Language, Literacy and Early Childhood Education 3... - (4 Oral Language Perspectives and Phases) Chapter 2

Oral Language:
Perspectives 4
and Phases
Chapter objectives
This chapter will increase your understanding of:

• major theoretical perspectives on children’s oral language learning
• second and additional language learning
• phases of early childhood oral language learning.
In this chapter you will be introduced to several major perspectives on oral language learning. You will
also find an overview of the stages through which children typically progress. An understanding of these
stages is necessary for the design of learning environments and programs that align with children’s
needs and abilities. However, it is necessary to bear in mind that language growth is influenced by factors
beyond chronological age (Owens, 2019), and that there will be significant variation between children.
In this chapter, when we refer to language we mean ‘oral language’ (speaking and listening). It should
be noted that in the Australian Curriculum: English, language is conceived of as knowledge about oral
or written language.
Key terms
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child directed speech (CDS) recasting

classical conditioning scaffolding
holophrastic speech sequential second language learning
language acquisition device (LAD) telegraphic speech
language acquisition support system (LASS) theory of mind
operant conditioning universal grammar
readiness
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72 Part 1 Young Children, Language and Literacy
Introduction: Theoretical perspectives on
oral language learning
Several theoretical perspectives have influenced educators’ thinking about how oral language develops
and what kinds of practices parents and educators should adopt to foster children’s language growth. In
this chapter, six main perspectives of language learning are described and discussed:
1 behaviourist
2 nativist
3 maturational
4 cognitive developmental
5 social interactionist
6 neurobiological.
When reading about these perspectives, please bear in mind the perspectives on literacy that were
described in Chapter 1. Although there are overlaps with these, there are some differences too.
Acquisition, Development or Learning?

The three terms—acquisition, development and learning—reflect different theoretical perspectives
on how children gain oral language understandings and competencies, yet they are quite often used
interchangeably. As you read about the theoretical perspectives below, it should become clear how the
three terms align with the various perspectives.
Behaviourist perspective
According to the behaviourist perspective, learning is largely shaped by the environment and personal
experience; thus, ‘nurture’ rather than ‘nature’ plays the dominant role in language learning. It should be
noted at this point that modern research shows that in actual fact there is complex interplay between
nature and nurture, so the simplistic nature–nurture debate is long outdated (Christie, 2005).
The behaviourist perspective was predominant for much of the first half of the twentieth century.
It posits that people learn largely by receiving rewards for behaviours they exhibit. According to
this perspective, language is learnt by means of imitation, practice, feedback or reinforcement of
accomplishments (Hulit & Howard, 2019; Lightbown & Spada, 2013). Central to this perspective is the
role of the environment: language learning requires an environment that is rich in experience and that
provides models of language that children imitate. Consistent reinforcement (for example, praise from
others or successful communication by the child resulting in a desired outcome) is also required to
ensure that certain behaviours (language attempts) are repeated and that further imitation and practice
occurs.
Imitative behaviour requires that children pay attention to, and copy, adult ‘models’ or examples of
behaviour. Adult modelling may be deliberate or unintended. The idea that parents and educators should
provide models of language is still prevalent in education, and many recommended practices involve the
provision of models from which children can learn.
Fellowes, J., & Oakley, G. (2019). Language, literacy and early childhood education 3e ebook. Oxford University Press. Oxford University Press
Chapter 4 Oral Language: Perspectives and Phases 73
Language learning requires an environment that is rich in experience.
According to a behaviourist view, operant conditioning (Skinner, 1957) accounts operant

