Unit 1 Introduction to Teaching and

Learning
• Unit 1 Introduction to Teaching and Learning
• Learning Objectives of the Unit:
• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• • Conceptualize teaching learning and teaching
profession.
• • Discuss the role of teachers in the classroom
• • Explain the knowledge and skill needs of the teachers.
• • Describe the teacher collaboration and principles of
effective instruction.
• • Identify the foundation of teaching
 1.1 The Concept of Teaching in General

• Teaching is a multifaceted process that involves the

deliberate and systematic imparting of knowledge, skills,
and values from a teacher to learners.
• Teaching: Imparting knowledge, skill and information:
Giving of instruction
• Instruction: systematic method furnishing others with
knowledge and information
• Design and selection of teaching methods must take into
account:
• 1/ the nature of the subject matter and
• 2/ how students learn
 To be continued
• In recent years the central debate about teaching
and learning focused on:
– 1/ Constructed knowledge
– 2/ Instructed knowledge
• Constructivists believe that:
– An individual can create his / her understanding of the
world from first hand experience, action and
reflection.
– Not from having pre-digested information and skills
presented by a teacher and a textbook
 Instructivist believe:
• Direct explicit teaching, particularly for achieving certain goals
in education.
• Learners should follow an orderly and sequential manner,
practiced and assessed and review regularly.
• Constructivist and instructivist perspectives are represented in
two contrasting approach:
– 1. Student– focused: deeper conceptual understanding and change
in students.
– Minimally guided instruction/progressive method/ learner-centered
– 2. Teacher – focused: transmission of information and skills from
teacher to learner.
– Explicit instruction/ traditional didactics teaching/ teacher centred
approach
 Constructivism
• Constructivism is a theory about human
learning. Since the 1990s, constructivism has
been very influential who introduces new
learner–centered approaches to teaching.
• The underlying principles of constructivism
can be traced back to the learning theories
• These pioneers stressed the essential role of
activity and first-hand experience in shaping
human learning and understanding essential
role of activity.
• Learning: involves children in hands- on
discovery, problem solving, inductive thinking
and reasoning. Learning: occurs to the extent
that new information links with the learner’s
prior knowledge and experience.
 Direct Teaching
• In view of learning instructivist believe that
direct teaching can be extremely effective.
– Direct teaching descriptors/names are:
– Explicit instruction
– Systematic instruction
– Direct instruction (DI)
– Active teaching and
– Teacher- directed approach
 1.2 Role of Teachers in the Classroom

A. Role Model for the Students

• Inspire students
• Mold student’s futures
• Influence the lives of students.
• Show students learning are ongoing; life
enriching process does not end with diploma
and graduations.
• Teacher can never teach unless he is still
learning “A lamp can never light another lamp
unless it continues to burn it’s own flame.”
 Knowledge and Skills Teachers Need
• Self-Knowledge
• Knowledge of the Students
• Knowledge of Subject/Course
• Knowledge of How To Use Educational Theory and
Research
• Knowledge of How to Integrate Technology Into
Teaching
– As a teacher you are expected to know how to integrate
technology into your teaching and throughout your teaching
to enhance student learning. Teacher Participates in Teacher
Collaboration
 The Effective Teacher
• What is an effective Teacher?
• This question has been asked by every teacher.
• It is deceptive simple question, for it has many
different answers.
• Teaching is complex and difficult task that for it has
many different answers.
• Teaching is complex and difficult task that demands
extraordinary abilities after years and years of
experience and research.
• One of the most important questions in education
today still is. What is effective teacher?
 The Role Model Definition
• A good teacher is a good person, a role model who
means the community ideal for good citizens, good
parent, and a good employee.
• Teachers are expected to be honest, hardworking,
generous, friendly, and considerate, and to
demonstrate these qualities in their class room by
being organized, discipline, insightful and committed.
• Practically speaking, this means that to be effective, a
new teacher must have King Solomon Wisdom,
Sigmund Freud’s insight, Albert Einstein’s knowledge,
and Florence Nightingale’s dedication.
 Importance of Philosophy to Teachers

• Understanding the philosophical idea that has shaped

education is an important part of education as
professional.
• To understand will enable the teacher to think
clearly what you are doing, and to see what you are
doing in the larger context of individual and social
development.
• Nature of Philosophy
• Philosophy is concerned with identifying the basic
truths about being, knowledge and conduct.
Philosophy may be literally translated from original
What determines your Educational Philosophy?
• In simplest term your educational philosophy consists on
what you believe about education - the set of principles
that guide your professional action.
i. Beliefs about teaching and learning
• Answers the questions what will be the teacher’s primary
role, will it be to transmit knowledge to the students, or to
guide their practice as they develop skills in using their
knowledge
ii. Beliefs about the students
• Teacher’s belief about students will have a great influence
on how to teach. Every teacher formulates an image in his/
her mind about the students are like – their disposition,
skills, motivation level, and expectations.
 To be continued
iii. Beliefs about knowledge
• How teachers view knowledge is directly related to
how they go about teaching.
iv. Beliefs about what is worth knowing
• Teachers have different ideas about what to should
be taught. One teacher, who tends to prefer
transmission view of teaching, believes it is most
important that students learn the basic skills of
reading, writing, computation, and oral
communication. These are the skills they will need
to be successful in their chosen occupation. It is the
school responsibility to prepare the students to the
world of work.
 At its core, teaching encompasses the
following key elements:
• Instructional Design: Teachers plan and organize
learning experiences to achieve specific educational
objectives. This includes selecting appropriate
content, designing learning activities, and assessing
student progress.
• -Facilitation of Learning: Teachers play a crucial role
in guiding and supporting students as they engage
with the learning materials and activities. This
involves providing explanations, clarifications, and
feedback to promote understanding and mastery.
 To be continued
• -Assessment and Feedback: Teachers assess
student learning through various methods such as
tests, quizzes, projects, and observations. They
provide timely and constructive feedback to help
students identify areas for improvement and
reinforce their strengths.
• -Creating a Positive Learning Environment:
Effective teaching involves creating a supportive
and inclusive learning environment where students
feel motivated, valued, and encouraged to
participate actively in their learning journey.
 1.3. Some Basic Principles of Effective Teaching

• Effective teaching is guided by several principles

that contribute to meaningful and impactful
learning experiences for students:
• -Clarity: Clear communication of learning
objectives, expectations, and instructions helps
students understand what is expected of them and
how they can succeed.
• -Engagement: Interactive and participatory learning
activities enhance student engagement and
promote active learning. Encouraging discussions,
group work, and hands-on experiences can foster
deeper understanding and retention of knowledge.
 To be continued
• -Relevance: Connecting learning materials to
real-life situations or students' interests can
increase motivation and relevance, making
learning more meaningful and memorable.
• Assessment for Learning: Regular assessment
and feedback mechanisms allow teachers to
monitor student progress, identify areas of
improvement, and adjust instruction
accordingly to meet individual learning needs.
 1.4. Effective Learning Methods in
Vocational Education
• In vocational education, where the focus is on
developing practical skills and preparing students for
specific careers or industries, effective learning methods
include:
• Hands-on Training: Providing opportunities for students
to practice and apply skills in real or simulated work
environments. This can include apprenticeships,
internships, lab sessions, or workshops.
• Simulation: Creating realistic scenarios or simulations
that mimic workplace challenges and tasks. This allows
students to develop problem-solving skills, decision-
making abilities, and confidence in their abilities.
 To be continued
• Project-Based Learning: Engaging students in
projects or tasks that require them to apply their
knowledge and skills to solve real-world problems
or create tangible outcomes. This promotes
collaboration, critical thinking, and creativity.
• Technology Integration: Leveraging technology
tools and resources such as virtual reality, online
simulations, and interactive software to enhance
learning experiences and provide access to industry-
relevant tools and practices.
 1.5 Teaching Profession
• The teaching profession is characterized by a set of
responsibilities, skills, and ethical considerations that
contribute to effective teaching and positive student
outcomes:
• Professional Knowledge: Teachers are expected to possess
subject matter expertise, pedagogical knowledge, and an
understanding of diverse learning needs and styles.
• Instructional Planning: Teachers plan and prepare lessons,
activities, and assessments that align with curriculum
standards and learning objectives. They adapt instructional
strategies to meet the needs of individual students and
diverse learner groups.
 To be continued
• Classroom Management: Creating a conducive learning
environment involves managing classroom dynamics,
fostering positive relationships, promoting discipline and
respect, and addressing behavior issues effectively.
• Continuous Professional Development: Teachers engage
in ongoing learning, reflection, and professional growth to
stay updated with best practices, innovations in
education, and advancements in their field of expertise.
• Ethical Practices: Teachers uphold ethical standards,
integrity, and professionalism in their interactions with
students, colleagues, parents, and the broader
community. They prioritize student well-being, safety, and
inclusivity in their teaching practices.
Unit 2: Perspectives on Instructional Decision Making

• Learning Objectives of the Unit:

• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• • Discuss the Humanistic approach to learning
and teaching.
• • Explain the Constructivist approach learning
and teaching.
• • Illustrate the behavioral approach to learning
and teaching
• Understand developmental Perspective
• Identify Cognitive and Affective Perspective
 HUMANISTIC APPROACH / PERSPECTIVE
• Humanistic perspective is taken from the theory of Gestalt,
Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl Rogers’ theory.
• While the Gestalt theory assumes that learning can be
explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem, the
environment is changing and the learner is continuously
reorganizing his or her perceptions, Abraham Maslow’s
theory considers the importance of taking in to account
human needs for self- actualizing in teaching learners.
• Carl Rogers’ theory focuses on non-directive lives of a
person so that learners should be considered given chance
to learn freely in line with their wishes to arrive at solution
for life problem instead of directing them in pre-designed
lesson to come to solution of problems.
 To be continued
• This group of psychologists is concerned with the
development of human potential. In this perspective,
education is taken as the process, not the product;
focuses on personal needs, not on the subject
matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and
• environmental situations. In short, the education
views founded on humanistic perspective assumes
that learners are human beings who are affected by
their biology, culture, and environment. They are
neither machines nor animals and their motivation,
needs, other inner states should considered in the
process of teaching and learning.
 To be continued
• Therefore, the theorists in this perspective believe that
a more advanced and comprehensive education must
be crafted along this line to promote human potential.
• Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts
as well- use of value-laden lessons, or after discussing
the lesson, the teacher must introduce some values
(virtues) that can be deduced from the topic.
• Thus, the humanistic perspective is the view that is
concerned with how learners can develop their human
potential. As a result, in the humanistic perspective
context, the ‘affective’ issues are give emphasis.
 2.2 Developmental Perspective

• The developmental perspective in instructional

decision-making focuses on understanding how
learners' cognitive, emotional, and social
development stages influence their learning
processes. Key considerations include:
• - Age-Appropriate Instruction: Tailoring teaching
methods, materials, and activities to align with
students' developmental stages and abilities.
• For example:- using concrete manipulatives for young
learners and abstract concepts for older students.
• Cognitive Development: Recognizing the cognitive
milestones and abilities of learners at different ages
and stages. This informs instructional strategies that
support cognitive growth, critical thinking, and
problem-solving skills.
• Social and Emotional Development: Addressing
students' social and emotional needs by creating a
supportive and inclusive classroom environment.
This involves promoting positive relationships,
empathy, self-regulation, and resilience.
 2.3 Cognitive Perspective

• The cognitive perspective in instructional decision-

making focuses on cognitive processes such as
attention, memory, comprehension, and problem-
solving.
• Key considerations include:
• Cognitive Load Theory: Understanding how the
amount and complexity of information presented to
learners affect their learning outcomes balancing
cognitive load by providing scaffolded instruction and
breaking down complex concepts into manageable
chunks.
 To be continued
• Metacognition: Promoting metacognitive
awareness and strategies that help students
monitor, regulate, and evaluate their learning. This
includes teaching self-assessment techniques,
reflection, goal-setting, and study skills.
• Learning Styles: Recognizing individual differences
in learning styles and preferences (e.g., visual,
auditory, kinesthetic) and incorporating varied
instructional methods to accommodate diverse
learners.
 2.4 Behavioral Perspective

• The behavioral perspective in instructional

decision-making focuses on observable
behaviors, reinforcement, and conditioning
processes that influence learning outcomes.
• Key considerations include:
• Operant Conditioning: Using reinforcement,
rewards, and consequences to shape desired
behaviors and learning outcomes. This
includes positive reinforcement for desired
behaviors and corrective feedback for errors.
• Behavior Modification: Applying behaviorist principles
to modify behaviors, habits, and attitudes through
systematic interventions, feedback, and practice. This
may involve behavior contracts, token economies, or
behavior charts.

• Behavior Management: Implementing strategies to

promote positive behaviors, reduce disruptive behaviors,
and create a conducive learning environment. This
includes establishing clear expectations, routines, and
consequences.
 2.5 Affective Issues

• Affective issues in instructional decision-making

encompass emotions, attitudes, motivation, and
socio-emotional aspects of learning.
• Key considerations include:
• -Emotional Climate: Creating a positive,
supportive, and inclusive classroom climate that
fosters emotional well-being, trust, and
belongingness. This involves acknowledging and
validating students' feelings, experiences, and
perspectives.
 To be continued
• -Motivation: Understanding intrinsic and extrinsic factors that
influence students' motivation to learn using motivational
strategies such as goal-setting, relevance, autonomy, mastery,
and recognition to enhance engagement and persistence.
• -Social and Cultural Factors: Considering the impact of social,
cultural, and environmental factors on students' attitudes,
beliefs, and values. Promoting diversity, equity, inclusion, and
cultural responsiveness in teaching practices and curriculum
design.
• These perspectives on instructional decision-making
provide educators with valuable frameworks and strategies
to design, implement, and evaluate effective teaching and
learning experiences that meet the diverse needs of
learners
 Unit 3: Types of Training Methods and Techniques

• Learning Objectives of the Unit:

• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected
to:
• • Identify the methods appropriate for
training situations.
• • Identify the advantages and
disadvantages of each training methods.
• • Explain the application of each training
method.
 3. Types of Training Methods and Techniques
3.1 Training Methods
• One of the aspects which must be considered
when designing a training course is the way it is
intended to convey the information to the
group of learners.
• There are a variety of different training
methods available to choose from and selecting
the most appropriate one can make a
substantial difference to the reception of your
training message and the length of time it is
retained after the course is completed.
 3.2 Necessity of Variety of Training Methods
• The diversity of training methods is essential for several
reasons:
• -Catering to Learning Styles: Different learners have varied
preferences and learning styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic),
requiring a mix of methods to accommodate diverse needs.
• -Enhancing Engagement: Variety keeps training sessions
interesting and engaging, preventing monotony and
promoting active participation.
• -Addressing Content Complexity: Some topics may be better
suited for certain methods (e.g., hands-on training for
technical skills, case studies for complex problem-solving).
• -Maximizing Learning Outcomes: Using a combination of
methods enhances understanding, retention, and application
of knowledge and skills.
3.3 Appropriate Method Selecting Criteria
Some of the factors that will influence the choice of training method selected might
include(Leigh,2006):
1/ Course objectives 2/ Equipment needed
3/ Time available 4/ Degree of participation expected
5/ Participant’s level of understanding 6/ Facilities available
7/ Any previous experience 8/ Size of group
9/ Financial resources available
 To be continued
• It is also worth emphasizing that there is no
rule that states that the trainer should use
only one training method for the duration of
the course.
• Using a variety of techniques not only
increases the group’s attention span but it will
frequently reflect the working reality where a
combination of different approaches might be
needed.
 3.3 Nature of Training Methods

• Training methods vary in their nature and

effectiveness based on factors such as:
– Interactivity: Some methods are more interactive and
participatory, promoting engagement and active learning.
– Flexibility: Methods can range from structured and
formal (e.g., lectures) to informal and flexible (e.g., group
discussions).
– Application: Methods differ in their focus on theoretical
understanding versus practical application of skills.
– Technology Integration: Modern training methods often
incorporate technology tools such as e-learning
platforms, simulations, and virtual reality.
 3.3 1 application of different training method
• Based on this fact, we shall examine the
description, the advantages, disadvantage and
application of each training method as follows:
• I. Presentation (or lecture)
• Description
• A presentation or lecture is a structured talk given
by a trainer or speaker to an audience.
• Traditionally this might have been referred to as a
‘lecture’, but today the term is changed to be
called ‘verbal input’ or ‘presentation’
 Types of lecture methods
• Formal (Unmodified): This is characterized by the
lack of discussion or interaction in between the
teacher and the students.
• The teacher lectures continuously for a long time
being uninterrupted.
• Informal (Modified): Takes into account the
participation of students like asking giving
suggestions and answering to questions. Here,
there is an interruption.
• It is possible to use such an approach in the
lower grades together with other methods
• Approach
• When preparing a talk or presentation, it is better
to consider your audience as well as an expert in
your subject. The skills required to do this are
mainly those needed to become known speaker in
any area:
• 1. Discover the needs of your audience
• Find out in advance exactly what it is that the group
needs to know. This is not as easy to achieve in
practice as it might first seem
• 2. Highlight the benefits
• Merely ascertaining what the group needs to
know will not ensure that on completing the
course the group will have grasped these factors.
• 3. Check the level of understanding
• No matter how great the need and desire to
learn, people cannot learn what they can’t
understand. To check understanding means that
the trainer must take account of two elements.
 Advantages of the presentation method
• 1. Ideal for large groups
• 2. Economical
• The ability to present to a large group of
people also makes this a very economical
method of instruction.
• 3. Material is covered in a structured manner
• 4. Control of material
• 5. Greater control of time
 Disadvantages of the presentation method

