THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONTROL LOOP STRATEGY

A conceptual process block diagram for chemical process is shown in figure 1.1 Notice that the
in puts are classified as either manipulated or disturbance variables and the out puts are classified
as measured or un measured in figure 1.1 a. To automate the operation of a process, it is
important to use measurements of process out puts or disturbance important to use measurements
of process outputs or disturbance in puts to make decisions about the proper values of
manipulated in puts. This is the purpose of the controller shown in figure1-1b; the measurement
and control signals are shown as dashed lines.
The development of a control strategy consists of formulating or identifying the following
1. Control objectives (s)
2. In put variables-classify these as (a) manipulated or (b) disturbance variables; inputs may
change continuously, or at discrete intervals of time.
3. out put variables- classify these as (a) measured or (b) unmeasured variables;
measurements may be made continuously or at discrete intervals of time
4. Constraints-classify these as (a) hard or (b) soft.
5. Operating characteristics- classify these as (a) continuous, (b) batch, or (c) semi
continuous (or semi batch).
6. Safety, environmental and economic considerations.
7. Control structures-the controllers can be feed back or feed ward in nature.

Here we discuss each of the steps in formulating a control problem in more detail.
1. The first step of developing a control strategy is to formulate the control objective (s).
A chemical-process operating unit often consists of several unit operations. The control
of an operating unit is generally reduced to considering the control of each unit operation
separately.
Even so, each unit operation may have multiple, same times conflicting objectives, so the
development of control objectives is not a trivial problem.

Manipulated measured
Input outputs
Process
Disturbance unmeasured
Inputs out puts

a. Input/out put representation

Controller

Manipulated Process
In put
Disturbance
In put

b. Control representation
Figure 1:1 Conceptual process in put/out put black diagram
2. In put variables can be classified as manipulated or disturbance variables. A manipulated
in put is one that can be adjusted by the control system (or process operator). A
disturbance in put is a variable that affects the process out puts but that cannot be
adjusted by the control system. In puts may change continuously or at discrete intervals
of time.
3. Out put variables can be classified as measured or unmeasured variables. Measurements
may be made continuously or at discrete intervals of time.
4. Any process has certain operating constraints. Which are classified as hard or soft. An
example of a hard constraint is a minimum or maximum low rate- a valve operates
between the extremes of fully closed or fully open. An example of a soft constraint is a
product composition it may be desirable to specify a composition between certain valves
to sell a product, but it s possible to violate this specification with out passing a safety or
environmental hazard.
5. Operating characteristics are usually classified as continuous, batch, or semi continuous
(semi batch). Continuous processes operate for long periods of time under relatively
constant operating conditions before being “shut down” for cleaning, catalyst
regeneration, and so forth, for example, some processes in the oil-refining industry
operate for 18 months between shutdowns. Batch processes are dynamic in nature. That
is, they generally operate for a short period of time and the operating conditions may vary
quite a bit during that period of time. Example batch processes include beer or wine
fermentation, as well as many specialty chemical processes. For batch reactor, an initial
charge is made to the reactor, and conditions (temperature, pressure) are varied to
produce a desired product at the end of the batch time. A typical semi batch process may
have an initial charge to the reactor, but feed components may be added to the reactor
during the course of the batch run.
Another important consideration is the dominant time scale of a process. For continuous
processes this is very often related to the residence time of the vessel. For example, a
vessel with a liquid volume of 100 liters and a flow rate of 10 liters/minute would have a
residence time of 10 minutes; that is, on the average, and element of fluid is retained in
the vessel for 10 minutes.
6. Safety, environmental, and economic considerations are all very important. In a sense,
economics is the ultimate driving force an unsafe, environmentally hazardous process
will ultimately cost more to operate through fines paid, insurance costs, and so forth. In
many industries (petroleum refining, for example), it is important to minimize energy
costs while producing products that meet certain specifications. Better process
automation and control allows processes to operate classer to “optimum” conditions and
to produce products where variability specifications are satisfied. The concept of “fail-
safe” is always important in the selection of instrumentation for example, a control valve
needs and energy source to move the valve steam and change the flow; most often this is
a pneumatic signal (usually3-15 psig) if the signal is lost, then the valve steam will go to
the 3-psig limit. If the valve is air-to –open, then the loss of instrument air will cause the
valve to close; this is known as a fail-closed valve. If, on the other hand, a valve is air to-
close, when instrument air is lost the valve will go to its fully open state,; this is known as
a fail-open valve.
7. The two standard control types are feed forward and feedback. A feed forward controller
measures the disturbance variable and sends this valve to a controller, which adjusts the
manipulated variable. A feed back control system:- measures the out put variable,
compares that valve to the desired output value, and uses this information to adjust the
manipulated variable. Determining the fed back control structure for these systems
consists of deciding which manipulated variable will be adjusted to control which
measured variable. The desired value of the measured process out put is called the set
point.
A particularly important concept used in control system design is process gain. The
process gain is the sensitivity of a process out put to a change in the process in put. If an
 increase in a process in put leads to an increase in the process out put, this is known as a
positive gain. If, an the other hand, an increase in the process in put leads to decrease in
the process out put, this is known as a negative gain. The magnitude of the process gain
is also important.
Once the control structure is determined, it is important to decide on the control algorithm. The
control algorithm uses measured output variable values (along with algorithm. The control
algorithm uses measured output variable values (along with desired out put values) to change the
manipulated in put variable. A control algorithm has a number of control parameters, which must
be “tuned” (adjusted) to have acceptable performance. Often the tuning is done on a simulation
model before implementing the control strategy on the actual process.
This approach is best illustrated by way of example. Since many important concepts, such as
control instrumentation diagrams and control block diagrams, are introduced in the next examples
it is important that you study them thoroughly.

Example1.1. Surge Tank

Surge tanks are often used as intermediate storage for fluid streams being transferred between
process unit. Consider the process flow diagram shown in figure 1-2, where a fluid stream from
process 1 is fed to the surge, tank; the effluent from the surge tank is sent to process 2.
There are obvious constraints on the height in this tank. If the overfills it may create safety and
environmental hazards, which may also have economic significance. Let us analyze this system
using a step-by-step procedure.
1. Control objective:- The control objective is to maintain the height within certain bounds.
If it is too high it will over flow and if it is too low there may be problems with the flow
to process 2. usually, a specific desired height will be selected. This desired height is
known as the set point.

From process 1
F1

h
To process 2

F2

2. In put variable:- the in put variables are the flow from process 1 and the flow to process
2. Notice that an outlet flow rate is considered an input to this problem. The question is
which in put is manipulated and which is disturbance? That depends. We discuss this
problem further in a moment.
3. Out put variables: The most important out put variable is he liquid level. We assume
that it is measured.
4. Constraints: There are a number of constraints in this problem. There is a maximum
liquid level; if this is exceeded, the tank will over flow. There are minimum and
maximum flow rates through the inlet and out let valves.
5. Operating characteristic:- we assume that this is a continuous process, that is that there
is continuous flow in an out of the tank. It would be a semi continuous process if, for
example, there was an inlet flow with no outlet flow ( if the tank was simply being
filled).
6. Safety, environmental, and economic concede rations: These aspects depend somewhat
on the fluid characteristics. If it is a hazardous chemical, then there is a tremendous
incentive from safety and environmental considerations to not allow the tank to over
flow. In deed, this is also an economic consideration, since injuries to employees or
 environmental cleanup costs money. Even if the substance is water, it has likely been
treated by an up stream process unit, so losing water owing to over flow will incur an
economic penalty.
Safety considerations play an important role in the specification of control valves (fail-
open or fail-closed). For this particular problem, the control valve specification will
depend on which in put is manipulated. This is discussed in detail shortly.

7. Control structure there are numerous possibilities for control of this system. We discuss
first the feed back strategies, then the feed forward strategies.

Dynamic Inputs

When dynamic or time-varying quantities are to be measured, it is necessary to find the dynamic
response characteristics of the instrument being used for measurement-the dynamic inputs to an
instrument may be of the following types
1. Periodic in put-varying cyclically with time or repeating itself after a constant interval.
in fig 3.1 The input may be of harmonic or non-harmonic type.
2. Transient in put-varying non-cyclically with time. As shown in fig 3.2, the signal is of a
definite duration and becomes zero after a certain period of time
3. Random in put –varying randomly with time, with no definite period and amplitude.
This may be continuous, but not cyclic as in Fig 3.3

Input signal Input signal

Input signal

time
time

T T T

Fig 3.1 periodic signals with time periodic

Input signal Input signal Input signal

time time time

Duration Duration
Duration

Fig 3.2 Transient signal

 Input signal

time

Fig 3.3. Random signal

Dynamic characteristic

In put out put

signal Instrument signal

xi(t) xo(t)

Fig 3.4 scheme for studying dynamic characteristic of an instrument

In put K out put

signal 1+TD signal

xi(t) xo(t)

Fig 3.5 block diagram of first order instrument

Being denoted as the transfer function of the instrument. Similarly, for a second order
instrument, the block diagram is shown in fig 3.6, with a0, a1, a2 and Bo being constants of the
instrument. An indicating instrument like an ammeter is seen to be at second order type. Fig. 3.5
Block diagram of a first order instrument. An indicating instrument like- an ammeter is seen to
be of second order type.

In put Bo out put

signal a2D²+ a1D+ a0, signal

xi(t) xo(t)
 Fig 3.6 Book diagram of a second order instruments.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument can be determined experimentally with a known

dynamic in put signal. For theoretical analysis, for any dynamic input, a solution of its governing
equations, obtained from its mathematical model, is desirable. Thus, the following steps are
essential for under standing the dynamic behavior of an instrument.