for children’s expressive (spoken) language learning. This involves children imitating, or conditioning
experimenting with, the sounds and patterns that they hear and then receiving positive A process of
learning that
reinforcement by parents, siblings and others around them (Lightbown & Spada, 2013). happens when a
Reinforcement might take the form of attention, praise or positive body language, or it might consequence of an
simply be successful communication—for instance, when a child receives what it was that action reinforces
the action or
they were attempting to ask for. For example, an infant might say, ‘Da-da-da!’, and be hugged
behaviour through
and kissed and rewarded with, ‘Yes, Daddy is here!’ If children’s behaviour is ignored (not reward.
positively reinforced), or even punished, it eventually ceases.
The behaviourist perspective posits that children learn to understand language (receptive
language) through classical conditioning. The idea is that children learn to associate objects classical
or actions with words because their environment provides them with the repeated opportunity conditioning
to hear words while at the same time seeing the objects and actions to which they are linked. This refers to a
process of learning
For example, a child will come to know what milk is if it is named each time it is offered. For that happens when
example, ‘Here’s your milk. Are you ready for some milk?’ two stimuli are
Criticisms of the behaviourist perspective include: presented together.
A response that
• It does not adequately account for the rapid rate at which children learn language. is initially elicited
The opportunities for imitation and reinforcement are not great enough to account for by the second
rapid, generative language learning shown by children. In other words, the performance stimulus can
eventually be
displayed by children ‘far exceeds the input of the adults in the environment’ (Campbell &
elicited by the first
Baker, 2006, p. 41). stimulus.
• The theory does not explain the fact that people are able to understand languages in
which many words, phrases and sentences are ambiguous or polysemous (have more than one
meaning) (e.g. Emmitt, Komesaroff & Pollock, 2015).
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• Another area unsatisfactorily explained by behaviourists is the exact role of reward. Is reward
entirely necessary for language growth?
• Finally, speaking and listening are closely interrelated, but the behaviourist perspective implies that
they are learnt by two different processes (operant and classical conditioning), which is unlikely to
be the case.
Nativist perspective
According to the nativist perspective, language acquisition is a biological phenomenon and the role
played by the environment and other people is less important—nature, as opposed to nurture, accounts
for language acquisition. Noam Chomsky (1975), a major contributor to the nativist theory of language
acquisition, asserted that the human brain is structured to acquire and use language and that this is
illustrated by its almost astonishing capacity to create and understand syntactic systems, or grammatical
language rules. Chomsky called this brain capacity a language acquisition device (LAD). Because of
acquisition device the LAD, language acquisition is said by nativists to be essentially different from other kinds
(LAD)
of learning. For evidence, nativists have cited the fact that children are adept at generating
A hypothetical
rules of grammar. The fact that children often ‘overgeneralise’ grammatical rules is one
‘device’ in the brain
that is used to expression of this. For example, when a child says, ‘The dog swimmed’, he or she is generating
explain children’s or transferring rules, albeit not appropriately in the case of this irregular verb. Another well-
extraordinary known example of children generating rules of grammar is the Nicaraguan deaf children
capacity to acquire
who invented their own sign language because their educators did not know sign language
language; the LAD
was first proposed (Senghas & Coppola, 2001). The sign language they invented became a full-bodied language
by linguist with its own grammatical rules.
Chomsky. Chomsky proposed that children are born with the ability to generate grammar, thanks to a
universal universal grammar (Chomsky, 1982), which is a set of principles that underlies all languages.
grammar There are also parameters, which are rules that apply to specific languages. For example, the
A set of principles word order of a language (Levey, 2017). Chomsky discussed the fact that all children are born
that underlies
with the capacity to acquire any language, and that language has a ‘deep structure’ as well as a
all languages
(Chomsky, 1982). ‘surface structure’. The deep structure roughly equates to meaning, while the surface structure
is to do with the parts—the words and sentences used to convey the deep structure.
Nativists have used the following arguments to support their theory:
• Children acquire their native language(s) at a time when such a complex level of learning is not
normally expected.
• Imitation and habit formation (behaviourist theory) alone cannot adequately account for the fact
that children acquire language early and at a rapid rate.
• The language models to which young children are exposed are often more complex and varied than
the language that they generate.
• Young children create sentences that they have never heard others use, e.g. ‘This biscuit is too
tight!’
• Children show that they are generating their own system of rules when they overgeneralise
grammatical rules (e.g. ‘I digged a hole’ or ‘I swimmed.’).
• Despite the often quite different environments in which children grow up, most still achieve mastery
of the grammatical structures of a language.
A significant assumption of the nativist view of language acquisition is that people’s capacity to learn
their native language does not continue indefinitely but that there is a critical period in which a person’s
brain is predisposed for optimal success with language acquisition. The exact time at which the so-called
critical period ends is debated; however, it is thought to be around puberty, although there are some claims
that it may end earlier than this. Also, there may be more than one critical period, one being the first six
months of life, during which time babies can discriminate phonemes from any language in the world.
By the time they are one year old, this capacity has significantly narrowed and children’s perception of
phonemes from foreign languages has declined significantly (Kuhl, Ramirez, Bosseler, Lin & Imada, 2014).
A major criticism of the nativist perspective is that it does not adequately take into account
environmental and social influences, or the role of other people in children’s language development.
Maturational perspectives
Maturationists have contributed to the debate on how language develops by proposing that
biological ‘readiness’ is the key to effective language learning. According to this perspective, readiness
language develops or unfolds in a predetermined fashion, according to the child’s ‘inner A concept that
clock’ (Jalongo, 2014, p. 78), although the so-called inner clocks of individual children may is rooted in the
maturational
vary somewhat. Jean-Jacques Rousseau was an influential eighteenth-century theorist perspective. It
who advocated the idea of allowing children to grow or unfold naturally, with minimal posits that children
interference. In early childhood educational settings, many current practices have their cannot learn to
roots in the maturational perspective. When educators speak of developmental phases and read and write until
cognitively ‘ready’
developmentally appropriate practice, they are using ideas from maturational perspectives. and, as such, does
This perspective can be criticised because it tends to under-emphasise the role of social not see literacy
input. It also implies that there is a universal developmental pathway that all children will as emergent, or
something that
follow, and clearly this is not always the case; for example, in the case of children from diverse
children begin to
linguistic and cultural backgrounds there are variations in how language develops. Also, the learn about very
maturational perspective has led to some questionable practices that have attempted to early in life.
accelerate ‘readiness’ so that teaching can commence.
Cognitive developmental perspective