• 1. Passive approach
• 2. No feedback
• 3. Demanding
 II. Role plays
• Description
• Role play is a means of extending participants’
experience by presenting them with a
commonly encountered situation and asking
them to place themselves in the position of
the people involved (the role) and then act
out the way in which the circumstances might
reach an appropriate conclusion (the play).
 Advantages of role play
• 1. Memorable
• ‘Learning by doing’ is one of the most
effective means of learning and experiences
gained first-hand are remembered clearly and
for longer.
• 2. Enjoyable
• 3. Creates understanding
• 4. Low-risk environment
 Disadvantages of role play
• 1. Can be artificial
• 2. Taken playfully
• 3. Element of risk
 III. Case study
• Description
• The use of case studies as a means of training has become
increasingly popular in recent years. In most case studies the
trainees will be presented with a record of a set of circumstances
which might be based on an actual event situation.
• Approach:
• There are two main categories of case study:
• 1. Those asking the participants to diagnose a particular problem.
• 2. Those which identify the problem or problems but require the
learner to recommend methods of resolving these difficulties.
 Advantages of case study
• Advantages of case study
• 1. Make real
• 2. Minimizes pressure
• 3. Encourages communication
• Disadvantages of case study
• 1. Could mislead
• 2. Inconclusive
• 3. Credibility
 V. Discussion
• Description:- A free verbal exchange of knowledge, ideas or
opinions between trainer and learners.
• Approach
• A discussion for instructional purposes can be differentiated
from a social conversation by the fact that a conversation
usually covers a range of topics and has no boundaries or
structure.
• Discussions on the other hand, tend to be limited to one
aspect or topic and have a degree of order about them.
• As it is important that everyone should air their views and
consider those of others, interruptions become less
acceptable.
• Advantages of discussion
• 1. Monitors understanding
• 2. Gains commitment
• 3. Interactive
• Disadvantages of discussion
• 1. Deviating from the topic
• 2. Dependent on the group
• 3. Show firm position
 VI. Demonstration method
• A demonstration is an illustrated lecture or presentation
that requires you to carry out a process step-by-step or
series of actions so that trainees can observe and
understand the procedure, principle or phenomenon.
• Advantages of demonstration
• You can appeal to trainees' verbal and visual modes of
learning.
• You can stimulate trainees' interest
• You can give trainees an expert model to follow
• You can give the trainees a chance to try the process
under your supervision.
• You can use the real object or model of the real object.
• Disadvantages of demonstration
• A demonstration should be accurate, and
therefore you must prepare and organize it
very carefully.
• It can be difficult for all trainees to see your
demonstration well. You must limit a
demonstration to small groups.
 VIII. Exercise method
• Exercises provide trainees with an opportunity to
practice new skills that have been taught by another
training method or to reinforce knowledge and skills that
have been gained. Printed materials in the form of
worksheets are commonly used.
• Advantages of exercises
• Exercise help trainees remember what they have learned
• Exercises allow trainees to practice new skills in a
controlled environment
• Trainees are actively involved in the learning process
• Trainees may also learn other skills in the process of
doing exercises
Disadvantages of exercise method
• You may have to spend extensive preparation
time developing good exercises
• It may be difficult for you to tailor exercises to
meet all trainees' needs
• Completing worksheets can take a lot of your
training time
• Trainees complete the exercises at different
paces
 IX. Field visit/study tours
• One of the most practical and efficient
methods of teaching is to encourage students
to learn by doing. And while it is certainly not
impossible to use this method in a classroom
setting, field trips can provide an unparalleled
opportunity for students in almost any
discipline to engage in some form of active
learning. In the field, students are challenged
to apply abstract concepts discussed in class
to examples in real life.
 Advantages of field visit method
• Field visits provide trainees with an opportunity to see and
experience things that cannot be duplicated in the
classrooms. Trainees get to use all their senses (seeing,
hearing, smelling, touching, and tasting) as they learn
• Field visits/study tours provide variety and a change of pace
for trainees. They get both you and the trainees out of the
routine of the class and the laboratory.
• Field visits/study tours provide the trainees with a common
frame of reference. All trainees know exactly what is meant
when the topic or location is discussed
• Field visits/study tours can provide trainees with an
opportunity to see how what they are learning can be used in
real life
 Disadvantages of field visits/study tours
• Effective field visits/study tours require care
and time consuming planning
• If you don't control the field visits/study tours,
it can be viewed as a waste of time and not a
learning activity
• All trainees might not get the same learning
experience
• You can lose direct control over the learning
experience if it is not properly organized
 X . ICT Method
• This is simply allowing the students to use
computers to either complete an activity or to
find information. You may give them an
internet search as an activity. Or you may
design resource materials for you class, with
an assignment and put it on the university
network so they can complete it.
 Method of Training for TVET System: Their Effectiveness

• In the Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)

system, effective training methods include:
– Practical Workshops: Hands-on training in workshops or labs to
develop technical skills.
– Apprenticeships: On-the-job training under experienced
professionals to gain practical experience.
– Simulations: Virtual simulations to replicate real-world scenarios
and practice skills in a safe environment.
– E-Learning: Online platforms and courses that offer flexibility and
accessibility for self-paced learning.
– Industry Partnerships: Collaborating with industry partners for real-
world projects, internships, and job placements.
– Evaluate the effectiveness of these methods based on factors such
as learner engagement, skill acquisition, job readiness, and industry
relevance.
 Unit 4: Classroom Management
Learning Objectives of the Unit:
• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Identify the technique how to manage classroom so
that the learning environment is fair to all trainees
• Analyze a classroom management technique to
determine its impact on trainees' learning
• Establish a classroom environment that rewards
appropriate behavior and deters inappropriate
behavior
• Distinguish how classroom arrangement and trainer
observation affect trainee learning and behavior
 4. Classroom Management
4.1 Definition of Classroom Management
• Classroom management is the art of carefully preparing,
presenting, disciplining and controlling class activities.
• Students are composed of diversified attitude, values,
maturity, age, family background, etc. Thus the teacher is
highly expected to manage such varieties of behaviors.
• Classroom management is also defined as the methods and
strategies an educator uses to maintain a classroom
environment that is conducive to student success and
learning.
• Although there are many pedagogical strategies involved in
managing a classroom, a common denominator is making
sure that students feel they are in an environment that allows
them to achieve.
4.2 Goals of Classroom Management
• Classroom management aims to create a positive,
productive, and conducive learning environment by:
• Establishing a sense of order, structure, and
predictability in the classroom.
• Fostering a positive and respectful classroom climate
that promotes student engagement and
participation.
• Managing behavior effectively to minimize
disruptions and maximize learning opportunities.
• Promoting collaboration, communication, and
mutual respect among students and between
students and teachers.
 4.3 Classroom Management Models
4.3.1 Approaches to Classroom Management

• The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching

style will directly affect his/her managerial and
disciplinary approach. There are different
approaches to class management, all based on a
mixture of psychology, classroom experience and
common sense.
• . Some of them are listed below.
• 1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects
teachers to specify rules of behavior and
consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and
communicate them to the students clearly. Teachers
hold students accountable for their actions.
• 2. The Behavior Modification Approach: Such an
approach involves a variety of techniques and
methods, ranging from simple rewards to
elaborate reinforcement training
• The basic principles are:
• Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the
causes of the problems;
• Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
• Students respond better to positive reinforces
than to punishment.
• 3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes
on the importance of responding immediately to group
behavior among students that may be inappropriate or
undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than
having to deal with problems after they emerge.
• 4. Responsive Classroom: Emphasizing social-
emotional learning, community-building, and
cooperation.
• 5. Montessori Method: Student-centered approach
with self-directed learning and individualized
instruction.
 4.4 General Principles for Using Classroom Management Strategies

• Effective classroom management strategies

are guided by principles such as:
– Consistency: Enforcing rules and expectations
consistently to establish a predictable learning
environment.
– Clear Communication: Communicating
expectations, instructions, and feedback clearly
and effectively.
– Positive Reinforcement: Recognizing and
reinforcing desired behaviors and achievements to
motivate students.
– Fairness: Treating all students fairly and
respectfully, addressing conflicts and disciplinary
issues impartially.
– Flexibility: Adapting strategies and approaches to
meet individual student needs and classroom
dynamics.
 Effective Classroom Management
• Effective class managers make use of one or a
combination of the approaches mentioned above. They
have a well-planned and relevant lesson which they
encourage students to take seriously, who make it clear
what the class rules are and teach disciplinary skills with
as much care as they teach academic skills, who realize
what kind of things stimulate student attention, and
who know and enjoy each one of their students. Being
an effective class manager is not a talent, which some
people just have, and others do not – it is a set of skills
and an attitude learned though patience and practice.
• There are a number of things we know about
effective class managers. For instance,
effective managers have a workable system of
rules and procedures which the students
follow and do not ‘turn them loose’ without
careful directions. They do not appear to treat
inappropriate behavior differently from the
less effective managers, but they stop it
sooner.
 4.5.1 Managing the Classroom Environment