1. To formulate its governing equations, relating dynamic input and out put signals.
2. To obtain the dynamic out put response, for the given input, by solution of the
governing equations.
3. In case the out put response is not satisfactory, it may be possible to improve the same
by what is known as compensation.

Feedback control

The measured variable for a feedback control strategy is the tank height. Which in put variable is
manipulated depends on what is happening in process 1 and process 2. let us consider two
different scenarios.

Scenario 1: Process 2 regulated the flow-rate F2. This could happen, for example, if process 2 is
a steam generation system and process 1 is a deionization process. Process 2 varies the flow rate
of water (F2) depending on the steam demand. As far as the tank process is concerned, F2 is a
“wild” (disturbance) stream because the regulation of F2 is determined by another system. In this
case we would use F1 as the manipulated variable; that is F1 is adjusted to maintain a desired
tank height

The control and instrumentation diagram for a feed back control strategy for scenario 1 is shown
in figure 1-3 Notice that the level transmitter (LT) sends the measured height of liquid in the tank
(hm) to the level controller (LC). The LC compares the measured level with the desired level
(hsp, the height set point) and sends a pressure signal (Pv) to the valve. This valve top pressure
moves the valve steam up and down, changing the flow rate through the valve (F1). It the
controller is designed properly, the flow rate changes to bring the tank height close to the desired
set point. In this process and instrumentation diagram we use dashed lines to indicate signals
between different pieces of instrumentation.
A simplified block diagram representing this system is shown if figure 1-4 Each signal and device
(or process) is shown on the block diagram.

PV
--------------------------------------------------------------------------

F1

LT LC
hsp

From process 1 h

F2 to process 2
Figure 1-3 Feed back control strategy 1. The level is measured and the in let flow rate (view
position)is manipulated.

F2

hsp Controller pv Valve F1 Process h

Level
transmitter

Figure 1-4 feedback control schematic (block diagram) for scenario 1. F1 is manipulated and F2
is a disturbance.

The controller “decides” on the valve position, which affects the inlet flow rate (the manipulated
in put), which affects the level; the out let flow rate (the disturbance in put) also affects the level.
The level is measured level with the desired level (set point)

Notice that the control valve should be specified as fail- closed or air-to-open, so that the tank
will not over flow on loss of instrument air or other valve failure.

Scenario 2:- process 1 regulates flow rate F1. this could happen, for example, if process 1 is
producing a chemical compound that must be processed by process 2. Perhaps process 1 is set-to
produce F1 at a certain rate. F1 is then considered “wild” (a disturbance) by the tank process. In
this case we would adjust F2 to maintain the tank heath. Notice that the control valve should be
specified as fail-open or air-to-close, so that the tank will not over flow on loss of instrument air
or other valve failure.
The process and instrumentation diagram for this scenario is shown in figure 1-5. the only
difference between this and the previous instrumentation diagam (figure 1-3) is that F2 rather
than F1 is manipulated.
The simplified block diagram shown in figure 1-6 differs from the previous case (figure 1-4)
because F2 rather than F1 is manipulated. F1 is a disturbance input.
 From process 1
F1

LT
hsp
LC

h pv

F2 to process 2

Figure 1-5 feedback control stratege2. Outlet flow rate is manipulated

F1

hsp Controller pv Valve F2 Process h

Level
transmitter

Figure 1-6 feedback control schematic (block diagram) for scenario 2. F2 is manipulated and F1
is a disturbance.

Feed-for ward control

The previous two feedback control strategies were based on measuring the output (tank
height) and manipulating an in put (the inlet flow rate in scenario 1 and the outlet, flow rate in
scenario 2). In each case the manipulated variable is changed after a disturbance affects the
output.
The advantage to a feed-forward control strategy is that a disturbance variable is measured and
manipulated variable is changed before the output is affected. Consider a case where the inlet
flow rate can be changed by the upstream process unit and is there fore considered a disturbance
variable. If we can measure the inlet flow rate, we can manipulated the out let flow rate to
maintain a constant tank height.
 This feed-for ward control strategy is shown in figure 1-7, where FM is the flow measurement
device and FFC is the feed forward controller. The corresponding control block diagram is
shown in figure 1-8. F1 is a disturbance input that directly affects the tank height; the value of F1
is Measured by the FM device, and the information is used by an FFC to change the manipulated
in put F2.

FM

From process 1
FFC
F1

PV
h

To process 2
F2

Figure 1-7 feed-for ward control strategy inlet flow rate is measured and outlet flow rate is
manipulated.

F1

Flow
measurement

Controller PV Valve F2 Process h

Figure 1-8 Feed-for ward control schematic block diagram.

The main disadvantage to this approach is sensitivity to uncertainty. If the inlet flow rate
is not perfectly measured or if the out let flow rate cannot be manipulated perfectly, then the tank
height will not be perfectly controlled. With and small disturbance or uncertainty, the tank will
eventually over flow or run dry. In practice, FFC is combined with feed back control to account
for uncertainty. A feed-for ward/feed back strategy is shown in figure 1-9, and the corresponding
block diagram is shown in figure 1-10. Here, the feed-for ward portion allows immediate
coactive action to be taken before the disturbance (in let flow rate) actually affects the out put
measurement (tank height). The feedback controller adjusts the out let flow ate to maintain the
desired tank height, even with errors in the inlet flow rate measurement.
 FM

LT
from process 1
FF
F1 /FB
hsp

PV
h

to process 2

Figure 1-9 feed for ward/feed back control strategy. The inlet flow rate is the measured
disturbance, tank height is the measured out put, and outlet flow rate is manipulated.

F1

Flow
measurement

Controller PV Valve F2 Process h

Level
transmitter

Figure 1-10 feed –for ward/feed back control schematic block diagram.
 Example [Link] Taking a shower

A common multivariable control problem that we face every day is taking a shower. A simplified
process schematic is shown figure 1-11 – we analyze this process step by step.

1. Control objectives: control objectives when taking a shower include the following:
a) To became clean
b) To be comfortable (correct temperature and water velocity as it contacts the
body).
c) To “look good” (clean hair, etc)
d) To become refreshed.

Hot water cold water

Figure 1-11 process schematic for taking a shower.

To simplify our analysis, for the rest of the problem we discuss how we can satisfy the second
objective (to maintain water temperature and flow rate at comfortable valves). Similar analysis
can performed for the other objectives.

2. In put variables: The manipulated in put variables are hot-water and cold water
valve positions. Same showers can also vary the velocity by adjustment of the shower head.
Another in put is body position-you can move in to and out of the shower stream. Disturbance
inputs include a drop in water pressure (say, owing to a toilet flushing ) and changes in hot water
temperature owing to “using up the hot water from the heater”
3. Out put variables: The “measured” out put variables are the temperature and flow rate
(or velocity) of the mixed stream as it contacts your body.
4. Constraints: There are minimum and maximum valve positions (and there fore flow
rates) on both streams. The maximum mixed temperature is equal to the hot water temperature.
The previous constraints were hard constraints-they cannot be physically violated. An example
of a soft constraint is the mixed-stream water temperature-you do not want it to be above a certain
value because you may get scalded. This is a soft constraint because it can physically happen,
although you do not want it to happen.
5. Operating characteristics: This process is continuous while you are taking a shower
but it most likely viewed as a batch process, since it is a small part of you day. It could easily be
called a semi cant inuous (semi batch) process.
6. Safety, environmental and economic considerations: too high of a temperature can
scald you-this is certainly a safety consideration economically, if your showers are too long, more
energy is consumed to heat the water, costing money. Environmentally (and economically): more
water consumption means that more water and waste must be treated. An economic objective
might be to minimize the shower time-how-ever, if the shower time is too short, or not frequent
enough, your clothes will become dirty must be washed more often-increasing your clothes-
cleaning bill.
7. Control structure: This is a multivariable control problem because adjusting either
valve affects both temperature and flow rate control manipulations must be “coordinated” that is,
if the hot water flow rate is increased to increase the temperature, the cold water flow rate must
be decreased to maintain the same total flow rate. The measurement signals are continuous, but
the manipulated variable changes are likely to be discrete (unless your hands are continuously
varying the valve positions). Feed back control: as the body feels the temperature changing,
adjustments to one or both valves is made. As the body senses a flow rate or velocity change, one
or both valves are adjusted.
Feed forward control: If you hear the toilet flush, you move your body out of the stream to avoid
the higher temperature that you anticipate. Notice that you are making a manipulated variable
change (moving you body) before the effect of an out put (temperature or flow rate) change is
actually detected.
Cascade control
Cascade control involves the use of multiple measurements and a single manipulated input. As a
motivating example consider the temperature-control problem shown in Figure 10-1, where a
fired furnace is used to heat. A process fluid stream. The out let temperature is controlled by
manipulating the valve position of the fuel gas control valve. Clearly, disturbances in the fuel gas
header pressure (up stream of the valve) will end up changing the fuel gas flow rate, and, there
fore, the outlet temperature.

process fluid inlet

Process fluid outlet

FM

Temperature set point

TC

Fuel/gas
 Figure 10-1 feed back control of process outlet temperature

process fluid inlet

Process fluid outlet

TM

Temperature TC Temperature set point

Controller

FC

FM Fuel/gas

Figure 10-2 cascade control process outlet temperature

The best war to compensate for disturbances directly affecting the fuel gas flow rate is to
cascade the temperature controller to a fuel gas flow controller, as shown in figure 10-2, Here, the
out put of the temperature controller is the set point to the fuel gas flow controller. The out put of
the flow controller is the pressure to the control valve, which changes the valve position and there
for, the flow rate. Any change in the fuel gas header pressure will be “felt” immediately by the
flow measurement; allowing the flow controller to take immediate corrective action. A block
diagram of this strategy is shown in figure 10-3.