Another influential perspective has grown from the writings of Jean Piaget, who conducted a great
deal of work on cognitive development in children. The cognitive developmental perspective posits
that language development occurs in tandem with cognitive development, and is developed through
activity. That is, children construct their own understandings through interaction with their environment
and participation in various experiences, including social experiences, and both the environment and
heredity play a part in language development. Piaget theorised that language cannot develop until a
child has developed/constructed necessary conceptual knowledge about the world. For example, it
would be impossible for a child to learn the word ‘doggy’ and use it appropriately unless they had a
concept of what a dog is, which they would build through experience. Unlike the nativist perspective,
the cognitive development perspective does not propose that language learning is essentially different
from any other type of learning. According to cognitivists, there is no special language acquisition device
(LAD) or special innate ability—language development is intertwined with the development of other
cognitive processes such as memory, attention and problem solving.
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This theory is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8, which focuses on language, thinking and
learning. However, it is useful at this stage to understand the stages of cognitive (and language
development) proposed by Piaget.
Piaget proposed several stages of cognitive development, the first of which is the sensorimotor
stage, which involves young children finding out about the world through their senses and movements.
As noted above, it is only once babies realise that there is permanency in the world, and that objects
and people exist (even when they are out of sight), that they can begin to attach names to objects and
concepts—or are able to use symbols. Language is a symbolic system and children cannot begin to
attach symbols to referents (objects and actions that are represented by the symbols) until they have a
sense of what the objects and actions are.
The second phase of cognitive development, according to Piaget, is the pre-operational stage, which
usually occurs in children aged between two and seven years. During this phase, children are thought
to be fairly egocentric and unable to think at an abstract level. This limits their ability to speak about
abstract concepts and to comprehend talk that is removed from the concrete here and now, although
they do learn to use different tenses (past, future) during this stage.
The next stage, the concrete operational stage, generally spans the ages of seven to eleven or twelve.
Here, children begin to think logically (inductive logic) but still have difficulty with abstract concepts or
hypothetical ‘what if ’ situations. Inductive logic involves making generalisations from specific examples
given. During this stage of cognitive development, children learn much about morphology, syntax,
semantics and pragmatics of language.
language Social interactionist perspective

acquisition
support system
The social interactionist perspective emphasises social interactions between children and the
(LASS) significant people in their environment as being the key to language learning and development.
A hypothetical The focus on communicative intent is important to these interactions; that is, there is a purpose
system proposed and a desire to put across meaning. Young children who are not yet able to produce words or
by Bruner, which
language forms will apply communicative intent to their interactions with people; for example,
enables children to
acquire language a very young child who wants a drink might indicate this by making eye contact with a parent,
through social pointing to the fridge and vocalising an utterance such as ‘mi … mi’. Language acquisition is
interaction with assisted when the parent responds by providing a language model appropriate to the child’s
adults and older
communicative objective. In the example provided, the parent might respond by saying, ‘You
children.
want some milk? Mummy will get you some milk out of the fridge’.
scaffolding
Bruner (1983) proposed that a language acquisition support system (LASS) assists
When a more
children to learn language. By this, Bruner highlights the importance of social interaction
knowledgeable in the development of language. For social interactionists, scaffolding and support from
person supports a competent language users is the key driver of language development, and not merely innate
learner to do what
cognitive ‘wiring’ (LAD) as proposed by nativists. ‘Scaffolding’ involves an adult or more
s/he could not do
without support. developed other providing support and guidance to enable a child to achieve something that
This involves would be slightly too difficult if he or she tried to do it independently. The notion of providing
working within scaffolding or support, so that a child can achieve at a higher level than he or she would have
what Vygotsky
been able to manage without help, is important. Vygotsky (1978) referred to this as the zone of
termed the ‘zone
of proximal proximal development, which is the distance between what a child can achieve independently
development’. and what they can achieve with the help of a more knowledgeable other.
This perspective integrates and expands ideas from the perspectives already discussed:
• It acknowledges the importance of the environment in that it purports that children learn language
as a result of communicative needs, in social contexts, and with social support.
• It acknowledges the role of the human mind; of children’s predisposition to learn language easily.
• It proposes that the LAD and the LASS work together in the language learning process.
An important feature of child–carer interaction is the carer’s use of child directed speech child directed
(CDS), which used to be known as ‘motherese’; that is, the ways in which they adjust their speech (CDS)
language to suit the capabilities of young learners and to make it easier for them to understand This terms refers
to speech directed
(Lightbown & Spada, 2013, p. 21). This generally involves the use of: at infants by
• short simple sentences parents and carers
that is syntactically
• substantial pauses and semantically
• repetition of the language models provided simplified. It also
differs from adult
• a somewhat higher pitch than usual speech in pitch and
• exaggerated intonation patterns tempo and amount
of repetition.
• emphasis on key (meaning) words in a sentence.
According to social interactionists, the support provided by carers is fundamental to children’s
language learning. In speaking with children, adults generally use language that is just beyond that which
children could produce on their own. In so doing, they provide the language models which serve to
expand the form and meaning of the language children already know and use. Over time, and as children’s
use of language expands, parents and educators continue to modify their language use. Because language
development is seen to develop within social contexts, the role of play is highlighted in this context.
Through play, children find opportunities to experiment with language and to take on different roles,
especially in the context of socio-dramatic play. The socio-cultural context is significant in language
learning—opportunities for interactions vary according to the ways in which things are done in different
socio-cultural environments. The pragmatics of language use are particularly influenced by the socio-
cultural environment, and what is considered to be ‘socially appropriate’ varies (Jalongo, 2014, p. 80).
Neurobiological perspective
Since the beginning of the 1990s, new brain imaging techniques such as fMRI (functional magnetic
resonance imaging) and PET (positron emission tomography) have enabled scientists to study the brain
and its workings during certain cognitive activities, such as listening and reading. Neurobiologists have
determined that the capacity to learn language can be attributed to the structure of the brain. There
are, in fact, specialised areas of the brain that are devoted to hearing, speaking and understanding
language. The findings of neurobiologists have supported elements of all of the views of language
learning described above: that the brain is ‘hard wired’ to learn language, but effective language learning
also depends to a substantial degree on social interaction, and occurs within communicative contexts.
Without quality language input or social interaction with parents or carers, babies’ neural networks do
not develop effectively to enable fluent language use. Put simply, connections between brain cells are
only made when children are exposed to, and engaged in, language use. Sitting children in front of a TV
screen does not have this effect—the interactions must be with real people.
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Pause and reflect