• Managing the physical and social-emotional

aspects of the classroom environment involves:
– Seating Arrangement: Arranging seating to facilitate
interaction, focus, and classroom dynamics.
– Resource Organization: Organizing materials,
resources, and technology for easy access and use.
– Classroom Culture: Cultivating a positive and
inclusive classroom culture that values diversity,
collaboration, and respect.
 – Classroom Routines: Establishing routines and procedures
for transitions, activities, and behavioral expectations.
– Conflict Resolution: Addressing conflicts, disagreements,
and disciplinary issues promptly and constructively.
• Examples of effective classroom management
practices include establishing clear rules,
implementing routines, using positive reinforcement,
fostering a sense of community, and addressing
behavioral issues proactively and respectfully.
 4.5.2 Principles of Class Discipline
• Here are some principles that may help the teacher under
the concept discipline clearly.
• Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are
the same: to help students become self-directing people.
• Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students
to channel their energies towards learning goals.
• Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching.
• Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’
stage of development and help them move to the next
stage.
• Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of
the specific situations.
• Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by
learners, gives the teacher classroom authority.
• Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.
• Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or
how learners are organized for instruction, the principle
for effective teaching and discipline apply.
• Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with
the factors under their control and influence, teachers
can, in most cases, tip the balance in favour of discipline.
• Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization
requires the redirection of destructive behavior into
socially useful behavior.
• Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of
dealing with misbehavior should be in agreement
with developmental goals
• Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only
when basic needs, such as food and safety, are
met. Schools should recognize that all students
need to be valued and respected as people which
they need to have some measure of control over
their lives and activities, in school and out.
 4.5.3 Leadership Styles
• Teaching style is viewed as a broad dimension or
personality type that encompasses teacher
stances, pattern of behavior, mode of
performance, and attitude toward oneself and
others. It also refers to the choice of instructional
activities and materials and methods of involving
the students in the process of instruction.
• A teacher and his/her students communicate
under three types of teaching styles. There are:
 To be continued
– Visual: charts, demonstrations and other things that
can affect the sight of the learners assist learners;
– Auditory: learners are assonated by explanations of
what is to come [Link], questioning,
and debriefing allow students to make links between
what they have acquired; and
– Kinesthetic: the learners do their best when they
touch and move. They show fewer tendencies to
learn if there is little or no external stimulation or
movement.
 6.5 Major Causes for Classroom Misbehavior

• There are two major causes for classroom misbehavior:

4.5.1 Teacher-Related Problems
• Teachers can be sources for classroom misbehavior in the
following aspects:
• Poor preparation;
• Ineffective style of presentation;
• Poor handling of questions;
• Nagging;
• Hasty judgment;
• Overreacting;
• Lowering academic marks;
• Corporal punishment, etc.
 4.5.2 Students-Related problems

• Some of the aspects at which students can be cause for

classroom misbehavior are mentioned below:
• Cheating;
• Lack of clear rules;
• Unclear instruction;
• Not doing assignments, home works, etc;
• Coming late;
• Quarrelling each other;
• Breaking rules and regulations;
• Changing Seats without permission, etc.
 UNIT 5: Formulate a Planning for Training
Session
• Learning Objectives of the Unit:
• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected
to:
• Discuss what is session plan and its uses.
• Discuss the modality of training.
• Explain the development process of
curriculum.
• Prepare a module of instruction.
 [Link] Planning
5.1 Session Plan
• It is a set of notes in logical order for the trainer
to follow and ensure that the objectives set for
the session are met.
• It is a tool for trainers to ensure that they head
towards the objective(s) of the session.
• It is also a checklist of the resources required
for the lesson.
• It is a blueprint that identifies the basic 5Ws
(who, what, where, when and why).
5.1.1 Uses of Session Plan to
Trainers/Teachers
• Gives the trainers and learners clear idea of where
they are, where they are going and what they are
doing; Trainee/learner
• Records the training sessions that the trainers have
completed;
• Gives the trainers a starting point if they have to do
the training again with another learner or group of
learners;
• Give the trainers a firm base to review their
performance
5.1.2 Merits of an instructional plan
• Helps ensure subject mastery;
• Enables to select appropriate instructional methods;
• Develops more confidence;
• Enables to use different instructional media;
• Realizes wise usage of time;
• Fixes the direction of teaching-learning process;
• Helps avoid needles repetition;
• Gives outline to follow as one teaches a lesson;
• Enables to anticipate the implementation of activities;
• Assures the attainability of instructional objectives,
etc.
 Major criteria that a quality lesson plan should fit

• Objectivity: denotes that a session plan

• Logical Sequence: plan should be arranged in logical
order. proceed from simple to difficult, etc.
• Flexibility: plan should be open to make necessary
amendments
• Comprehensiveness: a session plan should include
the major elements such as objectives, contents,
methods, media, time, activities, evaluation
mechanisms, etc.
• Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should
be written in clear and simple languages.
 5.2 Fundamental Questions of Instructional (session) Planning

• Why to teach? Understanding the objectives to be

achieved
• What to teach? Knowing and mastering the contents
• How to teach? Selection of appropriate methods
• Whom to teach? Refers to the identification of the
learnersand background of the learners
• When to teach? Knowing the solid number of working
days and total allotted periods for the subject
• How much to teach? Which refers is to making decision
on the amount of contents and activities within the given
time
• Where to teach? Understanding the environment such as
climate, location of the school and out of the school
 A training session plan includes:
• -Objectives: Clearly defined learning objectives aligned
with desired outcomes.
• -Agenda: Structured outline of topics, activities, and
timings.
• -Materials: Resources, tools, and materials needed for
the session.
• -Activities Engaging learning activities, exercises, and
discussions.
• -Assessment: Methods for assessing learner progress
and understanding.
• -Feedback: Opportunities for feedback, reflection, and
evaluation.
 5.3 Types of Instructional plan

• Annual lesson Plan;

• Semester plan;
• Unit plan;
• Course plan;
• Periodic (daily) plan
 5.3.1. Daily instructional plan
• The daily instructional plan is on the basis of the
syllabus he/she has set. It instructor does within
classroom instruction for a single or double
period(s). In a daily instructional planning, the
teacher:
• fixes the instructional objectives:
• The objectives are to be written by using action
verbs of specific nature. They need to be SMART;
i.e. Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and
Time- bound. All objectives need to combine at
least the behavior and content with or without a
context.
• Fixes concrete contents by considering the time
available and didactic elements (introduction,
presentation, stabilization and evaluation)
• Fixes the methodological – organizational
arrangement; the roles of the teacher can be
easily observable.
• Fixes the teaching aids to make the lesson clear;
• Sets the evaluation mechanisms.
 5.4 Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives

• Objectives should be stated in terms of

students’ performance;
• Objectives should be written in term of the
learning outcome not in terms of the learning
process;
• Statements of objectives should be an
amalgamation of subject matter and desired
behavior;
• Avoid the use of the more than one objective in
one statement
 5.4.1 General Objectives:
• are used in preparing the annual
plan.
• We use some of the following action verbs:
• To know, understand, comprehend, devote, grasp,
enjoy, appreciate, have faith in, believe in, admire,
develop, be familiar with, be aware of, acquire, etc.
• Examples: at the end of this unit, the students will
be able to know the different software and
hardware parts of the computers
 5.4.2 Specific Objectives
• are used in preparing periodic lesson plan.
• Some of the action verbs used here are listed below:
• To compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate,
construct, write, debate, define, solve, select,
evaluate, draft, change, list, arrange, practice,
locate, match, plan, separate, draw, measure,
express, perform, calculate, explain, etc
• Examples: at the end of this lesson, the students will
be able to explain one method of teaching.
UNIT 6: Introduction to Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Learning Objectives of the Unit:
– At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
– Identify the levels of the cognitive,
– Identify the levels of affective domains and
– Identify the levels of psychomotor
– Apply taxonomies to prepare lesson plan
– Write performance objectives
 [Link] type of domain
6.1. Cognitive Domain
• The cognitive domain of Bloom's Taxonomy focuses on intellectual skills and
knowledge acquisition. It includes levels such as:
• - Remembering: Recall facts, information, and concepts.
• - Understanding: Comprehend and interpret information.
• - Applying: Apply knowledge and skills in new situations.
• - Analyzing: Break down information into parts and
analyze relationships.
• - Evaluating: Make judgments and assess the value or
quality of ideas or materials.
• - Creating: Generate new ideas, products, or solutions
based on existing knowledge.
 6.2 The Affective Domain

• The affective domain of Bloom's Taxonomy deals with

emotions, attitudes, values, and beliefs. It includes
levels such as:
• - Receiving: Being open to new ideas, information, and
experiences.
• - Responding: Showing interest, participation, and
engagement.
• - Valuing: Internalizing values, beliefs, and attitudes.
• - Organizing: Organizing values into a coherent system
and prioritizing them.
• - Characterizing: Demonstrating behaviors consistent
with internalized values and beliefs.
 6.3 Psychomotor Domain

• The psychomotor domain of Bloom's Taxonomy involves

physical skills, coordination, and motor abilities. It includes
levels such as:
• - Perception: Sensory awareness and interpretation of
stimuli.
• - Set: Mental, physical, and emotional readiness to
perform.
• - Guided Response: Following instructions and imitating
actions.
• - Mechanism: Performing skills with precision and control.
• - Complex Overt Response: Coordination of multiple skills
to achieve a goal.
• - Adaptation: Adjusting skills based on
changing conditions.
• - Origination: Creating new movements or
solutions independently.
 6.4 Using Taxonomies as Planning Tools