In this strategy, the temperature controller is known as the primary, master, or outer-loop
controller, while the flow controller is the secondary; slave, or inner-loop controller. The
dynamics of the flow control loop are vary fast, making the flow controller easy to tune. The
temperature-control loop is much slower, so the primary loop can be effectively tuned as if the
flow controller response is instantaneous.

For cascade control strategies where flow control is the inner loop, a control block diagram where
the secondary and primary process transfer functions are in series ( as in Figure 10-3) is natural.
The primary disturbance (process in let temperature) directly affects the primary out put (process
outlet temperature), with no direct affect on the secondary out put (fuel gas flow rate, which is
also the manipulated in put for the primary process) directly affects the secondary out put. So the
control block diagram shown-in figure 10-3 is relatively straight for ward to generate. This
known as a series representation for the block diagram that is useful when the “secondary”
process (such as the control valve or fuel gas flow rate) are naturally separated from the
“primary” process (the heater and process fluid). It should be noted that other primary
disturbance, such as process fluid flow rate, could easily be added to the diagram.
An example of the improved performance achievable with cascade control is shown in figure 10-
4. In the cascade-control strategy (figure 10-2), the flow controller (secondary controller) rejects
the header pressure disturbance before it even “felt” by the process out let temperature, since
there is a primary process time-delay of one minute. The standard feed back controller (figure
10-1) has poor performance due to the process time daily. It should be noted that set point
changes and response to a primary disturbance (process feed temperature) are the same for both
control strategies.
Primary
Disturbance
Process inlet temp
Secondary loop secondary L2 L2

Y2 Disturbance (fuel/gas
Fuel/gas flow header pressure)
Set point gd2
gd1
Primary set point

to processes outlet
Temp. Set point +- u2 + y2 ++ y1
Gc1 gc2 gp2 gp1
y1 primary controller secondary valve top secondary process
(Temp. controller) controller pressure outlet
(Fuel/gas flow) Temp.
gm2
secondary measurement Fuel/gas flow

gm1

Primary measurement (temperature)

Figure 10-3 cascade control block diagram for the fired heater. Series Trans function form.
Fuel gas header pressure disturbance

Figure 10-4 response to a disturbance in fuel gas header pressure of 1

Psig comparison at cascade control with standard feed back control.

Reactor temperature cascade control

As another example of cascade control, consider the stirred-tank reactor shown

In figure 10-5. In the standard feed back-control strategy the temperature of the reactor is
measured and the jacket flow rate is manipulated. If there is a disturbance in the jacket feed
temperature, it will affect the jacket temperature, which will affect the reactor temperature. In the
cascade-control strategy (figure 10-6) the temperature of the reactor temperature. in is a set point
to the jacket temperature controller. The jacket temperature controller manipulator the jacket
flow rate. Notice that two measurements (reactor temperature and jacket temperature). Are made
but only one manipulated variable ( jacket flow rate) is ultimately adjusted.
In this strategy, the reactor temperature controller is the primary (master or outer loop) controller,
while the jacket temperature controller is the secondary (slave or inner loop) controller. This is
effective because the jacket temperature dynamics are normally significantly faster than the
reactor temperature dynamics. An inner loop disturbance such as jacket feed temperature, will be
“felt” by the jacket temperature before it has a significant effect on the reactor temperature. This
inner-loop (secondary) controller then adjusts the manipulated variable before a substantiate
effect on the primary out put has occurred.
Reactor temperature control
TC
Reactor feed

Jacket effluent

Reactor product

Jacket
flow

Figure 10-5 stirred-tank reactor-standard feed back-control.

Reactor temperature control

TC
Reactor feed 1 Jacket
TC
2 Temperature
Control
Jacket effluent

Reactor product

Jacket
Flow

Figure 10-6 stirred –tank reactor-cascade control.

 Computers In Process Control.
Introduction

In recent years, there has been an increasing need to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of
industrial machines and other machines. The interface between human operator and machine is
slowly but steadily being eliminated. This change is being accomplished by the addition of
automated control to industrial processes. In the early 1960s, computers were used effectively for
control in the industrial environment. However, those computer systems howl little success,
because of their expense, their unreliability, and skepticism of management and operating
personnel.
Today computers are readily used in industry. The development of the microprocessor has been a
major factor in this change because the microprocessor provides more computer power at lower
cost and in less space. These newer, computer-controlled systems use complex programming to
regulate, monitor, and control the operation of industrial processes. A recent trend is use a master
automatic control system to coordinate the operation of various individually controlled subparts
of a large system.
Automated process control has many advantages over human control.

The advantages may be grouped in classifications:-

1. Reduced overall manufacturing casts

2. Computational capabilities
3. Just response time
4. Reduced equipment size and cost
5. Environmental safety for operating personnel
6. prompt emergency recognition and reaction
7. General convenience.

Supervisor Control and Data Acquisition (Logging) System. (SCADA)

These system can be used either to control/monitor few wells in a single field or to multiple fields
that have several thousand total wells.
SCADA Systems consist of the basic elements:-

1. SCADA equipment
2. communication adapter
3. Field instrumentation and cabling systems.
4. Multi conductor cables
5. Communication facilities
6. Digital computer system

1) SCADA equipment:- This equipment functions to interconnect digital computer

systems and instrumentation and control devices. It consists of a communication adapter
and the remote terminal units (RTV’s).

2) A communication adapter is directly connected to the digital computer by a high –

speed data link and attached indirectly to RTV’s by communication circuits. A number
of RTV’s generally share a common communication circuit. An RTV has the capability
to store information from several in put points and to transmit this information is serial
mode over a single communication circuit to a digital computer that an demand. The
 RTV also may receive control information from the computer that is routes to a selected
control point. The RTV generally is located within a few thousand feet of its connected
instrumentation and control equipments but may be up to several hundred miles from the
computer location. RTV’s commonly sense input information related to status/alarm, gas
and oil volume accumulation instantaneous analog valves of temperature, pressure, flow
rate etc. Heat and electrical transients adversely affect operational reliability of RTv.
Hence they are usually placed in air-conditioned buildings. RTV input/out put
connections to field cable system are protected from voltage transients.

3) Field instrumentation and cabling systems :- Field instrumentation and control

devices have to interface with the RTV of SCADA system, hence some additional
features like electrical switch are required to convert the information to RTV. In general,
reliability of interface increases when the primary instrumentation has a direct electrical
connection instead of pneumatic to electrical conversion. Meters for liquid and gas
measurement also need to have an electrical switch activation to indicate same increment
of volume accumulation. The RTV will have a separate signal loop (Wiring) and internal
electronic counter associated with each meter being monitored. Pressure, temperature,
flow rate and similar operational parameters are sensed by the RTV as an analog input
valve from electrical transducers. The current out put transducers are preferred over
voltage out put transducers. To avoid and electrical transient distortion.

4) Multi conductor cables are used to connect the RTV to the instrumentation and control
devices associated with the production process. The cables usually are buried to
minimize probability of mechanical damage and electrical noise intrusion. Radio
communication links between RTV’s and a central location within a field can reduce
overall cabling costs substantially. The low-energy signals used in the cable system
required careful connection of wiring to instrumentation. Any damage to wiring
insulation or collection of wiring to connection points may result insufficient signal
leakage. To avoid this alarm signal loops are installed which are in normal condition
when the sensing device has a closed electrical switch.

5) Communication facilities SCADA systems:- require capable and reliable

communication facilities the connect the communication adapters on the digital computer
system with the RTV’s that are located in fields being automated. Most SCADA system
used non-switched communication circuits that have a four-wire configuration. The four-
wire designation provides two independent communication paths that will support
simultaneous data transfer in two directions.

6) digital computer systems:- SCADA become possible with the development of process-
control type computer systems. The hard ware used for a process control computer
provides direct connection to plant instrumentation and control equipment and it also
provided a means to interconnect with the communication adapter of a SCADA needs.

DIGITAL COMPUTERS

Digital computers are basically electronic calculating and data processing systems. The data is
used in digital binary form. In present-day practice, almost all disciplines including
instrumentation and controls, have been affected with the advantage of digital computers.

A digital computer system, essentially has:

 an arithmetic and logic unit
 control unit
 memory
 input and out put devices
 Memory

Input device Control unit Input device

Arithmetic
and logic unit

Fig. 1.15. Digital computer system

In put devices may be key boards, discs card or tape rreaders, A-D converters or digital
transducers, in case the computer is used for measurement and control applications.
The out put devices maybe a printer, a visual display unit (VDU), etc.
Figure 1.16, Shows how a digital computer may be used for the measurement and control of a
process involving several input signals like temperature, pressure, flow, etc that are analog in
nature and are converted to digital signals by A-D converters, with the multiplexer or switching
unit controlled the control unit of the digital compute. The out put device can display the valves
of the measured parameters. For the purpose of control, set or desired.

Process to be controlled

Analogue signal Analogue control signal to process

(To be measured)
Final control element
Analog transducer

Multiplexer D-A converter

Control
Signal

A-D converter Multiplexer

Digital computer
Input devise

(Key board ,disk, etc)

Output devise

(Printer display, etc)

Fig 1:16 Digital computer for measurement and control

Fig 1:16 Digital computer for measurement and control valves of variables can be read- in and
stored in the computer memory. The computer takes appropriate control action, through final
control elements like valves, motors, etc. which are commonly of analog types.