Neurobiological research
In what ways has neurobiological research on language shed light on other theories of language
development?
All of the above theories were developed before digital technologies became so commonplace
in the home and in society. Digital technologies are now embedded into numerous aspects of daily
life and communication, and very young children are using them. This appears to be changing social
interactions in the home and beyond, which may in turn impact on language acquisition. Language
acquisition theories may thus need to be reviewed to take into account these changes (Vulchanova,
Baggio, Cangelosi & Smith, 2017).
To conclude the discussion of perspectives on language development and learning, we wish to
indicate that the different theories, although seemingly in opposition to each other, all contribute to our
understanding of the complexity of language learning, and are constantly being refined and built upon.
With regard to language, it would be true to say that its ‘development defies any simplistic description’
(Fleer & Raban, 2007, p. 27). We also wish to emphasise that this chapter presents a somewhat simplified
picture of language development, from a vast and complex field of theory and research.
Table 4.1 Summary: Theoretical perspectives of language development and learning
Behaviourist Language is a learnt behaviour.

Learning is dependent on reinforcement or reward for behaviour.
The environment, experiences and reinforcement from parents and carers is
significant.
Nativist Language learning is different from other kinds of learning.
It is an innate ability of all humans.
Maturationist Language unfolds or develops naturally according to an ‘inner clock’.
Adults should interfere with this process as little as possible.

Cognitive Language development and general cognitive development occur together but
development language development depends on cognitive development.
Much is determined by the child’s stage of cognitive development.
Interactionist Social interaction, especially interaction with a high level of support to the child,
is highly important for language learning.
Social interaction can speed up cognitive development and language learning.
Neurobiological The brain is naturally structured for language learning (as shown by brain
scans).
Brain development is influenced by the environment and social interaction.
Phases, stages and milestones of

oral language development
The notion of phases or stages of language development implies that there is a common developmental
pathway (or sequence of learning) that all children follow. However, while phases of development
and characteristic language knowledge and abilities can be identified, it should be borne in mind that
the language learning trajectory is not identical for all children (Cohen, 2014). There are considerable
variations in the way children become linguistically competent—the so-called ‘inner clock’ varies from
child to child and there are important environmental factors at play. Sometimes, children will seem to ‘go
backwards’ in some areas as they experiment with language.
Tables 4.2 to 4.11 provide an overview of language development, and outline five phases of
development (Jalongo, 2014). Such charts provide educators with a useful framework for planning and
assessment. It is emphasised that these should be used as broad guidelines only because of individual
and cultural differences. Cultural expectations about child language development and the varying
ways in which parents interact with children have an impact in children’s language use and learning.
Furthermore, if children are exposed to more than one language and are learning both simultaneously,
milestones will not necessarily be reached in both languages at the same time. Bilingual and multilingual
language development will be discussed later in this chapter.
While there is a common developmental pathway, language learning and development is not identical for all
children.
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Table 4.2 Newborns
Newborns (first 4 weeks)

Stage Receptive language Expressive language
Stage 1 Newborns (or neonates) listen to the At birth, crying is the main means of
Pre-linguistic sounds around them and are soon able to expressing needs and emotions.
Speech-type distinguish language sounds from other Neonates between 2–4 weeks old
sounds but no sounds. They ‘startle’ at unexpected noises make a range of noises, some of which
words and respond to new sounds by becoming indicate whether they are experiencing
very still. discomfort or pleasure. Communication
In order to develop effectively as listeners, with others may not be intentional.
babies need to be in environments where Some gurgling and cooing.
they can hear a variety of sounds. They
need to be spoken to a great deal by
parents and carers. Where possible, they
need eye contact and to see the speaker’s
face.
Table 4.3 Two to three months
2–3 months
Stage 1 Very young babies (2–3 months) turn Babies in this age group smile at
Pre-linguistic towards the source of a voice and smile at familiar people when they see them,
Speech-type speakers. They seem to enjoy listening to and smile and gurgle when spoken
sounds but no familiar voices such as the mother’s and to. They develop different ways of
words father’s, especially if comforting tones crying for different purposes, which
are used. They quieten and pay particular parents can often ‘read’.
attention to new voices.
Babies may pay more attention to ‘child-
directed’ or ‘infant-directed speech’

(sometimes known as ‘motherese’ or
‘parentese’), where adults speak in an
exaggerated way, using simplified language
and a high-pitched voice that is somewhat
slower and more repetitive than normal
speech.
Begin to respond differently to sounds of
own language by about two months of age.
Table 4.4 Four to six months
4–6 months
Stage 1 By about four months, infants can Infants at this age become verbally
Pre-linguistic distinguish own language from others. responsive to the language they hear.
Speech-type Infants of this age begin to respond They begin to experiment with the
sounds but no to the word, ‘No!’, although it is not sounds that they can make with their
words known whether they recognise the mouth and voice, and to mimic speakers.
intonation or the word. Infants respond Listening and speaking become
to the tone of a speaker’s voice and intertwined.
their facial expression. Babbling becomes very prominent in this
Environmental sounds begin to become age range and infants begin to use the
interesting, and infants in this age lips to make sounds. They use various
group begin to enjoy toys that make sounds in an attempt to communicate.
noises, music, and other everyday Babbling often consists of a consonant
sounds. and a vowel (e.g. ma-ma).
Table 4.5 Seven to twelve months
7–12 months
Stage 1 Infants in this age group become Infants of this age begin to take on
Pre-linguistic responsive when spoken to, and pay conventions of listening and speaking,
Speech-type attention when called by name. Games such as turn-taking and eye contact
sounds but no like ‘peek-a-boo’ engage them. and, by approximately nine months,
words Infants recognise the names of they begin to understand and use
common objects and will sometimes goal-oriented language and body
respond (by looking, pointing or language, such as indicating that they
touching) to simple requests such as, want more food, or to be picked up.
They will shout out to gain attention.
‘Where’s the doggie?’, or ‘Give me the