• Taxonomies such as Bloom's can be used as planning tools by:

• -Setting Learning Objectives: Aligning objectives with specific
levels of the taxonomy to target desired outcomes.
• -Designing Assessments: Creating assessments that measure
learners' progress across different cognitive, affective, or
psychomotor levels.
• -Developing Instructional Strategies: Selecting teaching
methods and activities that scaffold learning and promote
skill development at various levels.
• -Evaluating Learning: Assessing whether learners have
achieved intended learning outcomes based on taxonomy
levels.
 6.5. Using Objectives to Guide Learners

• Clear objectives help guide learners by:

• -Communicating Expectations: Informing
learners about what they will achieve or learn.
• -Providing Focus: Directing attention to key
concepts, skills, or behaviors.
• -Facilitating Assessment: Serving as criteria for
evaluating learning outcomes.
• -Motivating Learners: Setting achievable goals
that motivate learners to engage and succeed.
 6.6 Writing Performance Objectives

• Writing performance objectives involves:

– Identifying Action Verbs: Using specific,
observable verbs that describe what learners will
do (e.g., analyze, demonstrate, create).
– Stating Conditions: Describing the context or
conditions under which the action will occur (e.g.,
given a scenario, using provided resources).
– Specifying Criteria: Defining criteria for success or
achievement (e.g., accuracy, completeness,
timeliness).
 Sub theme 2: Chapter One: Introduction
to Educational Psychology
• Learning Objectives
• After the end of this chapter, the trainees are expected to:
• LO1: Define educational psychology, growth, maturation, learning and
development, motivation, individual difference.
• LO2: Explain the scope (focus areas) of educational psychology.
• LO3: Discuss the importance of educational psychology in TVET in
particular.
• LO4: Define the concepts of.
• LO5: Identify and explain the aspects of human development.
• LO6: Analyze the different stages and theories of human development.
• LO7: Define learning and discuss each theories of learning.
• LO8: Explore the educational implications of different theories of learning
and motivation.
 3.1 Concept of Educational Psychology
3.1.1 Definition of Educational Psychology

• Educational psychology is the combination of two

fields i.e. education and psychology.
• It is an applied branch of psychology.
• As the name indicates, it is concerned with
teaching-learning situation, and the factors,
principles and techniques related to the various
aspects of human growth and development.
• It draws knowledge from various branches of
psychology, biology sociology and anthropology,
philosophy, and others.
• It also limits itself with the behavior of the
individuals in relation to formal educational
environment.
• Hence, it is not concerned with what and why
of education. Rather it gives necessary
knowledge and skill (technical guidance) of
provision of education to the individual
satisfactorily.
 3.1.2 Scope of Educational Psychology

• There are five scopes of educational

psychology. They are learner, learning process,
learning situation, teacher, and evaluation of
student performance. Each of them is briefly
discussed hereunder.
• 1. The Learner: The learner is the center of
every educational practice. Knowing the learner
in terms of ability, capacities, behavior, learning
style, interest and motivation is essential.
 To be continued
• 2. The Learning Process: It deals with the nature of learning and
how it takes place. Laws, principles and theories of learning are in
conjunction with other cognitive processes such as Remembering
and forgetting, perceiving, concept formation, thinking and
reasoning, problem solving, transfer of learning, ways and means of
effective learning.
• 3. The Learning Situation: It deals with the environment factors like
classroom climate, group dynamics, evaluation and supportive such
as guidance and counseling, etc
• 4. The Teacher: The need of knowing the self (individual) for a
teacher to play her/ his role properly in the process of education.
The teacher to manage interests, aptitudes and traits to handle the
stress, conflict and anxiety in the process.
 To be continued
• 5. Evaluation of Student Performance: The
main objective of education is all round
development of the learner.
• It includes cognitive, affective and
psychomotor aspects of personality.
• Hence, educational Psychology suggests
various tool and techniques for assessment
and evaluation such as performance test, oral
test and written test.
 3.1.3 Importance of Educational Psychology in TVET

• Educational psychology is important in TVET institutions for the

following issues:
• It helps the trainer to know the learner: his/her interest,
attitudes, aptitude, level of aspiration, intelligence, interests,
individual behavior in group.
• It helps in selection of teaching methods and aids.
• It supports developing curriculum: organizing the subject
matter of learning experience.
• It helps to address individual differences in the classroom.
• It helps to develop problem-solving skills amongst trainees.
• It helps technical teachers to know the emotions and feelings
of trainees, how students learn new skills.
• It helps the trainer to find causes of prejudices, the habit of
sticking to old practices of teaching.
3.2 Human Development
3.2.1 Definition of Human Development and Others Related Terms

• 1. Growth: is an increment of body parts. It is used to describe

physical quantity. For example, an increase in height.
• 2. Maturation: is a change in body or behavior that results
from the aging process and genetic master plan. For example,
a child’s teeth erupt; a child develops the ability to grasp
objects and to walk; and the time at which a female first
menstruate.
• 3. Learning: is a relatively permanent change in behavior
resulting from experience or practice.
• 4. Development: is a series of progressive characteristics
change in physical, mental and psychosocial those occur in
people as they pass through the life-span. It results in
strength, degree of differentiation, organization of personality
and function of behavior.
 3.2.2 Aspects of Human Development

• Human development is viewed from varied or many

aspects.
• They include physical development, mental or
intellectual development, and socio-emotional
(psychosocial) development. Physical development
includes roll over, crawl, walk, grasp objects.
• Mental development comprises respond to cold,
hunger, and pain by crying.
• Begin to recognize surroundings and become aware
of surroundings and people.
• Emotional development consists or shows anger,
distrust, happiness, excitement, etc.
 To be contnued
• Social development indicates self-centeredness
concept of the newborn to recognition of
others in their environment.
• These aspects of human development bring an
all-rounded development to an individual
person.
• Development must be holistic.
• Therefore, development includes growth,
maturation, and learning
 3.2.1 Principles of Development

• There are basic principles of human

development, which are discussed hereunder as
follows:
• 1. Principle of Continuity vs Discontinuity
• Continuity: Development is a continuous process
from conception to old age. It is a gradual and
ongoing change. For example, as children grow
up, they start crawling, then sitting, then
standing, and, finally, walking. It can be also
described as follows: as a baby starts immobile,
then sits up, crawls, stands, and walks.
• Continuity theorists would emphasize the
gradual transition as a child learns to walk
rather than qualifying each change as a
distinct step. This is why educators should
consider continuity vs discontinuity in the
classroom. Teachers aware of when a child is
at an optimal time for growth should be
prepared to offer more scaffolds. This will help
the child gradually move to higher levels of
thinking.
 To be continued
• Discontinuity: Discontinuous development can be thought of
as stages with distinct qualitative changes.
• Development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at
specific times or ages.
• With this type of development, the change is more sudden.
• 'Discontinuity' in the developmental process refers to new
ways of understanding the world that emerge during the
process of development.
• For example, children go from only being able to think in
very literal terms to being able to think abstractly. They have
moved into the 'abstract thinking' phase of their lives.
 To be continued
• 2. Sequentially: Development follows an orderly sequence in
individuals and show high degree of similarity in the order in
which various developments appear. Sequentially is thought of
as locomotion, cephalocoudal, and proximodistal directions.
• Locomotion: It develops in a sequence in all infants of different
culture of the world. The sequence is creeping, crawling,
standing and walking.
• Cephalocoudal: (from Latin, meaning “head to tail”),
development starts from head and proceeds towards heel. That
is head develops in advance of the lower parts of the body.
• Proximodistal: A Latin word, near to far Development starts
from the center and proceed to extremities. The lung and
heart develop before the hand, legs and fingers.
 To be continued
• 3. Generality to Specificity: Development proceeds from
general to specific, mass to specific. For example, in language,
from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific
sentences with meaning. In addition, the fetus moves its whole
body but in capable of making specific responses.
• 4. Development proceeds from the simple to the more
complex: Children use their cognitive and language skills to
reason and solve problems.
• 5. Differentially: The tempo of development is not even.
Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development.
Examples, Boys and girls have different development rates.
Each parts of the body have its own particular rate of growth.
• 6. Interaction: According to this principle development is the
result of hereditary forces inherent in the genetic constitution
of the individual and environmental forces.
 Theories of Human Development
3.2. 4 Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development refers to change in the thought process of a
person.
• Cognitive development involves change mental structures called
schemata.
• Schemas (or schemata) are cognitive representations of things or
activities.
• A Child is born with innate schema like reflex responses such as
grasping schema or sucking.
• Cognitive development is a function of:
• Assimilation: A new object or idea is understood in terms of
existing schema.
• For example, if children have learned a schema for horses, then
they may call the striped animal they see at the zoo a horse rather
than a zebra.
 To be continued
• Accommodation: Schemas are modified to fit new
situation or information. For example, when a
mother says, “No, honey, that’s a zebra, not a horse,”
the child may adapt the schema to fit the new
stimulus, learning that there are different types of
four-legged animals, only one of which is a horse.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance between individuals'
mental schemata, or frameworks, and their
environment. Such balance occurs when their
expectations, based on prior knowledge, fit with new
knowledge.
 Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
• There are four stages of cognitive development Piaget’s
according to Jean Piaget. They are described hereunder as
follows:
• 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
• Understanding the environment via seeing, hearing, physical,
and motoric actions is the main characteristic feature at this
stage.
• Sucking of objects, following moving objects with the eyes
and palmer grasp). Infants view that things that are out of
sight are out of mind.
• After eight months there is a development of object
permanence. Object permanence is the understanding that
objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen,
heard, or touched.
 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)
• This stage is characterized by development of
representational thought; represent objects
by images, words, and drawings; the child is
able to formulate designs of objects that are
not present; development of language; and
development of pretend (made up) play.
 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years)