Depending on then capability, cost, data-handling and storage capacity, computers of various
siges are available. These may be large or minicomputers and are step below, would be the
present-day relatively cheap microcomputers. The heart of a microcomputer is micro processor
unit(MPU)

Which is basically an integrated circuit on a single silicon chip. A typical microcomputer system
is shown in fig. 1.17. A micro computer is essentially a small computer, with the MP)U as the
arithmetic logic and control unit. Recent developments semi conductor and integrated circuit
technology have enable microcomputer to handle4- bit and later8- and 16 bit data. The other
units of microcomputer include RAM (random access memory), in to which information can be
written, read out and stored from in put, out put units (I/o units ) as also intermediate results.
ROM (read only memory) is permanently programmed and data can only be read out of it. Buses
or group of wires, acting as paths for digital signals are of three types: address bus(AB), data
(DB) and control bus (CB). AB is for transmitting address of location of memory, DB for
transferring instructions and data to MPU and I/0 units (in put /out units) while CB is for sending
control signals generated in MPU.

Keyboard
Address bus With VDU

RAM MPU ROM I/O

Data bus

Control bus

Fig 1:17 Atypical micro computer system (micro processor-based).

A typical application of a microprocessor system of the above type, for filtering analog signal
from transducers, is shown in fig 1.18. The programmed stored in ROM would filter out un
wanted signals from in puts, as desired by arithmetic computations and the out put signals would
be filtered analog signals.

Computer based controllers, data logging and supervisory control.

Computer based control, supervisory
The ability data log information and transfer and it to a PC in a spreadsheet format is now
becoming an extremely powerful tool in a great number of industries.
The case of storing and transferring the information that is gives allows the user to undertake
complex cross-correlation of trends easily an a PC
Ex1) commander SR100A as an option, has a PCMCIA Port far logging up 12 inputs in a dos
format, which can be directly imported in to an exce1TM spreadsheet.
APPLIED ELECTRICITY AND MEASURING CIRCUITS

Give instruction to wise man and he will be yet wiser.

PROVERBS
Electricity

Introduction what is electricity?

Matter or material is made up of atoms, which consists of a control core of porters which
are positive charges of electricity and they are surrounded by an equal number of electrons which
are negative charges. When a potential difference is applied between the ends of the materials
some of the electrons become detached and move on to the next atom and so on. This means that
electricity is this movement of electrons in materials.
The conventional flow of current is assumed to be in the opposite direction to the electron flow,
i.e. current flows from +ve to-ve while electrons flow from –ve to ve

Electrical quantities and their relationship

In technical work, it is important to distinguish clearly between a quantity and the unit in which it
is specified. A unit is a specific value of a quantity with which other quantities of the same type
can be compared. Voltage, current, power and energy are among the most important electrical
quantities.

The coulomb

Charge is expressed interms of the number of electrons lost, gained or moved.

Sometimes it is called quantity of electricity.

1Coulomb = 6.25x1018 electrons.

The letter symbol for charge is Q and for coulomb is C.

The Volt /EMF

The electrical pressure or electromotive force can move charges. The force between like
or unlike charges has the potential to do work and the difference is called the potential difference.
If between two points in a circuit on joule of energy conversion is associated with the movement
of one coulomb of charge, one volt exists between those two points.

Mathematically it is expressed as

V= W
Q
Electric Energy

Chemical cells (batteries), magnetic mechanisms (rotation generators), pressure-sensitive

elements (piezo-electric crystals), light-sevsitive cells, or temperature-sensitive elements
(thermocouples) produce electric energy. Electricity is a form of energy, which may be compared
with hydraulic energy. In its natural state electricity was no more that a scientific curiosity in the
nineteenth century. However, as soon as methods were developed for converting vast amounts of
natural energy, electricity became man’s greatest aid to industrialization.

Hydraulic analogy. The comparison between hydraulic and electrical systems of

conveying energy from one location to another is given in Fig. 11-1a and b. electricity, in its
fundamental nature, may be thought of as a medium by which energy can be conveniently
conveyed from one location to another. It is the free electrons in the copper conductors shown in
Fig. 11-b which form the energy conveying means and which h are the electrical equivalent of the
hydraulic-fluid system.

Using the English system of units, the cubic foot or gallon is a suitable measure for a
quantity of a hydraulic fluid. The rate of fluid flow in a pipeline is expressed in quantity per unit
time, i.e., in cubic feet per second or gallons per hour. The pump supplies the force or pressure to
the hydraulic fluid in order to cause it to flow. A pressure drop in a pipe flow is caused by a
restriction (resistance), e.g., an orifice plate or partially opened valve.
In the case of an electric flow through a conductor, the conductor is a material having a very large
number of free electrons per unit volume. For example, a cubic inch of copper contains about 1.4
x 10 24 free electrons. Semiconductors-carbon, germanium, and silicon-have from 10 14 to 1020
free electrons per cubic inch. The electric switch performs the same function as a valve in a
hydraulic system; opening an electric switch is analogous to closing a hydraulic valve.

Valve
cooper pipe line(tubing)

Hydraulic fluid
Flow if valve open

Hydraulic Hydraulic
pump motor
Mechanical mechanical work taken
work put out of the system
in to the system
low pressure side

a/
.
 Switch

Cooper conductor

Free electron
Flow if switch closed

Electric Electric
Generator Motor
Mechanical mechanical work taken
Work put - out of the system
In to the system

b/

Fig. 11-1 (a) Hydraulic system (b) Analogous electric system

If the pressure developed by the pump increases, a condition when the pipe walls can no longer
withstand the high pressure is reached. A burst or rupture occurs, allowing the fluid to escape. A
similar condition occurs in an electric circuit. If pressure is applied to the insulating sheath or
coating around a conductor, electrons can be torn freefrom their orbits. The breakdown depends
upon the thickness of the pipe wall or the insulating sheath.
Quantity of electricity (Q). the coulomb is the fundamental unit of electric quantity. If refers to
the number of charged particles (electrons). Physicists have calculated that a coulomb represents
a quantity of 6.24x 1018 electrons.
Example. If there are 2.80 x 10 19 free electrons in apiece of copper wire, calculate the coulombs
this represents.
Solution

Q= 2.80x1019 =4.49 coulombs

6.24 x1018

Flow of electricity.
In an electric circuit the tem current (I) is used to refer to the rate of flow of the electric medium.
Just as fluid flow can be measured in gallons per second so can electrical flow be measured in
coulombs per second. One ampere (amp) is the rate of flow of the electrical medium when one
coulomb of free electrons passes a certain point in a circuit in one second. “ Amperes” and
“coulombs per second” have the same meaning.

Current (amp) = quantity (coulombs)

Time (sec)
 I =Q
t

Example. If 120 coulombs passes a certain point in a circuit in half a minute, calculate the flow
of current.

Solution I= 120 coulombs =4amp

30 sec

Electric pressure. In order of a current to flow in an electric circuit, a pressure must be applied
to the medium. In the case of the hydraulic system (Fig. 11-2) a potential difference is caused by
the difference in Pressure heads.

tank B High potential level tank A

Potential difference

Low potential level v1 water

Water
Hydraulic motor energy
taken out of the system
v3 v2
Valve
Feed pump

Fig .1-2 Model to show potential difference in a hydraulic system.

When the valve v1 is opened, the flow will be in the direction from tank A to tank B, that is,
from a high potential to a lower potential or lower energy level. In the case of an electric circuit a
similar condition may be considered as positive (+) charge and negative (-) charge. The term
“charge” signifies a quantity of electrons with potential energy implied. There is an electric
potential difference between the two points.

Potential difference (symbolized by V) may be expressed as the rise (or fall) in potential energy
per unit quantity of electrons moved. Voltage is the measure of the potential-energy difference
between two points in an electric circuit. The unit of voltage is the volt. The potential rise in the
case of charging a battery is frequently called the electron-moving force, or electromotive force,
abbreviated emf, and the symbol E is applied. The terminal voltage of a battery or generator
when it delivers a current I is equal to the total emf E minus the potential drop (or voltage drop)
in its internal resistance r. When current is being delivered terminal voltage equals emf minus
voltage drop in internal resistance: V = E - Ir.
Ohm’s Law
The simplest direct current (d-e) electric circuit consists of a battery, switch, conductors, and a
resistance (resistor). The arrangement is shown in Fig. 11-3
George Simon Ohm discovered, more than a century ago, that when the switch of such a simple
circuit was closed the current remained steady provided the surrounding or ambient temperature
of the conductor did not change. He discovered that by doubling the emf the current could be
doubled and by trebling
the emf the current could be trebled. In short, he found that for a given circuit, the ratio of the
emf to the current remained a constant.

E (volts) =K
I (amp)

Where k is a numerical constant..

Resister (R)

+ Current flow (I)

When switch closed

fig11-3 a simple electric circuit

It was also found that changing the resistance value resulted in a different value of the numerical
constant. From test results Ohm concluded that the constant I/I ratio for a given circuit indicated
a specific property of that circuit. For a given emf, the value of the constant increased as the
current decreased. This constant represented an opposition of the circuit to the flow of current,
and it was thus given the name resistance.

Resistance(R) in an electric circuit refers to the resistance to current flow. The unit is the ohm.

R (ohms) = E (volts)
I (amp)

Example . calculate the resistance of the filament in an optical pyrometer if a current of120 ma
flows through the circuit at 6.00 volts applied at the terminals.

Solution R (ohms) = 6.00(volts)

0.12(amp)

The resistance of a unit length and cross section of conductor material is termed the specific
resistance or resistivity. The specific resistance is indicated by the Greek letter ρ (rho). Since
the mks (meter-kilogram-second) unit for both length and cross section is the meter, the mks
standard conductor takes the form of a cube with each edge of jits faces one meter in length. The
resistivity of an electrical conducting material would be the resistance between opposite faces of a
one-meter cube and would be expressed in ohms-meters.
Is instrumentation work, resistivity is expressed in the foot unit of length and the mil(1.0x 10 -8
in.) as the unit of diameter. This practical unit of resistivity is expressed in ohms for a mil-foot
conductor at a specified temperature (usually 20 0c). Table11-1 lists the resistivity of some
common electrical conductors.