doll.’ They respond to simple questions, Babies’ babbling becomes more
such as, ‘More?’ complex, and includes more
Babies in this age group usually have a consonants as well as long and short
receptive vocabulary of a few words. vowels. They will imitate sounds
deliberately.
The first words have, by now, been
uttered. Sometimes children in
holophrastic this age group will utter a string of
speech
nonsense words that sound like real
Instances where a
speech in intonation.
single word is used
to replace a whole Towards the age of one, some children
sentence, e.g. will start to use holophrastic speech
‘More,’ to replace, (one-word utterances: ‘holophrases’),
‘Can I have some
such as ‘Milk!’ to indicate ‘Give me
more?’
some milk.’
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Table 4.6 One to two years
12–24 months
Stage 2 Oral language capabilities grow Young children in this age group
Linguistic Speech very rapidly. They continue to learn learn many more single words. They
One-word conventions, such as turn-taking and will use holophrases. Nouns will be
utterances looking at the person who is speaking. used extensively.
Their comprehension of words and By 18 months, they will typically
syntactic structures increases dramatically. be able to use 5–50 words and
Indicators of these understandings are will imitate others. They may also
children’s ability to point to pictures in attempt to sing.
books when they are named. Towards the age of two, they begin
They can understand simple instructions to speak in ‘telegraphic’ sentences
and can respond to simple commands of two words, and sometimes
such as ‘Roll the ball.’ three words. Examples are, ‘More
At 18 months, children have a receptive milk?’ and, ‘Daddy gone.’ Their
vocabulary of around 100–300 words. Their pronunciation becomes clearer.
receptive vocabulary is much larger than Some turn-taking in talking will
their expressive vocabulary. occur but this is not sustained for
Children in this stage of language long in toddlers.
development enjoy stories and rhymes and
will enjoy the repetition of favourites.
Table 4.7 Two to three years
24–36 months
Stage 3 Young children of two–three By the age of two, children are usually
Linguistic speech years particularly enjoy listening able to say approximately 50–200 words.
Making words into to rhymes and stories, although They often use telegraphic speech—
phrases younger children and babies can two- and three-word utterances. Their
also participate in these listening sentences are simple and usually have a
activities. subject and a verb.
They comprehend commands that Throughout this phase, expressive
are composed of two steps, such vocabulary expands at a rapid rate. By
as, ‘Get the teddy and put it in the the age of three, they have an expressive
box.’ They also begin to understand vocabulary of 200–1000 words.
telegraphic
contrasting concepts or ‘opposites’, They ask a lot of questions and can briefly
speech
such as hot/cold, big/little, in/out. tell about a drawing they have done. They
Speech in which
only two or three They will be able to respond to use a lot of self-talk.
content words are simple one-step instructions and By the age of three, many children
used to represent a may be able to respond to two-step
whole sentence—
have grown in their ability to engage in
requests. verbal interactions with others—in short
function words are
omitted, e.g. ‘Teddy conversations in which they take turns to
gone!’ listen and speak.
Table 4.8 Three to four years
36–48 months
Stage 4 Children in the three–four years Speech becomes clearer, more fluent, and
Linguistic speech age group can understand a range is easier to understand. They will show
Using complete of sentence structures, including frustration if others do not understand them.
sentences questions that start with ‘who’, Children begin to use four or more words in
‘what’ and ‘where’. their sentences, and are able to talk about
If a child has a hearing difficulty, it things that are less concrete and immediate.
often becomes noticeable at this For example, they may talk about friends,
age. places they have been and things they have
done. They can tell oral stories, and will ask
many questions.
They can use past tense and present
tense with increasing competency. They
overgeneralise grammatical rules and say
theory of mind things like ‘runned’ instead of ‘ran’. They will
Being aware that also use future tense.
other people Uses pronouns such as ‘we’, ‘I’, ‘my’, ‘mine’.
have feelings, Children in this age group will begin to show
thoughts, desires
evidence of theory of mind—they begin to
and intentions and
that these may be show evidence of understanding that other
different from one’s people have feelings and intentions. This
own. influences the way they interact with others.
Table 4.9 Four to five years
48–60 months
Stage 4 Children in this age group usually By the age of four, children have an
Linguistic speech enjoy listening to stories and can expressive vocabulary of approximately
Using complete answer simple questions about them. 1500 words.
sentences Their listening comprehension is at By now, children can construct fairly
the stage where they can understand detailed sentences, using compound
most things that are said to them. and complex sentences and using
They are able to understand three- pronouns and past tense.
step commands, such as, ‘Get the Most sounds are now pronounced
crayons out of the box, then go to the correctly. Children are able to
table and draw a picture.’ discuss their feelings and are thus
using language for a wider range of
purposes.
By the age of five, they usually have an
expressive vocabulary of approximately
2000–2500 words.
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Table 4.10 Five to six years
60–72 months
Stage 4 By the age of six, children have a By six years of age, children generally
Linguistic speech very large receptive vocabulary have an expressive vocabulary of
Using complete of up to 10 000 words. They approximately 2600 words. They
sentences understand many sentences, can form all types of sentences—
including complex sentences. statements, commands, questions and
exclamations—and can construct simple,
compound and complex sentences.
Pronunciation is very clear although
they may still be unclear with some
pronunciations, e.g. /f/ and /th/.
Table 4.11 Six to eight years
6–8 years
Stage 5 By the age of six–eight years, Children in this age group are able to
Using language most children have a receptive verbalise for a variety of reasons. They
symbolically vocabulary of up to 25 000 can talk about their feelings and ideas,
words. and can verbalise problems and how
Children of this age have they might be solved. They tend to talk a
generally learnt that different lot and have an expressive vocabulary of
language behaviour is called for over 3000 words.
according to the context. Thus, Children who are in the six–seven
their listening and speaking years age group begin to use more
behaviours will vary according to complex sentence structures in their
factors such as the formality of speaking. They use longer sentences and
the context. conditional clauses (e.g. If … then).