• This stage is characterized by concept formation on

tangible or concrete objects; solve problems that apply
to actual (concrete) objects or events, and not abstract
concepts or hypothetical tasks; and characterized by
the appropriate use of logic.
• 4. Formal Operational Stage (12 and Up)
• This stage is characterized by the following
characteristics such as thinking abstractly; testing
hypothesis; drawing conclusions from the information
available; and develop advanced mathematical skills
such as doing percentages, ratios, and fractions.
 3.2.5 Eric Erikson Psychosocial Development Theory

• Erik Erikson is the proponents of this theory. He

viewed that human beings have different
psychosocial needs in the course of their life-span.
Society has to help by meeting the specific needs of
the individual Erikson proposed eight stages of
psychosocial development.
• Each stage is characterized by a particular crisis the
way in which each person resolves the crisis will
have a lasting effect on his/her personality. Healthy
ego development involves making adjustments to
the demands of the particular crisis.
 To be continued
• If the conflict is not resolved , the person will continue
to struggle and experience a negative outcome.
• Success in each stage lays the ground work for
resolving the crisis of later stages and result in
positive outcome.
• Successful resolution of each of the eight crises
requires balancing a positive trait and a corresponding
negative trait.
• Positive quality should predominate but some
elements of the negative are needed too.
• Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust
• This stage covers the age from birth to 1 year. Infant's basic
needs being met by the parents.
• The infant depends on the parents, especially the mother,
for food, sustenance, and comfort.
• If parents, caregivers are consistent sources of food,
warmth, comfort, and affection, an infant develop trust-
that others are dependable and reliable. The virtue at this
stage is hope.
• For example, babies will begin to understand that objects
and people exist even when they cannot see them.
 Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
• This stage covers from 2 to 3 years. Children focused
on developing a greater sense of personal control.
• Gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection, feed themselves,
wash and dress themselves, and use the bathroom.
• Erikson believes that learning to control one’s body
functions leads a sense of independence.
• If caregivers encourage self-sufficient behavior,
toddlers develop a sense of autonomy and being
confident.
 To be continued
• But if caregivers refuse to let children perform
tasks of which they are capable or ridicule
early attempts at self-sufficiency; children may
develop shame and doubt about their ability
and to handle problems.
• The virtue at this stage is will.
• For example, Children begin to assume
important responsibilities for self-care like
feeding, toileting & dressing.
 Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt
• This stage covers from 3 to 5 years. Initiative leads to
undertaking, planning and doing a task for the sake of being
active and on the move.
• The child wants to begin and complete his own actions for a
purpose.
• Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and
able to lead others, being self-starter, assertive.
Unsuccessfulness left with a sense of guilt and lack of
initiative.
• They may feel guilt when their initiative does not produce
desired results.
• The virtue at this stage is purpose. For example, passing tools
to a parent who is fixing a bicycle.
 Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority
• This stage covers 5 to 11 years. Children are concerned with
mastering (achieving) school activities like drawing,
calculating, reading, playing games.
• Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense
of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
• Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their
skills.
• Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will feel inferior.
• The virtue at this stage is competence.
• For example, children want to do productive work on their
own.
Stage 5: Identity vs Role Confusion
• This stage covers 12- 20 years. Adolescent concerned with how
they appear to others.
• Settlement on a school or occupational identity, sexual identity
and career identity are pleasant.
• Adolescents ponder the roles they will play in the adult world.
(e.g. tinkering with cars, baby-sitting for neighbors, affiliating with
certain political or religious groups).
• Adolescents may experiment with a variety of behaviors and
activities.
• Balancing of “What have I got?” and “What am I going to do with
it?” result in establishment of one’s identity. The virtue at this
stage is fidelity.
• For example, adolescents attempt to establish their own
identities & see themselves as separate from their parents.
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation
• This stage covers 20 to 35 years. An early adulthood
explores personal relationships. People develop close,
committed relationships with other people.
• Those who are successful at this step will develop
relationships that are committed and secure.
• Those with a poor sense of self tend to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to suffer
emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
• The virtue at this stage is love. For example, sharing
oneself with others on a moral, emotional, and sexual
level; marriage.
 Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation
• This stage occurs from 40-65 years. At this stage adults
become concerned with guiding and contributing to the
next generation.
• Procreation of children, production of work, creation of new
things and creation of ideas contribute to the building of a
better world.
• Care for others is an outstanding characteristic of the period
and call sense of generetivity. An individual may stagnate, and
become concerned with personal needs and wellbeing-self-
concern (develop stagnation).
• The virtue at this stage is care. For example, generativity is
expressed through activities like teaching and mentorship; it
also takes the form of productivity or creativity to further
develop personal identity.
 Stage 8: Integrity vs Despair
• This stage occurs from 65 – death. It is characterized by looking
back on life to evaluate what has been accomplished and the kind
of person she/ he has been.
• Those who successfully resolved the prior crisis and achieve their
goals in their lives realize that their lives have made meaning so
develop the sense of integrity and are likely to accept death and
retirement.
• Those individuals who have not succeeded in their life develop the
sense of despair (hopelessness).
• They realize that they have not time to start another life and feel
bitter about their lives.
• Such individuals wish to get more time if possible to do away with
their unfinished businesses.
• For example, aged person may find it necessary to reflect what
they had accumulated throughout life.
 3.3 Theories of Learning and its Educational Implication
3.3.1 Definition of Learning

• Learning usually involves a change in behaviour

(knowledge, skill, and attitude) which lasts for some time
and is the result of experience.
• Learning is seen as an outcome or the end product of
some process which can be recognized. When learning is
seen as a process, the focus is on what happens when
learning takes place.
• Summing up, learning is relatively permanent behavioral
change that occurs as a result of experience or practice.
• Learning is defined differently by scholars and the
definitions are indicated hereunder as follows:
 To be continued
• B. F. Skinner: Learning is a function of change in overt behaviour.
The probability of learning occurring is enhanced when there is
reinforcement.
• Albert Bandura: Learning occurs when individuals observe and
imitate other’s behaviour.
• Lev Vygotsky: Learning is determined by interaction with the
surrounding culture and people such as parents, peers and
significant others.
• Howard Gardner: People learn and understand the world
through at least seven ways ă verbal-linguistic, visual-spatial,
logical mathematical, body kinaesthetic, musical-rhythmic,
interpersonal and intrapersonal.
• Jean Piaget: Learning occurs through the process of assimilation
and accommodation with one’s schemas and constantly seeking
equilibrium between these processes.
 3.3.2. Theories of Learning

• A learning theory is an attempt to describe

how people and animals learn; thereby
helping us understands the inherently
complex process of learning. Hence, few
learning theories with their educational
implications are presented hereunder as
follows:
 [Link] Behavioral Theories of Learning