The area of a circle is A=(P/4)d 2, where d is the diameter. Since p/4 is a constant, the area is
directly proportional to the square of the diameter.

Table 11-1 Resistivity of common conductors at 200C

Conductor's p, ohms/cir mil-ft

Elements:
Sliver ------------------------------------------------------------- 9.7
Copper ------------------------------------------------------------ 10.3
Aluminum ------------------------------------------------------- 17.0
Tungsten ---------------------------------------------------------- 33
Iron ---------------------------------------------------------------- 72-84
Alloys:
Brass ---------------------------------------------------------------- 38-52
Chromel ------------------------------------------------------------ 625-655
Constantan (60% Cu, 40% Ni) ---------------------------------- 295
Nichrome (60% Ni, 12% Cr, 2% Mn, 26% Fe) ---------------- 660

Because the majority of electrical conductors have a circular cross section, a new area unit is
used. This is called the circular mil (cir mil) as opposed to the square mil. The circular mil is
defined as the area of a circle, whose diameter is exactly one mil. Hence A = d 2, where, A is the
area of a circle in circular mils, and d is the diameter of the circle, in mils. The use of this
circular measure avoids the possibility of error in multiplying d 2 by p/4.

Example. Calculate the cross-sectional area of a conductor, in circular mils, if the conductor
diameter is 4 mils.

Solution A= d2=42 = 16cir mils

Calculation of Resistance. The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross selection is directly

proportional to the resistivity and the length and inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area
of the conductor. Symbolically,

R = pL
d2

example .the diameter, in mils, of an American wire gauge (AWG)No. 14 copper wire is 64.1.
Calculate the resistance at 200c of a 200-ft length of wire.

Diameter d = 64.1 mils

Solution area A =d² = 64.1x64.1 = 4,109cir mils

 Resistance R== pL = 10.3 x 200 = 0.5 ohms
d² 4,109

Effect of Temperature on Resistance

It is found that, as a general rule, the resistivity of metallic conductors increases with temperature,
whereas that of electrolytes, carbon, and insulators decreases with temperature. For common
electrical conductors the equation is

Rt = Ro [1 +a T +ß ( T) ²]

Where Rt = resistance at any temperature T oC

Ro = resistance at 20oC
T = change in temperature, oC

And a and ß are constants for the material. The constant b is so small that for narrow
temperature ranges of say. O to 150oC. it may be neglected.

Electric Current

Electrical current, I, is the amount of coulombs Q, that flows past in a given time t. the unit of
currents is the ampere A.

I = Q (coulomb)
t (seconds)

Electric Power

Electrical power (p) is the current flow multiplied by the pressure (voltage) creating the flow in
the circuit

P= v x I= I²x R = V²/ R (watts)

Electric Energy
The unit of electrical energy takes into account the length of time for which the power is
being used and is the unit on which electricity changes are based. The unit is called the joule,
where 1 joule of energy is consumed when a power of 1 watt is used for a time of 1 second, that
is

Energy =joule = P(w) x t(seconds)

Resistance
Resistance is opposition to the flow of electrical current. Its symbol is R, and resistance is
measured in units called ohms.

R=V/I

Capacitance
Capacitance is the constant of proportionality between the rate of change of voltage across
a circuit and the current in the circuit, unit is farad.

C = Q / V (farad F)
Inductance
Inductance is the constant of proportionality between the rate of change of current in a circuit and
the voltage across the circuit

L=V
di/dt

Electrical components

A good understanding of components and their limitation is an essential part.

Electrical/electronic components are classified as passive components and Active
components.

Passive components:-electronic component that requires, and input other than a signal to
perform its function and they are tested by measuring the ratio of the voltage across the device, to
the current through the device, which is impedance and it is invariant with the magnitude of either
the voltage or the current,

Examples are Resisters, inductors, capacitors, transformers

Active component’s:- electronic component that requires, transformers sources of power to
enable them to function and the ratio of te voltage to the current is dependent on the magnitude of
the current or voltage.

Examples are diodes, transistors, vacuum tubes also called non-linear elements.
Lets review some points on passive components.

Resisters
A resistor is a component designed to have a known value of resistance. Although a resistance
has a disadvantage of reducing the current, it can be used to limit the current and voltage in
circuit to provide a desired magnitude.

Resistance is the ability of a circuit to oppose current flow. The resistance of the material
depends on the nature of the device, its size shape, and what type of material it is made.

To compare the difference of resistance between the material is used resistivity or specific
resistance, i.e. The resistance of a piece with a standard length and area.
The main factor that controls the resistance of a resistor are its length, area and resistivity.
R=p L
A

Where R =resistance in ohm

P = resistivity in ohm meter
L = length in meters
A = area in meter-square

Resistance and temperature:-

The resistance increases uniformly with the increase of temperature for the case of metals.
 R2 =r1 (1+ t)

where R2 -initial resistance

t -change in temperature
& a -the ratio of the increases
of resistance at some definite
temperature adopted as temp.
coefficient of resistance.

Types of Resistors:

Resistors can be a fixed type and variable resistor type.

Fixed resistors: within each type of component there are usually several different type. In the
class of fixed resistors you can use any of the following
-Carbon composition
-Carbon film
-Metal oxide
-Wire wound

Variable resistors:- These components basically consists of basically of a track of some kind of
resistive material to which a moveable wiper makes contact. Depending on the resistive material
used.
a) Caron
b) Wire wound
c) Cermet- A thick film resistance coating on a ceramic substrate

Resistor Co lour Coding: Used to indicate the values of the resistor by colour coding

COLOUR CODE COLOUR CODE

COLOUR CODE COLOUR CODE
Black 0 Green 5
Brown 1 Blue 6
Red 2 Violte 7
 Orange 3 Gray 8
Yellow 4 White 9

The co lour coding is standardize by electronic industries Association (ELA)

For tolerance gold & silver are used

12 34
Gold-5%
Sliver -10 %
Ne Gand 20% 1st
2nd
3 --10 multiple
4--tolerance

The most common trouble in resistors is an open, the result is no current flow.

Capacitors:- Capacitor is a device capable of storing electric changes and its capacitance to
store electric chare is defined as the property of a circuit that enables it to store electric charge in
the form of an electrostatic field when its plates are at different potentials.

Basically, a capacitor is made of two plates or electrodes separated by some type of insulation
called dielectic, such as air mica, glass.

The familiar formula for capacitance Cis

C= Eo Er A
d

Where Eo is the absolute pemitivity

Er is the relative permitivity
A is the area of the plates
D is the distance between the plates.
Fundamentally, there are two types of capacitors: fixed or variable.

Fixed capacitor:
Has only one specific value or capacity. They come in hundreds of sizes and shapes with many
types of dielectric material.

Variable capacitor:
Can be adjusted or varied from some minimum valve to a maximum valve. These are also
classified according to the types of dielectric material.
Capacitor Ratings:
The maximum dc voltages that can be steadily applied to a capacitor without danger or arcing is
called it voltage rating. Capacitors have a voltage ratings that should not exceeded.

Charging and discharging of a capacitor

The dielectric material of the capacitor holds an electric charge because electrons can not flow
through an insulator. The plate of the capacitor which is connected to the negative teminal of the
voltage source will accumulated electrons, while the other plate which is connected to the
positive terminal of the voltage source will loss electrons and the capacitor plates becomes
charged in this way.

Maxwell introduced that, any change in the electric flux in any region is equivalent to an electric
current in that region and he called this electric current a displacement current, to distinguish it
from the conduction current.
Hence when a capacitor is being charged /discharged we can say that the current is continuos
around the whole circuit being in the form of conduction current in the wires and displacement
current in the dielectric of the capacitor.
Applications for capacitor are widespread and include
- welding
- Photoflash
- Reservoir and smoothing filters in power supplies
- Decoupling and coupling in amplifiers
- Tuning resonant circuits
- Filters and wave form shaping and oscillators
- Power factor correction and so on.

Inductors
A device which opposes change in current is called inductance. Since inductance opposes
changes of current only, it follows that inductance is effective only if there is a change of current
in the circuit.

Inductors can be classified as fixed or variable types.

Fixed types are air core or iron core.
Variable types are the permeability –tuned variable coil has a ferromagnetic shaft that can be
moved in or out, to vary the flux.
Inductance interms of its physical dimension
L = μ r μ o N2 A where μo -r

Inductors are classified in the following wags:

- According to core materials i.e. air core/iron core
- According to frequency i.e. Audio /RF
- According to the method of winding i.e. Single layer/multi layer
- According to the value of inductance i.e. Fixed /variable.
-

1.3. OHMS LAW

The pressure, resistance and current are connected by a formula known as ohm’s law, which
states that the current in a circuit is inversely proportional to the circuit resistance.

Expressed mathematically symbol form

I=V/R
where I-current in ampere
V-pressure in volts
R-resistance in ohms

From the above equation, it is seen that the current flow can be controlled or regulated by
variations of the circuit voltage or the circuit resistance.
 1.4 Series Circuit and KVL
A series circuit is a circuit in which the same current flows through each component and the
elements are connected end to end. There is only one path for electrons.
How does the basic electrical quantities like voltage, current, resistance and power are distributed
among the different components of a series circuit.
Consider the following series circuit

R1 R2

E1

E2 R3

R5 R4
Fig -1 Series Circuit

Analysis procedure For a series circuit are as follow:

1. Determine the total applied voltage.

ET=E1 + E2 ……..+Ea
2. Calculate the total resistance
RT=T1 + R2+ …..+Ra
3. Calculate the circuit current
IT = ET/RT IT =ET
RT
4. determine the voltage drop across each component

V=IR

N.B To find the voltage drop across each element we can apply voltage divider rule which
states that f
Or a series circuit the voltage across any resistor is equal to the value of that resistor,
multiplied by the potential difference across the series circuit and divided by the total
resistance of the circuit.