By the time they are seven–eight,
children use complex sentences with
adjectival clauses and subordinate
clauses. They will use gerunds (such as
walking, sleeping).
Sources for all developmental tables: Gleason & Ratner, 2016; Jalongo, 2014; Owens, 2019; Robinson, 2008
Bilingual and multilingual language learners

As mentioned in Chapter 3, it is necessary to understand children from diverse cultural and linguistic
backgrounds and be able to cater for their needs. In Australia, more than 200 languages are spoken,
including approximately fifty Aboriginal languages (see Racism No Way at www.racismnoway.com.au/
about-racism/australias-cultural-diversity). These figures do not include languages and dialects with
fewer than 150 speakers. The 2011 census showed that 81 per cent of Australian citizens and residents
spoke only English at home, meaning that 19 per cent spoke other languages at home, the most common
being Mandarin (1.7%), Italian (1.5%), Arabic (1.4%), Cantonese (1.3%) and Greek (1.3%) (Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2012). However, there are regional variations.
Some children learn two languages simultaneously from birth, where more than one
language is spoken in the home. Sequential second language learning is learning a sequential second
second language after a first language is already established. These children often begin to language learning
learn English as an additional language or dialect (EAL/D) when they commence childcare Learning a second
language after
or school. In Australia and other countries that are becoming increasingly multicultural and
having already
multilingual, it is common for children to be exposed to more than one language in the home. learnt a first
Parents in these circumstances sometimes worry that the child may become confused, or language. Children
about the potential for language delay due to the child learning two (and sometimes more) who begin to learn
a second language
languages simultaneously. However, unless the child has a language disorder, parents need after approximately
not worry, as long as the child has at least one strong language model in the home. Bilingual the age of three
children will attain language milestones at roughly the same time as monolingual children. are considered
sequential second
language learners.
Perspectives on second language acquisition
There are different perspectives on how children learn second languages, most of which draw from
perspectives on first language learning. There is still debate among researchers about many aspects of
second language acquisition in early childhood, however.
As explained above, behaviourist theory posits that children learn language largely by imitation and
reinforcement. According to this perspective, learning more than one language in the home setting
depends on the child hearing models of the languages, imitating them, and receiving (or not receiving)
rewards or desired outcomes, which reinforce the language use. In educational settings, behaviourist
theory underpins approaches based on encouraging children to imitate language models, with an
emphasis on giving corrective feedback of incorrect language attempts. The practice of ‘contrastive
analysis’ is also rooted in behaviourism; this involves the educator analysing the first and second
languages and finding differences or contrasts between them, which are then used as a basis for teaching.
An example of this would be focusing on teaching definite and indefinite articles (the, a, an) to children
for whom Mandarin Chinese is the first language, since articles are absent in that language. Research
increasingly shows that behaviourist theory alone cannot satisfactorily account for second language
learning (see criticisms of behaviourism in terms of first language acquisition, above), even though it
has been used to design many second language learning programs, usually for older children and adults.
Nativist theory has also been applied to second and additional language learning. Perhaps the most
well-known nativist theorist in the field of second language learning is Stephen Krashen (1982), who
developed the comprehensible input hypothesis and the monitor theory (see Table 4.12). Krashen
OxfordG.University
(2019). Language,
Table 4.12 Krashen’s monitor theory
Acquisition–learning The acquisition system: Language can be acquired subconsciously through

hypothesis use in communicative, meaningful interactions.
The learning system: Language can be learnt through a conscious
process—a result of formal instruction and study.
Natural order The rules or grammatical structures of a language are acquired in a
hypothesis predictable order.
Monitor hypothesis Learners acquire language naturally but will be more successful if they
take on the role as ‘monitor’ (become metacognitive, which involves self-
monitoring their own language learning, consciously attempting to spot and
fix errors, and asking questions about the language and how to use it).
The monitoring process is enabled by what the individual has learnt about
language via the learning system.
Comprehensible input People acquire a second (or additional) language most successfully when
hypothesis they hear ‘comprehensible input’, which is language at a slightly challenging
level and more difficult than language they could produce themselves.
Affective filter Affective factors are important—motivation and attitude towards acquiring
hypothesis the new language are crucial. Language acquisition is ‘filtered’ by the
learner’s affective condition. In some cases, language acquisition may be
‘blocked’ by negative attitudes and anxiety.
believes that there is a ‘natural order’ (or sequence) of language learning, but that learners need to
be exposed to ‘comprehensible input’ in order to learn. ‘Comprehensible input’ is language input
from other speakers that is not so difficult that the message cannot be understood, yet is at a level
that is beyond the learner’s level of proficiency—this provides learners with just enough challenge
to promote language growth (as in Vygotsky’s ‘zone of proximal development’). Krashen proposed
learner-centred strategies to help children acquire or learn second and subsequent languages, based
on five hypotheses.
Krashen’s theory is not without its critics. Almost all of the hypotheses above have been criticised for
being under-researched and ill-defined. Nevertheless, Krashen’s work has been extremely influential and
seems to resonate with many educators.
Pause and reflect