• Behaviorism focuses on the idea that all behaviors are

learned through interaction with the environment.
• This learning theory states that behaviors are learned
from the environment, and says that innate or inherited
factors have very little influence on behavior.
• The behaviourists believe that the only behaviour
worth describing is that which is measurable. If we are
able to measure it, we first must be able to observe it.
• The behavioral learning theories have the following
educational implications:
 To be continued
• Teachers are able to apply classical conditioning
in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety
or fear. For example, pairing an anxiety-
provoking situation, such as performing in front
of a group, with pleasant surroundings helps the
student learn new associations.
• Teach students to generalize and discriminate
appropriately. For example, or performance on
one assignment or test does not mean that the
student is a week student.
 To ne continued
• The good method and kind treatment a teacher can bring
desirable impacts upon the Learners.
• The Learners may like the boring subject because of
teacher’s role. For example, a Maths teacher with his or
her defective method of teaching and improper behavior
in the classroom may be disliked by Learners. The Learners
develop hatred towards Maths due to teacher’s behavior.
• The teacher should try to start from known to unknown,
that is, establish an "association between what the learner
already knows and the new topic to be taught for
meaningful learning to take place.
 To ne continued
• To maintain learned connection for longer period, review
of learned material is necessary.
• In order to benefit from the mechanism of association in
the learning process what is being taught at one
situation should be linked with the past experience of
the learner.
• The effects of rewards and punishment also affect the
learning of the child. Thus, teachers give emphasis on
the use of reward and punishment in the class.
• Teachers must observe the effects of his teaching
methods on the students and should not hesitate to
make necessary changes in them.
 To ne continued
• To bring about successful learning outcomes the teacher must
consider the psycho-biological readiness of the learner.
Curriculum of the students should be according to the mental
level of the learner and should not be beyond the intellectual
level of the learning.
• Teacher should provide opportunity for sufficient practice in
their field of specialization. More and more opportunities should
be given to the learners to use and repeat the knowledge they
get in the classroom for effectiveness and longer retention.
• Practice leads a man towards maturity. Practice is the main
feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the
errors committed by the learner in learning any concept.
 To ne continued
• When students are dealing with factual
material, do your best to give feedback
frequently, specifically and quickly.
• Use several kinds of reinforcers so that each
retains its effectiveness.
• Use reinforcement to motivate students to
learn material that is not intrinsically
interesting.
 [Link] Cognitive Learning Theory
• Cognitive theory of learning is about understanding how the
human mind works while people learn.
• The theory focuses on how information is processed by the
brain, and how learning occurs through that internal
processing of information.
• For example, to know that a triangle has three sides, you
need to understand and remember the attributes of a
triangle.
• The information processing theory one of the cognitive
learning theory and is based on the idea that humans
actively process the information they receive from their
senses, like a computer does.
• Learning is what is happening when our brains receive
information, record it, mould it and store it. It has the
following educational implications:
 To be continued
• Gain the students' attention -- This might be done
by using cues to signal that it is time to begin or
meaningfully varying voice and voice inflections.
• Bring to mind relevant prior learning -- This might
involve discussing something students already
know that is relevant to the topic they will be
studying or relevant to reviewing a previous day's
lesson.
• Point out what is important to recognize and know
-- Using visual representations or outlining the key
concepts in a unit of study is examples of how this
can be done.
 To be continued
• Present information in an organized manner -- Making
it easy for students to see the structure of a unit and
helping them to see relationships between different
concepts helps in implement this approach.
• How students how to categorize information -- Showing
students how to categorize new information and having
them develop their own categorizing systems helps
them process information.
• Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new
information-- Having students work with and apply
new information and enabling them to make links to
other knowledge helps create the mental connections
that are fundamental to learning.
 3.3.3 Constructivism Theory of Learning

• The theory states that people construct their own

understanding and knowledge of the world, through
experiencing things and by reflecting on those
experiences.
• For example, when we encounter something new, we
have to reconcile it with our previous ideas and
experience, perhaps by changing what we believe, or by
discarding the new information as irrelevant.
• A good teacher will design lessons that help students
discover the relationship between bits of information.
• To do this a teacher must give students the information
they need, but without organizing it for them.
 To be continued
• This theory of learning views learning as indicated in the
following statements:
• Learning is an active process: learners receive information and
construct meaning out of the information received. The learner
needs to do something because learning requires learners to
engage with the world.
• People learn to learn as they learn: we learn by constructing
meaning which in turn, influences further learning.
• For example, if we learn about the climate of different
countries, we are simultaneously learning the meaning of
climate.
• Each meaning we construct makes us better able to give
meaning to other information which can fit a similar pattern.
 To be continued
• Learning involves language: language that we use
influences our learning. Language and learning are
inextricably intertwined. It is not surprising that
many people talk to themselves as they learn.
• Learning is a social activity: learning is closely
related to our connection with other human beings
(our teachers, our peers, our family, etc).
• Learning is contextual: we do not learn facts and
theories in isolation, but rather we learn in
relationship to what we know, what we believe,
our prejudices and our fears.
• Learner needs knowledge to learn: it is not
possible to absorb new knowledge without
having some structure developed from
previous knowledge to build on.
• Therefore, any effort to teach must be
connected to the state of the learner. The
learner is brought to interact with the
information, based on the learner's previous
knowledge.
 To be continued
• The constructivism theory of learning has the following
educational implications that have to be considered in
the process of teaching and learning.
• The instructor should try and encourage students to
discover principles by themselves.
• The instructor and student should engage in an active
dialogue (i.e., Socratic learning). Socratic learning is a
pedagogical technique in which a teacher does not
give information directly but instead asks a series of
questions, with the result that the student comes
either to the desired knowledge by answering the
questions or to a deeper awareness of the limits of
knowledge.
• The task of the instructor is to translate
information to be learned into a format
appropriate to the learner's current state of
understanding.
• Curriculum should be organized in a spiral
manner so that the student continually builds
upon what they have already learned.
 3.3.4 Gestalt Theory of Learning

• To the Gestalt psychologists, learning is concerned with

the whole individual and arises from the interaction of an
individual with his situations or environment.
• Through this interaction emerge new forms of
perception, imagination and ideas which altogether
constitute insight.
• For example, when you're trying to remember where
you put down your keys, you may think back over the last
few minutes and recall where you left them.
• But if you try to do this while looking at a picture of those
same keys, you'll find yourself unable to identify them.
• It has the following educational implications:
• Purpose or goals of learning should be made
clear to the students before the teacher starts
teaching.(goal oriented).
• Teachers should encourage their students to
discover the relationship of the elements that
make up a problem (continuity). For example,
to learn or memorize a poem, present as a
whole. After being read & understood as a
whole, break into parts or stanzas as for
effective memorized.
• Related topics or lessons should be taught aligned or
closely to each other (proximity).
• To help learners acquire understanding more rapidly
and effectively, similar lessons or materials should be
grouped together. This is why lessons are broken
down into units (similarity).
• Lessons should be presented in a way that allows
students to see them as linked and continuous.
Students will recognize that their new lesson has
continuity and is connected to what they already
know from the previous lesson in this way
(continuity).
• A figure must stand out from the background
in order to be noticed. Important components
of the lesson should be highlighted.
• Teachers should, for example, change their
voice tone, write boldly, and underline the
lesson’s most critical key terms (figure
ground).
• For example, the most important words in the
paragraph are written in the bolder fonts.
 3.3.5 Social Learning Theory
• Social learning theory emphasizes on the
importance of observing and modeling the
behaviours, attitudes and emotional reactions
of others.
• Social learning theory focuses on the learning
that occurs within a social context.
• Learning results from directly experiencing the
consequences of using a skill, observing others,
and seeing the consequences of their behavior.
• It has the following educational implications:
 To be continued
• The teacher should model positive behaviors on
himself/herself.
• Teachers should expose students to a variety of
other models. This technique is especially
important to break down traditional stereotypes.
For example, incorporate technology by putting
the students’ challenges and accomplishments
online on the class website so they can show their
friends and family.
• Vicarious reinforcement, modeling can be used by
teachers to increase and focus learners attention.
 To be continued
• Teachers must model appropriate behaviors and
take care that they do not model inappropriate
behaviors.
• Teachers should help students set realistic
expectations for their academic accomplishments.
• To promote effective modeling a teacher must take
sure that the four essential conditions exist;
attention, retention, motor reproduction and
motivation.
 3.3.6 Situational Learning Theory
• Situated learning is a matter of creating
meaning from the real activities of daily living
where learning occurs in a pro-social but
informal setting. This notion suggests that
learning takes place through social
relationships, within a cultural milieu, and by
connecting prior knowledge to new contexts.
It suggests the means for relating subject
matter to the needs and concerns of learners
 To be continued
• By embedding subject matter in the ongoing
experiences of the learners and by creating
opportunities for learners to live subject
matter in the context of real-world challenges,
knowledge is acquired and learning transfers
from the classroom to the realm of practice.
• To situate learning means to place thought
and action in a specific place and time. It has
the following educational implications:
• Learners learn and remember more when
they talk about their experiences.
• Learners can think more effectively when they
acquire the basic cognitive tools of various
activities and academic disciplines.
• Learners should have opportunities to engage
in activities that closely resemble those they
will encounter in the adult world.
• Learners often acquire better strategies when
they collaborate with adults on complex tasks.
• Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently
scaffold, are likely to foster maximum cognitive
development.
• Group learning activities can help learners
internalize cognitive strategies.
• Access to expert performances and the
modeling of process lead to better learning.
 3.3.7. Multiple Intelligence Theory of Learning