VR1 =E1 R1
R1 +R2 +Rn

5. Determine the power dissipated by each resistor.

Check you calculation from the principle of kVL that EMF voltage put into the circuit, equals the
total voltage drop across the resitors.

E= VR1 + VR2 + ….. +VRN

1.5 Parallel circuit and KCL
A parallel circuit is one that contains more than one path or branch for currents to flow. Parallel
branches have the some voltage across each branch. Likewise, parallel components have
identical voltage across each component.

How does the basic electrical quantities like voltage, current, resistance and power are distributed
among the different parts of a parallel circuit?

I1 I2 I3 I4

E R2 R4

R1 R3

Fig 2 Parallel circuit

1. calculate the current through each resistor in turn

I1 = E I2 =E/R2
R1
2. Calculate the total circuit current

Ir = I1+ I2 + …. + In
N.B To find the branch current we can apply current divider rule which states that the
current through any parallel branch is equal to the product of the total resistance of the
parallel branches and the input current divided by the resistance of the branch through which
the current is to be determined.
3. The total power used in parallel circuit, equals the sum of the power used in each branch
4.
PT= P1+P2 +……………Pn

KCL states that current entering a junction must equal to the current leaving that junction or
the algebraic sum of the current at a junction is zero.

1.6 Series-Parallel Circuits

Many circuits involve combinations of series and parallel connections. Which are called series –
parallel ckts.
Analyzing series parallel circuits
The first step in solving for currents and voltages in a series-parallel ckts is to find the
equivalent circuit resistance by simplifying the circuit i.e

- Replace each parallel circuit by a single equivalent resistance in the schematic

- Replace series resistors by their equivalent total resistance.
- Repeat the above steps until only one resistor is left i.e. the total equivalent circuit
resistance.
To calculate the voltage and current distribution in a series-parallel circuit, first simplify the
circuit to a single equivalent resistance, RT.

Then find the current drawn from the voltage source. Next work backward through the
simplification circuits to find voltage drops and branch current.
 Level measurement of liquids and solids
“Those who fall in love with practice without science are like a sailor who steers a ship with out a helm or
compass, and who never can be certain whither he is going. “
LEONARDO DA VINCI

The vast quantity of water which is used by industry alone, as well as that of the solvents,
chemicals, and other liquids which are required for processing materials and products, makes
liquid-level measurement and control essential to modern manufacturing plants. Instruments for
the measurement of liquid level in storage tanks can be classified as follows:
 Mechanical; direct and indirect methods
 Pneumatic techniques
 Electrical methods
 Nucleonic gauges
 Ultrasonic systems
The type of instrument or gauge which is to be used in any particular installation depends upon
the liquid-level range, the nature of the liquid, operating pressures, and also the cost involved.
Direct mechanical measurement of liquid level
Dipstick method. By the direct methods the actual varying level of the liquid itself is measured.
The most common of these methods is called sticking or dipping. A dipstick is used to measure
the oil level in the car engine or the height of fuel oil in a uniformly shaped storage tank. In the
bob-and- tape method the bob weight is lowered to the bottom of the tank containing the liquid,
and the level is found by nothing the point on the tape reached by the liquid surface. It is
important in this case to keep the tape vertical and taut when the reading is taken. Obviously, this
method is unsuitable for continuous measurement.
1 00%

Full depth
Half way
0%
0% 50% 100%
Volume

fig 6-1 level volume relation in uniform tank

For a storage tank which is uniformly shaped the relationship between level and volume
on a percent basis is linear. This is shown in fig. 6-1. In the case of a horizontal
Cylindrical tank with flat ends, the graph of volume against liquid level or depth is as plotted in
Fig. 6-2. Notice that, toward the halfway line, the curve flattens out: the volume increases more
rapidly than the level because of the larger surface. A cross-sectional view of the cylindrical tank
is also shown to indicate the volume at corresponding levels.
Sight-glass method. A very common example of this means of measurement is the coffee urn
seen in cafeterias. The sight tube usually consists of a graduated glass tube mounted on the
outside of the tank
As the liquid level alters in side the tank, so does the level in the glass tube. The arrangement is
shown in Fig. 6-3. The measurement is simple and direct. When the glass tube is fixed to tanks
containing liquids at very high temperatures, corrections must be made because of density
variations. % depth from %contents of
bottom total volume
Dip stick Level
100% 1 1oo 100.0
90 94.8
full ll 80 85.5
70 74.7
depth 60 62.6
50 50.0
40 37.4
30 25.2
20 14.2
half way 10 5.2
0 0
level
0% 50% 100% section view of tank

fig. 6-2 Level-volume relation in horizontal cylindrical tank with flat ends.

The temperature surrounding the glass tube will be much lower than that in the tank, thus causing
a difference in density and influencing the actual level reading. A correction factor will have to
be applied, as in the case of sight tubes installed in boiler drums.
Tank Uniform scale

Reading
Glass tube

fig 6-3 sight-glass level gauge

Hook gauge.
Sometimes it is necessary to measure with high accuracy a very small change in level. In a large
tank a small change in level will mean a considerable volumetric change. The hook gauge is
suitable for use in such cases. The schematic arrangement is shown in fig. 6-4. The gauge
consists of a vertical tubular rod carrying a scale and terminating in a hook. The tubular rod can
move in a guide bracket which locates the gauge. The vertical rod can be raise or lowered by
rotating a milled head. The hook gauge is also used in back-water-level measurement and in the
measurement of flow of rivers and the levels of reservoirs.
In practice, the instrument must be fixed at a datum or reference level for the changes to be
measured. The hook is raised or lowered until the tip of the hook just breaks the liquid surface,
when a small standing wave will be formed. A reading is then observed on the scale and vernier,
and the accuracy expected is to 1/100 in.

Vernier scale
Vertical rod adjusted until tip of
hook gust breaks liquid surface

Datum or
reference
line

Tip of hook

Fig. 6-4 installation of the hook gauge.

Float gauges. Archimedes observed that a floating body is buoyed by a force equal to the weight
of the liquid it displaces. There are many kinds Of float-operated device for continuous, direct
level measurement. The primary element is a float which, because of its buoyancy, will follow
the varying liquid level. A transducer or converting device can relay the float travel to a pointer
or pen arm of a recorder.
The instrument shown in Fig. 6-5 consists of a float, a counterweight, and a flexible connection
which can be a chain or thin metallic tape. The counterweight keeps the chain under tension and
takes up the slack when the float rises.

Sprocket wheel pointer 1 2 3

Pulley 4
Level gauge
 5
float
Link chain

tank
Counter weight
liquid

Fig. 6-5 Float level gauge.

The chain link may be used to run over the teeth of a gear or sprocket wheel to which a pointer is
attached. Any movement of the gear will indicate on a suitably calibrated scale the level of the
liquid in the tank. Another type of float-operated instrument has the float attached to a shaft, as
shown schematically in Fig. 6-6. The motion of the float travel on the surface of the liquid is
transferred to the shaft, and the level is indicated on the dial.
Scale Rotating shaft with pointer
1
2
3
4 float
Pointer 5

zero line Float on the position slightly to the right

of center for free movement
Fig. 6-6 rotating shaft level gauge.
The floats described are normally partly submerged in the liquid. The weight of the float is
adjusted by an internal or external counterweight to maintain a half-submerged position in order
to obtain maximum operating force. This is frequently referred to as the constant-displacement
type of float. In a liquid of a given specific gravity, the weight displacement remains constant
regardless of the level position. The float rises and falls the same distance as the actual liquid
level, and the position of the float is a direct indication of level.
With the variable-displacement type of float the action is similar to that described above,
except that vertical movement of the float is more restricted. The weight of the displacer is
always greater than that of the liquid displaced at full immersion. As the liquid level varies, more
or less of the displacer is covered by the liquid. Reference to Fig. 6-7 a and b will help to clarify
the principle involved.
 In accordance with Archimedes’ principle (that the apparent loss in weight of a body
totally or partially immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced), the more
the displacer is submerged the greater is the force created by the displacer, owing to buoyancy.
Although the displacer submerged, the greater is the force created by the displacer, owing to
buoyancy. Although the displacer rise and falls with level changes, the movement is very much
less than the actual level variation. The difference in movement between displacer and liquid
depends upon the cross-sectional area of the displacer, the stiffness or spring rate of the
supporting spring or torque tube, and the specific gravity of the liquid.
When a pneumatic signal is required for remote reading or for movements control
system, the force created by the displacer owing to buoyancy is generally transferred through a
twisting or torque tube. The pneumatic system is so designed that , for each angular position of
the tube, there is a corresponding air –pressure signal to the indicator or controller. The main
application for the variable-displacement type is when measurement is required for measurement
is required for small level changes. The instrument is more sensitive to small level changes, and
it is also subject to less mechanical friction.
Float-operated schemes with electrical transmission. The float operated methods of
measuring level can be equipped for electrical transmission. A variety of methods and designs
are available.
Indirect Mechanical Methods of Liquid-Level Measurement
The simplest arrangement of an indirect method of level measurement is the pressure gauge
connected at the bottom or side of a uniform tank containing liquid. The diagram in Fig.6-8
shows the details of such an installation. The rise or fall of the level causes an increase or
decrease of pressure, which is transmitted to the gauge. The dial or scale of the instrument is
calibrated in units of level measurement (feet or inches).

spring balance or scale

0 0 0

5 2 5 2 2 2 5 2

3 3 3

Solid displacer 2.25"

diameter 14"long
0 water level 7"water level 14" water level
(a)
Full weight of displacer water displaced water displaced
supported by spring scale weight 1lb weight 2lb

Fig. 6-7 (a) Principle of the variable-displacement gauge.