Promoting second language learning
Think about practical things that parents or early childhood educators might be able to do to
promote second or additional language learning, based on Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis and
comprehensible input hypothesis.
Social interactionist perspectives on second language learning emphasise the types of interactions
that take place between the second language learner and the native speaker in real communicative
situations. This perspective acknowledges that language is modified or simplified by native
language speakers to help second language learners communicate, and that there is repetition and
recasting to assist language learners. According to this perspective, second language learners recasting
need to notice differences between their own language output and the language used by others When an utterance
in order to progress (Schmidt, 1990). is rephrased,
modified or
As in the case of first language learning, there is debate about how children acquire or corrected and
learn second languages, although it is known that much depends on the age at which the child repeated back to
begins to learn the second language, their prior conceptual knowledge about language and the speaker.
the world, and the quality and the quantity of the interactions that take place in the second language.
Children who learn a second language sequentially have a good deal of conceptual knowledge about the
world and about language and its purposes, which should be acknowledged and built upon.
Simultaneous second language learners:

Stages of development
Table 4.13 outlines how simultaneous language acquisition (bilingualism) is likely to occur from birth.
This table is not as fine-grained as the detailed table of stages and milestones relating to first language
learners, as presented above. It does not refer to children who learn a second or additional language
sequentially.
Table 4.13 Bilingual language development
Simultaneous bilingual language development

Stage Language development
Stage 1 The child will first learn single words and two-word sentences, as monolingual
0–2 years old children do. However, words learnt will be from both languages. The rate of learning
in each language will vary according to the input the child receives. Ideally, the child
will be in a situation where each language is used approximately 50/50 or at least
40/60 of the time.
During this stage, children will often not distinguish between the two languages and
which words are appropriate to use when interacting with a particular person.
If a child speaks another language at home and attends an English-speaking
childcare centre, it may be appropriate for the educator to help the child understand
that two language systems are being used by saying things like: I say ‘hello’ but your
mummy says ‘ohayou’.
Once the child understands that two language systems are being used, s/he will
begin to switch language appropriately.
Stage 2 Language growth is rapid during this stage. Development of each language may not
Two years be the same, depending on input and how much the child needs to use each language
onwards to communicate. The child may still use the wrong language occasionally, especially
in less familiar situations, and may code switch or use words from both languages
within the same utterance. Children are still learning the rules of each language and
require good models and supportive feedback to help them learn.
Stage 3 Child will speak both languages fluently but will still sometimes make mistakes. The
child will understand that more than one language system is in use and will use each
when appropriate. Languages can be fragile and lost if not used/supported.
O’Neill & Gish, 2008; Janssen & Pauwels, 1993
OxfordG.University
(2019). Language,
Krashen and Terrell (1983) identified five phases of development for second language learners who
are not simultaneous learners of more than one language but are sequential learners. The phases are
outlined in Table 4.14.
Table 4.14 Phases of development—second language learners
Stage Characteristics Approximate time frame

Pre-production The student has limited comprehension and does 0–6 months (since starting
not speak (known as ‘the silent period’). Nods ‘yes’ to learn the language)
and ‘no’ and uses non-verbal communication and
visual aids. Will sometimes attempt to use home
language to interact with English-speaking peers
and educators.
Early production The student has limited comprehension and 6 months–1 year
produces one, two or three word responses
(telegraphic speech). Can participate but uses
familiar phrases and familiar words. Uses mainly
the present tense.
Speech The student has good comprehension and 1–3 years
emergence can construct simple sentences, which may
be formulaic. Makes errors of grammar and
pronunciation and does not ‘get’ jokes in the second
language.
Intermediate The student has excellent comprehension and 3–5 years
fluency makes few grammatical errors.
Advanced fluency The student has near native fluency. 5–7 years
Based on Krashen & Terrell, 1983
Internationally, the Krashen and Terrell stage model has been used extensively. In Australia, various
bodies have built on the framework to offer guidance on how children progress through learning EAL/D.
For children in the school years (F–2), ACARA has used the following phases of development: beginning,
emerging, developing and consolidating (ACARA, 2011). Please refer to full document, English as an
Additional Language or Dialect: Teacher Resource for details about these phases. Brief summaries are given
in Table 4.15.
For children who have EAL/D, it is highly desirable that they are able to use their home language
in educational settings, where possible. Using the home language is integral to a young child’s sense of
identity and wellbeing and is also beneficial for their learning since they may need to use their home
language for thinking. It is also advantageous for English-speaking children to be exposed to a range of
languages. Information about supporting and teaching children with EAL/D can be found throughout
this book.
Table 4.15 EAL/D development F–2
Beginning English
Listening (Receptive) Speaking (Expressive)
Learners at the beginning of this phase are Learners at the beginning of this phase
unfamiliar with the sounds of English. In this communicate for the most part non-verbally in
phase, they begin to take cues from speakers familiar social and classroom situations. In this
around them and participate in simple phase, they begin to use isolated words and well-
classroom routines. known formulaic expressions.
Emerging English
Learners at the beginning of this phase Learners at the beginning of this phase
successfully distinguish spoken English from communicate verbally and non-verbally in familiar
other languages and dialects (i.e. on hearing social and classroom situations, relying on
English, they attempt to respond in English). formulaic expressions. In this phase, they begin to
In this phase, they become more attentive innovate with language, expanding upon learned
listeners and understand ‘tone of voice’ (e.g. phrases and expressions.
educator praise).
Developing English
Learners at the beginning of this phase exhibit Learners at the beginning of this phase generally
accepted listening behaviours and interpret participate appropriately in classroom routines
meaning in familiar situations. In this phase, (e.g. group work) and are producing original
they develop their listening skills to be able to utterances rather than relying on formulaic and
infer the meaning of some unfamiliar subject- learned language. In this phase, they become more
specific situations if given contextual support. confident as initiators of conversations and, with
support, can achieve in most oral activities required
by the educator.
Consolidating English
Learners at the beginning of this phase are Learners at the beginning of this phase initiate
able to infer the meaning of some unfamiliar conversations and, with support, can achieve in
subject-specific situations if given contextual most oral activities required by the educator. In
support. In this phase, they independently this phase, they competently use the features and
comprehend most social and academic oral conventions of English and monitor their speech to
texts relevant to early childhood years. enhance communication.
ACARA, 2011
OxfordG.University
(2019). Language,
Summary
In this chapter, you have been introduced to a variety of theoretical perspectives about oral language
learning (first and additional languages). As you will see in subsequent chapters of this book, a variety of
pedagogical practices that are anchored in these perspectives are used in early childhood settings. In fact,
many practices reflect an ‘eclectic’ approach, which means that more than one theoretical perspective
has been drawn upon.
We have shown that there is no single explanation for children’s language learning and development;
rather, there are different theoretical perspectives, each of which places emphasis on either nature
(biological factors) or nurture (environmental factors) or a combination of both. Understanding the
different theoretical perspectives is important, as each makes a contribution to knowing how children can
be supported in developing oral language. Being aware of the perspectives can also assist educators in
taking a critical and reflective stance towards pedagogical practices, including their own practices.
In this chapter, we have also outlined typical stages of language development for monolingual and
multilingual children. These are useful in helping educators know what to expect in oral language learning
and can facilitate the planning process.
The EYLF states that:

