
Competence: is the only to teach the foreign
ability to achieve linguistic code but also to
communicative goals in “contextualize that code against
the socio-cultural background
Language policies and reform
agendas preceding the
National Bilingual Program in
Colombia can be traced to the
times of the colony. As
presented by Zuluaga (1996,
as cited by de Mejía, 2004)
after the colonization of the
“new” continent, Catholic
missionaries were effective in
imposing their languages,
mainly Spanish, Greek, and
Latin. Later on, after the
independence of the region
from Spain two centuries ago,
the new ruling elite started to
send their children to Europe,
which then led towards the
importing of books and ideas
associated with languages
such as French, German, and
English. These moves paved
the road to these languages
into the country and their
association with enlightened
ideas and intellectual elites,
while indigenous and Creole
languages started to be
associated with ignorance and
underdevelopment. (Jaime A.
Usma Wilches, 2009)
While it used to be generally
held that mere exposure to
language is sufficient to set the
child's language generating
a socially appropriate associated with the foreign machinery in motion, it is now
manner. It is organized language and to promote the clear that, in order for
and goal-oriented, i.e. it acquisitions of intercultural successful first language
includes the ability to communicative competence” acquisition to take place,
(Castro, 1999, p.92).
select and apply skills interaction, rather than
that are appropriate exposure, is required. Children
and effective in the do not learn language from
respective context. It overhearing the conversations
includes verbal and of others or from listening to
nonverbal behavior. the radio and must, instead,
(Hymes, 1972; acquire it in the context of
Savignon, 1983; being spoken to.
Canale and Swain,
1980; Masuda, K.
2011)

Teaching Intercultural According to the intercultural One of the most significant

Competence: is the model, languages are related to changes in language learning
ability to function the cultures, communities and and teaching over the past few
effectively across societies that use them for decades has been the
communication and language
cultures, to think and recognition of the cultural
learners should be encouraged
act appropriately, and dimension as a key
to become competent
to communicate and intercultural speakers (Garrido & component. This change has
work with people from Alvarez 2006). transformed the nature of the
different cultural experience of teaching and
backgrounds – at home learning languages to a great
or abroad. Intercultural extent. The objective of
competence is a language learning is no longer
valuable asset in an defined in terms of the
increasingly globalized acquisition of communicative
world where we are competence in a foreign
more likely to interact language, which refers to a
with people from person’s ability to act in a
different cultures and foreign language in
countries who have linguistically, socio-
been shaped by linguistically and pragmatically
different values, beliefs appropriate ways (Council of
and experiences Europe, 2001).
(Littlewood, 2001;
Kramsch, 2011; Byram,
M. (1989))
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