Torque tube clamped at the end

4 2 0
beam

pin

7"wtere level

0 water level fulcrum

Fig. 6-7 (b) Basic operation of the variable-displacement gauge Division of

 Pressure gauge calibrated
Liquid Variable level or liquid for level measurement
Pressure head

Fig 6-8 Simple arrangements for level-pressure measurement.

If the nature of the liquid under measurement is such that the liquid must not enter the
actual gauge, then a transmitting fluid (e.g., oil) must be used between the liquid and the gauge
mechanism. Air is also frequently used and sealed in as the transmitting medium. The air –
pressure variation due to change in the liquid level is thus transmitted to a pressure receiver.
Pressure–sensing elements. A diaphragm or bellows (as described in the section on pressure
measurement) may be used as the primary sensing element. The schematic arrangement in Fig.
6-9 shows a typical industrial

Air in capillary tube

Level indicator

h
Ph Alternative insulation

Ph Ph
Zero line
flexible diaphragm

Fig. 6-9 Diaphragm unit and level indicator.

application. The diaphragm is slack; it is made of a flexible material such as rubber or neoprene
secured in the flanges of a container. The diaphragm acts as the partition. The pressure due to
the height of the liquid is overted against the lower surface of the section of the diaphragm, and in
turn in the capillary tubing leading to a pressure instrument (Bourdon, stack, or bellows type), is
compressed as the level in creases. The weight of liquid above the diaphragm exerts a pressure
on the diaphragm proportional to the height (or head):

Pressure = height of liquid x weight density of liquid

Ph=hw
By dimensional analysis,

F = [L] X F = F
L² L³ L²
It is seen that the equation balances dimensionally, and appropriate units may now be inserted.
The pressure ph causes the deflection of the diaphragm and therefore controls the pressur
within the enclosed container from the top side of the diaphragm to the pressure instrument,
which is calibrated in units of liquid level above the diaphragm. Alternatively, the dial may be
calibrated in terms of capacity, gallons, or cubic feet of liquid in the storage tank.
Example. A storage tank containing oil of specific gravity 0.9 has its free surface level
10 ft above the bottom of the tank. Calculate the pressure, in pounds per square inch, at the
bottom of the tank.

Solution ph =hw sp gr
=10 ft x 62.4 Ib/ft³ x 0.9
= 561.6lb/ft² = 561.6lb/ft² = 3.9lb/in.²
144 in.²/ft²
Or 4 psi to the nearest whole number.

Pneumatic Methods
The bubbler technique. In this method the air pressure in a pipeline is so regulated that the air
pressure in the bubbler tube, as shown in Fig. 6-10, is minutely in excess of the liquid pressure in
the tank. The bubbler tube is installed vertically in the tank with its open end at the zero level.
The other end of the tube or pipe is connected to a regulated air supply and to a pressure gauge.
To make a level measurement, the air-supply regulator or valve is so adjusted that the pressure is
slightly greater than the pressure (due to the height) exerted by the liquid in the tank. This is
achieved by adjusting the air-pressure regulator until bubbles can be seen slowly leaving the open
end of the tube. There is , of course, a minimum airflow required to achieve these conditions, and
ofen a small air flow meter is fitted in the line so that a check is more readily available.

Pressure gauge used as level

indicator or recorder

Regulating valve
Air supply bubbler tub

Tank
Liquid

Zero level

Bubbler of air escaping when air line pressure

in air tube just exceeds pressure head of liquid

Fig. 6-10 Principle of bubbler level gauge.

The pressure gauge then measures the air pressure required to over come the pressure of the
liquid head above the open end of the pipe. Normally, the gauge is calibrated in feet or inches. If
the tank is uniformly shaped, the calibration may be in units of volume.
Example. In the arrangement shown in the diagram of Fig .6-11 the air supply is so regulated that
bubbles just begin to form in the tube immersed 10.0 in.

water
p
air supply

Tank
10.0" mercury manometer

Bubbles just forming and escaping

Fig, 6-11 Illustration of bubbler level gauge.

In the vessel filled with water. The manometer shows a deflection in the mercury levels.
Calculate this head in inches of mercury and in pounds per square inch.

Solution. Since mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water, the head, in inches of mercury,

p = 10.0in
13.6
= 0.74 [Link]

Since 29.92 in Hg is equivalent to 14.70 psi, the pressure head, in pounds per square inch,

p=0.74 X 14.75 lb/in²

29.92
=0.37 lb/in²
Or 0.4 psi to the nearest whole number. Conversely, if p were observed to read 0.74 in. hg, the
height of the water column above the bubbler tube would be 10 in.

Differential-pressure level meter. When the liquid is in a pressure vessel, the liquid –column
pressure does not give the true measurement, owing to the pressure above the free surface. In
order to measure such systems, differential-pressure meters are used. A typical installation is
shown schematically in Fig. 6-12. The manometer type of indicator

Vapor pressure tank

pc pc

hL

ph Very low-pressure column

(Negligible pressure head)

Liquid weight density wL ph

Calibrated scale
• A2


h d
Zero A1 line
x x

Float and arm mechanism connected to pointer

On scale

Fig 6-12 Typical arrangement of differential-pressure level gauge.

Shown works on the principle of the reservoir type of manometer discussed in Chap. 5. Referring
to the diagram of Fig. 6-12, consider the various pressures acting on the surface of the manometer
liquid. In the wide limb they are:
1. The pressure pc of the fluid (vapor, gas, or liquid) in the space above the free surface of the
liquid in the vessel
2. the pressure ph due to the height of the liquid (level) above the outlet connection O
3. the pressure PH due to the tank liquid below the outlet O filling the connecting pipe and
space above the meter liquid
In the other limb, which is narrower and referred to as the range side, the various pressures acting
are:
1. The pressure pc of the fluid (vapor, gas, or liquid) in the space above the free surface of the
liquid in the vessel
2. A possible pressure due to the column of fluid filling the connecting pipe to the narrow limb
and the space above the meter liquid
3. The pressue due to the difference in levels of the manometer liquid in the meter
The mathematical equation for the pressures acting in each limb of the meter above the reference
line X-X is
Pc+ hLwL+(H+d)wL= pc+(h+d)wm
hL= (h+d)wm - (H+d)wL
Hence WL

hL= (h+d)wm - (H+d)

wL

If A1 is the area of the wide limb of the meter and A2 is the area of the narrow limb of the meter,
then the volume of mercury displaced in the wide limb is equivalent to the increase of mercury in
the right limb.
A1d = A2h

h= A1 d
Hence A2

If h is substituted in the previous equation,

hL= d wm 1+ A1 -1 -H
wL A2

The difference in pressure detected by the meter is due to the changing level of the liquid in the
pressure vessel. Most of the differential – pressure- measuring devices described in Chap. 5 can
be used for level measurement.
Normally the connecting pipe to the narrow limb is filled with the liquid a constant head. The
head on the wide limb then becomes the variable and the differential head –reading gives a
measurement of fullness rather than emptiness, i.e., zero reading corresponds to a full vessel and
maximum reading to an empty vessel.

Electrical Method (Capacitance Level Gauge)

A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric.
Therefore, the capacitor type of level instrument is suitable for liquids, which can act as the
dielectric.
When an electrical potential is applied across the capacitor plates, there will be a removal of
electrons from one plate and an addition of he same number of electrons to the other plate. The
passage of electrons depends upon the space between the plats. The capacitance of a two-
parallel-plate capacitor is expressed mathematically as

C= 2.3 X 10¯¹X KA
S

Where C=capacitance, µµf (10-12 farad)

A=area of the plate, in .2
S=space between the plates, in.
K=dielectric constant
As the spacing between the plates becomes smaller, the potential, in volts per inch, increases.
The available amount of electrons between the electrode plates is inversely proportional to the
space between the plates.

Capacitance, which varies directly with liquid level in tubes, can be applied for
measurement and used for control purposes. The schematic arrangement in the diagram of
schematic arrangement in the diagram of Fig. 6-13 shows the variation of capacitance of a probe
or tube immersed in a liquid under level measurement. The capacitance will be at a minimum
when the tubes contain only air and at a maximum when the liquid fills the entire space between
the electrodes. By using a suitable measuring unit such as the Wheatstone bride circuit (which is
described in the section dealing with measuring circuits), the liquid level can be measured by
adjusting one arm of the bridge to obtain a balance. However, the output of the bridge can be fed
to an amplifier and servomotor which will rebalance the bridge automatically and thus indicate
the level reading.

Connection
Measuring circuit
Inner electrode
Outer electrode
Air or gas
Electrolyte

Liquid dielectric

Tank
liquid

fig 6-213 Capacitance, of the probe varies with liquid level

In a simpler type of installation a rodlike metal electrode is placed

The capacitance, as in the previous case, becomes a function of the liquid level, which may be
registered by an electric bridge circuit and readout instrument. The range of the capacitance
level-measuring gauge is from a few inches to several hundred feet. The material of the electrode
varies according to the application. For corrosive liquids most common metals are satisfactory.
When the level of solids is to be measured, the general scheme is the same: the storage
tank or container becomes one electrode plate and the actual material becomes the dielectric. The
other electrode plate is an insulated wire positioned vertically in the center of the tank or
container.
A basic electrical level –control scheme.
 An interesting control scheme is based on the original Evershed Noflote principle. This
utilizes the fact that many industrial liquids are electrical conductors. The arrangement consists
of two or more electrodes and a special relay operated from an alternating current (a-c) supply
designed to give low voltages across the electrodes.
The general layout of the installation is shown in Fig. 6-14. Two electrodes suspended
from insulated fixtures project into the liquid under level control. The electrodes are of different
lengths, the lengths being adjusted

Supply line

reloy

Ground or hold on

Motor

electrode
(rod)

Pump
Start

Pump
Pump stop

liquid under control

Fig.6-14 simple drainage-control scheme. (Evershed $ Vignoles Ltd.)