EYLF
Drawing on a range of perspectives and theories can challenge traditional ways of seeing
children, teaching and learning, and encourage educators, as individuals and with colleagues, to:
• investigate why they act in the ways that they do

• discuss and debate theories to identify strengths and limitations
• recognise how the theories and beliefs that they use to make sense of their work enable but also
limit their actions and thoughts
• consider the consequences of their actions for children’s experiences
• find new ways of working fairly and justly.
DEEWR, 2009, p. 11
Review questions
1 Discuss the notion of stages and phases in the area of language development. What are the
benefits and drawbacks associated with referring to such charts? How are stages and phases
the same or different for children who have EAL/D? Why?
2 With reference to language theories, consider what is meant by the nature–nurture debate.
How relevant is this debate today?
3 Discuss the perspectives on language learning with reference to relevant policy and curriculum
documents. How do the policy and curriculum documents reflect the theoretical perspectives?
4 What advice might you give parents of bilingual children about how best to support their child’s
literacy learning?
5 Identify and briefly explain each of the six theoretical perspectives on oral language
development discussed in this chapter.
Review activities
1 Consider how each of the theoretical perspectives outlined have influenced educators’
thinking about language development. Write a list of practices that you have observed in early
childhood settings—what do you think were the underpinning theoretical perspectives?
2 Develop a chart that outlines the strengths and limitations of each of the theoretical
perspectives of language development.
Websites
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. Typical Speech and Language Development:
<www.asha.org/public/speech/development>
This website from the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association includes a wealth of accurate
information about language development.
The British Council Learn English Kids: <http://learnenglishkids.britishcouncil.org>
This website has a large variety of games, songs and activities to help children learn English. There are also
printables and activities for very young children.
Building Good Practices Resources Cards: <https://docs.education.gov.au/documents/early-
childhood-literacy-and-numeracy-building-good-practice-resources-cards>
These cards show examples of family interactions that support early literacy and numeracy development.
OxfordG.University
(2019). Language,

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Oral Language:

This chapter will increase your understanding of:

child directed speech (CDS) recasting

Acquisition, Development or Learning?

Language learning requires an environment that is rich in experience.

According to a behaviourist view, operant conditioning (Skinner, 1957) accounts operant

Cognitive developmental perspective

language Social interactionist perspective

Pause and reflect

Table 4.1 Summary: Theoretical perspectives of language development and learning

Behaviourist Language is a learnt behaviour.

Adults should interfere with this process as little as possible.

Phases, stages and milestones of

Newborns (first 4 weeks)

Table 4.3 Two to three months

directed’ or ‘infant-directed speech’

Table 4.4 Four to six months

Table 4.5 Seven to twelve months

‘Where’s the doggie?’, or ‘Give me the

Table 4.6 One to two years

Table 4.7 Two to three years

Table 4.8 Three to four years

Table 4.9 Four to five years

Table 4.10 Five to six years

Table 4.11 Six to eight years

the context. conditional clauses (e.g. If … then).

Bilingual and multilingual language learners

Table 4.12 Krashen’s monitor theory

Acquisition–learning The acquisition system: Language can be acquired subconsciously through

Pause and reflect

Simultaneous second language learners:

Simultaneous bilingual language development

Table 4.14 Phases of development—second language learners

Stage Characteristics Approximate time frame

Table 4.15 EAL/D development F–2

The EYLF states that:

• investigate why they act in the ways that they do

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