To correspond with the two levels between which the pump is required to operate. The relay is
connected by wires to the electrodes, and the sequence of operations is briefly as follow: the
liquid, on rising, completes an electrical circuit through the start electrode, thereby actuating the
relay. The relay, in turn, operates the pilot coil of the actuating the relay. The relay, in turn,
operates the pilot coil of the automatic starter, and this starts the motor to the pump. The motor
continues to run, owing to the hold-on circuit through ground, until the level falls below the stop
electrode, when the pump will stop.
In the installation shown for drainage control, when the liquid level reaches the higher electrode,
the pump will start and continue pumping
until the level falls below the bottom of the lower electrode. The pump will then stop, and
restarting commences only when the level again reaches the upper electrode. The hold-on circuit
is obtained from a ground connection which often consists of a third electrode. This same
principle is used with certain boiler drum level gauges.

Nucleonic Gauges

Nucleonic-type level-measuring units consist of a radioactive source, a radiation detector, and

electronic measuring circuits incorporating an amplifier and receiving readout instrument or
recorder-controller. Nuclear gauges cover a wide range of applications. Installations range from
indicating high-and low-level alarms on storage tanks as large as 50 ft in diameter, using gamma
switches, through continuous measurement of heights of 20 ft and over to + 1 percent
repeatability.

A typical Ohmart level goging system Radiation from a strip source of gamma rays is measured
by a stack of ohmart measuring cells. The output current from the cells, which varies with the
level of the material being measured, is inversely proportional to level change.

strip source of gamma radiation Amplifier

ohmart measuring cells

shielding source holder

Recorder /controller power supply /indicator

Fig. 6-15 Nuclear gauging systems for measuring level or interface position of liquids, solids, or
slurries. (Ohmart Corp.)

The radioactive source is placed externally on one side of the tank and The detector on the
opposite side. The liquid, upon rising and falling inside the tank, absorbs radiation, and the
change in intensity received by the detector is a function of the liquid level. A typical level-gauge
installation is shown in Fig. 6-15.
The radioactive sources normally use are strontium 90 for beta radiation and cobalt 60 and
cesium 137 for gamma radiation. A small radio active source consists of a rod approximately 1
in. long and 1/8 in. in diameter. for a high-level variation a strip source of short rods placed end
to end to make up the required length is used. The strip source is housed in shielded containers,
generally with a rotary shutter for transmission purposes.
For level measurement and /or control applications, the detector used is normally a measuring cell
that converts radioactive energy directly into electric energy. The output is then fed either to a
single vacuum-tube direct- current (d-c) amplifier or to a vibrating-capacitor a-c ampli8fier that is
remotely mounted. In the Ohmart nuclear gauging systems, models LG and MDLV use a model
VC vibrating capacitor, feedback-stabilized a-c amplifier-indicator featuring solid-state plug-in
circuit modules, and a single vacuum tube. The variable time constant is 1 to 30 sec, and current
output is from 0 to 1 ma at 1 volt.
The advantages of the nucleonic gauging systems are:
1. No part of the gauge is in contact with the material under measurement. For this reason the
gauge is not affected by conditions of high and low te4mperature, pressure, viscosity,
corrosion, and abrasion.
2. The repeatability in some models varies from + 1 percent range to + 4 or + 2 percent of
scale, depending upon the radiation-field intensity. The zero shift is frequently less than 1
percent of scale in 7 days.
3. The level gauges provide sensitive measurement and control without the use of complex
components.
4. The gauges are ruggedly constructed to withstand severe industrial conditions.
5. Adequate shielding limits radiation-field intensity well below Atomic Energy Commission
(AEC) tolerance.
Ultrasonic Method
A typical ultrasonic system for measuring level changes is shown in Fig. 6-16 Sound waves are
sent out to the free surface of the liquid under

Transmitter receiver
Ultrasonic
wave

Power supply

Level

Liquid

Level indicator/recorder
Fig. 6-16 Ultrasonic system for level measurement.
Measurement and are reflected back to the receiving unit. Level variations are very accurately
measured by detecting the time interval takent for the waves to travel to the surface and back to
the receiver. The longer the time interval the farther away is the liquid surface, which, in turn, is
an indication of the level measurement.
It should be stated that these systems have been described and illustrated very simply and
briefly. Some are highly complicated in design, application, and operation, and also quite
expensive.

Measurement of the Level of Solid Substances

Capacitor-probe, nucleonic, and ultrasonic methods. There is a great need in industry for the
continuous indication of the levels of granular substances in storage bins or tanks between full
and empty conditions. One very common example is the measurement of the level of flour in a
silo. The majority of methods described for liquid-level measurement can not be used
satisfactorily for solid-level measurement. Generally, the three exceptions are the capacitor
probe, the nucleonic, and ultrasonic methods
.
Determination of level by weighing; mechanical and electrical methods.
The weight of a material in a tank or storage bin is an indirect method of determining level, since
variations in level produce corresponding variations in weight. The storage tank can be weighed
on mechanical scales, or it can be weighed electrically by using load cells as shown in Fig.6-17.
The load cells are specially designed and constructed units containing strain gauges. The strain
gauges provide a measurable electrical output proportional to the stress applied by the weight
acting upon the load cells. As the pressure on the load cells due to variations in the weight of the
material inside the tank changes, the electrical resistances of the strain gauges also change. The
strain gauge is connected to a measuring bridge circuit containing an electrical meter calibrated in
units of level measurement. Full details of the strain gauge are given in the section dealing with
electrical transducers.
It should be clearly noted that the weight level method is accurate only if the density and
the granular or particle size of the material being weighed are uniform. Also, the moisture
content should be fairly constant for true level measurement. In the case of coal or coke these
conditions are seldom realized.

storage tank

weight indicating instruments

Load
Cells

fig 6-17 storage tank weighed electrically by using strain gauge

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

6-1 (a) Distinguish between direct and indirect methods of level measurement.
(b) Give examples of each of these methods.
6-2 Describe the application of Archimedes’ principle in the constant and variable-
displacement types of float.
6-3 What type of primary sensing element would you use to measure the level of a corrosive
liquid?
6-4 (a) What is the importance of weight-density or specific-gravity values in computing liquid-
level pressures?
(b) Compute the pressure, in pounds per square inch, of a column of liquid 20 ft high if the
weight density is 100 1b/ft3.
(c) If the pressure gauge connected at the bottom of a liquid storage tank indicates 10 psi
and the specific gravity of the liquid is 0.9, compute the level of the liquid, in feet.
6-5 (a) Describe, with the aid of a neat schematic diagram, the principle of the bubbler type of
level gauge. Mention examples of its application.
(b) In a bubbler type of level-measuring system the span is to register 10 to 50 ft of water.
Compute the equivalent pressures, in pounds per square inch. What would be the desirable
minimum value of the supply pressure?
6-6 In the diagram of Fig. 6-18 illustrating the “bubbler” level gauge, What is the level h of the
water above the tube, in centimeters if the differential pressure on the mercury manometer
reads 2.31 cm Hg?

water
h=2.31 cm
air supply

Tank
h mercury manometer

Bubbles just forming slowly

Fig, 6-18 bubbler level gauge principle.

6-7 Gasoline in a uniform tank is filled to a depth of 25 ft. what is the pressure, in pounds per
square inch, halfway down and at the bottom of the tank? Assume the specific gravity to be
0.70.
6-8 (a) Sketch a graph showing the relationship between pressure and depth in a uniformly
shaped storage tank containing liquid.
(b) If you had a sensitive pressure gauge, how would it provide a means for determining the
level of the gasoline in the tank?
(c) Sketch a graph showing the relationship between pressure and depth in a horizontal
cylindrical tank with flat ends.
(d) With the same gauge, what would now be the nature of the scale divisions for
determining the gasoline level?
6-9 For the system indicated in Fig. 6-19 show that

H= d wm 1+ A1 -1 -H
w A2

Where H = head of liquid above X-X

Wl =density of the tank liquid
Wm = density of the instrument liquid
A1 = area of the wide tube
A2 = area of the narrow tube
H1 = head of tank liquid below X-X to the zero level of the instrument liquid
 H
Tank

x
X

H1
zero line liquid
d h

fig 6-19 Differential pressure method

6-10 Describe an industrial installation for the measurement of the level of a corrosive fluid in
a closed tank by using a differential-pressure mercury-filled meter.

6-11 Several electrical methods are available for level measurement. Describe the operation of
one and include a diagram of the arrangement.

6-12 Describe a suitable method which you would use to measure the bin level of iron ore, which
is magnetic and very abrasive.

6-13 The tank show in Fig. 6-20 will discharge liquid at a constant rate so long as the liquid
surface within the tank lies above the bottom of the air inlet. Determine the liquid level in
the glass piezometer tubes A and B under the conditions indicated. What is the pressure
intensity of the air in the tank if the specific weight of the liquid is 85.0 1b/ft 3? Give your
answer in pounds per square inch and mark in the levels of A and B in the sketch.
Atmospheric pressure
AP
Pressure tight fit

15"
AB
8"

Bubbles just forming

Fig 6-20 tank of question 6-13