• Intelligence is “the capacity to solve problems

or to fashion products that are valued in one
or more cultural setting”.
• Multiple intelligences theory states that
everyone has all eight intelligences at varying
degrees of proficiency and an individual's
learning style is unrelated to the areas in
which they are the most intelligent.
• 1 Linguistic Intelligence: “word smart”, refers to an
individual’s ability to analyze information and
produce work that involves oral and written
language. This person learns best by saying, hearing,
and seeing words; writing, talking, and reading.
• 2 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence: “Maths smart”,
describes the ability to detect patterns, reason
deductively and think logically, make calculations,
and solve abstract problems. This person learns best
by using visual materials and hands-on projects.
• 3 Spatial Intelligence: “picture smart”, describes the
ability manipulate and create mental images in order to
solve problems and reason, to visualize concepts and
space. This person learns best by drawing, molding, and
diagrams.
• 4 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence: It is expertise in using
one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings. For
examples, acting, dancing, sports, and using body
language. This person learns best by doing, exploring,
and discovering; planning and attending a field trip; role
plays, miming, dancing; and building models and
grammar games.
• 5 Musical Intelligence: “music smart”, involves skill in the
performance, composition, and appreciation of musical
patterns.
• It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical
pitches, tones, and rhythms.
• This person learns best by taught using spoken instruction and
auditory media.
• 5 Interpersonal Intelligence: “people smart”, reflects an ability
to recognize and understand other people’s moods, desires,
motivations, and intentions.
• This person learns best by through communication with others,
discussion, debating, and teamwork.
• 6. Intrapersonal Intelligence: “Self smart”, refers to
people’s ability to recognize and assess those same
characteristics within themselves. This person learns
best by journaling, reflecting, and blogging.
• 7. Naturalistic Intelligence: “Nature smart”, refers to
the ability to identify and distinguish among different
types of plants, animals, and weather formations found
in the natural world. This person learns best by
attending class outside; keeping a nature journal to
record changes or discoveries in nature; illustrating
discoveries in nature; and read books and articles
about nature and the environment.
• Multiple intelligence theory of learning has the following
educational implications, which are listed hereunder as follows:
• Individuals should be encouraged to use their preferred
intelligences in learning.
• Instructional activities should appeal to different forms of
intelligence.
• Collaborating with other teachers: as a writing teacher, you
might collaborate with a colleague who is also interested in
multiple intelligences.
• Prepare assignments in different styles and ask students to do
in different form: providing students with various presentation
options. In addition to writing essays, you can encourage
students to demonstrate what they know by giving oral
presentations accompanied by visual aids they create to
organize the information.
 3.4 Motivation Theories and its Classroom Implications
3.4.1 Definition of Motivation

• Motivation is an internal state or condition

(sometimes described as a need, desire, or
want) that serves to activate or energize
behavior and give it direction. It can also be
defined as a pushing and pulling force or
energizer to accomplish goals.
3.4.2. Theories of Motivation
• There are different theories of motivation. The
theories are briefly discussed with their
educational implications hereunder as follows:
 [Link] Attribution Theory of Motivation

• Attribution theory of motivation refers to an individual’s

beliefs regarding causes of successful or failing
performance. Attributions to success or failure of a
performance include ability, effort, task ease or difficulty,
luck, mood and help or hindrance from others. Thus, the
types of attributions a person holds determine his or her
level of motivation.
• As an educational implication, when dealing with students
who complain about not progressing because the subject,
skill or task is too hard for them, show them where
applicable that the reasons why they are not improving is
not intrinsic in the nature of that subject, skill or task , but
has more to do with other factors under his/her control.
 [Link] Valence- Instrumentality- Expectancy (VIE)
Theory of Motivation
• According to this theory, motivation is a function of
Expectancy (E), Instrumentality (I), and Valence (V). The
following are some of the implications of this theory of
motivation which are indicated hereunder as follows:
• Make clear to students why a specific outcome is desirable
(e.g. getting and A/A* in exams). Make sure you list as many
benefits as possible, especially those that most relevant to
their personal preferences, interests and life goals;
• Provide them with a clear path to get there. A clear path
gives a struggling student a sense of empowerment,
especially if they feel that they are being provided with
effective tips and support to overcome the obstacles in the
way.
• Support their self-belief that outcome can be
achieved (e.g. by mentioning to them
examples of students from previous cohorts of
similar ability who did it) and by reminding
them of similar/comparable challenges they
successfully undertook in the past.
 [Link] Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

• In order to direct ourselves in our personal, educational

and professional life we set ourselves goals.
• These can be clear (so we know what to do and what not
to do); challenging (so we get some stimulation);
achievable (so we do not fail); and if we set goals
ourselves, rather than having them imposed on us, we
are more likely to work harder in order to achieve them.
• As an Implication for the classroom, instead of setting
goals for your students in a top-down fashion, involve
them actively in the process of learning.
• Moreover, help the students narrow down the goals set
as much as possible and gauge them as accurately as
possible to their existing level of competence.
 [Link] Humanistic Theory of Motivation

• Humanistic theory of motivation is primarily based on a

sense that humans have strong cognitive reasons to carry
out various actions.
• Once the lower end of basic needs have been met, the
main motivator turns into having a strong need for self-
actualization, or the desire to fulfill our purpose in life.
• According to Abraham Maslow, there are five hierarchies
or levels of human needs such as basic or physiological
needs, safety and security needs, love and belonging
needs, self-esteem needs, and self-actualization needs.
• The following are the educational implications of
humanistic theory of motivation:
 To be continued
• Teachers should first understand the needs, interests, abilities,
age level, attitudes, aptitude of students then try to organize
teaching learning process according to these.
• Every individual has his own individuality. Teacher should
respect and develop this individuality through education.
• Students need valued and respected in the classroom, and the
teacher should create a supportive environment. Students
with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an
optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.
• Allow the student to have a choice in the selection of tasks
and activities whenever possible.
• Be a role model for the attitudes, beliefs and habits you wish
to foster. Constantly work on becoming a better person and
then share yourself with your students.
 [Link] Self-Determination Theory of Motivation

• Self-determination theory suggests that all humans have

three basic psychological needs autonomy, competence, and
relatedness that underlie growth and development. They are
described as follows:
• 1. Autonomy: The necessity of experiencing a sense of
choice, willingness, and volition as one behaves. For example,
practicing an instrument because you take pleasure in it.
• 2. Competence: The desire to interact effectively with one’s
environment.
• 3. Relatedness: The necessity for close and secure emotional
bonds with significant others and to feeling part of
collectives. For example, deliberately arrange projects that
require a variety of talents; some educators call such
activities “rich group work”.
 To be continued
• Educational implications of self-determination
theory of motivation are the following:
• Teachers should provide prompt feedback and
stretch and challenge students to promote a
sense of competence.
• Selecting activities that are challenging but
nonetheless achievable with reasonable effort
and assistance.
• Teachers spend time with her/his students before
and after school helping them with difficult
activities.
 [Link] Incentive Theory of Motivation
• Behavior can be motivated by the variety of incentives like
grade, money, status, college degree. This is also called pull
theory b/c external stimuli attract behavior. Teachers will use
incentives for effective learning of the student in the
classroom and the implications are the following important
points:
• Set class goals. Set class behavior goals that are achievable
and measurable.
• Define how you will use the reward system.
• Explain why you gave a reward.
• Reward early.
• Lessen/ reduce/ the rewards over time.
• Give random rewards.
 [Link] Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation

• Drive reduction theory of motivation focuses on

how motivation originates from biological needs or
drives.
• People behave a certain way to reduce the internal
tension created in the body as a result of unfulfilled
biological needs.
• For example, the need to satisfy curiosity can
produce a motivating force. Hence, drive is
something which is needed by the learner in order
to behave or respond.
• The educational implications of drive theory of
motivation are:
• Foster the desire to learn by building on students' intrinsic
curiosity.
• Scaffold teaching by presenting new information at a level
slightly higher than students' current level of knowledge.
• Puzzling questions and the element of surprise are other
ways to spike curiosity and encourage learning.
• Reinforce learning gradually and continually. Drive
Reduction Theory points out that giving more
reinforcement results in more learning.
• Teachers should meet students' achievements with
constant challenges that are increasingly difficult.
• Motivate students to learn with rewards. The need
for achievement is a fundamental human need.
• Reducing this drive by implementing task-specific
rewards or by recognizing and praising top achievers
promotes learning in the classroom.
• Capture the students' attention. Learning only occurs
when students are engaged and focused. Use novelty
and creativity in teaching methods.
• For example, educators can implement Internet
research periods or use videoconferencing and
educational software.
• Involve students in the learning process. Drive
Reduction Theory depends on active learning, so
encourage, allow and value student responses to
learning materials.
• Also provide hands-on opportunities. Practical
learning maximizes attention by allowing students to
experiment and problem solve on their own.
• Satisfy students' curiosity. Foster an open attitude,
answer questions and make sure that each student is
on the same page before moving on to a new theme.
 Individual Differences
3.4.3 Definition of Individual Differences

• Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring

psychological characteristics that distinguish one person from
another and thus help to define each person's individuality.
• Among the most important kinds of individual differences are
intelligence, personality traits, and values.
• The differences among the learners are considered individual
differences.
• Individuals follow different paths as they progress toward
expert understanding because they learn differently based on
their gender, ethnicity, learning styles, previous knowledge
and experience with content, strategies, and technology.
• It is often said that no two individuals are exact duplicates;
they differ from each other in some way or the other.
• Hence the job of the psychologist is to identify and
understand this uniqueness in individuals.
• Such a similarity or difference between persons reveals
individual differences.
• Dissimilarity is principle of nature. No two persons are
alike.
• All the individuals differ from each other in many aspects.
Children born of the same parents and even the-twins are
not alike.
 3.4.4 Major Areas of Individual Difference

• This material throws light upon the eleven

major areas of individual difference.
• The areas are:
• 1. Physical difference
• 2. Mental differences
• 3. Difference in intelligence
• [Link] in interests
• [Link] in attitudes
• [Link] in aptitude
• [Link] in achievement
• [Link] difference
• 9. Emotional differences
• [Link] differences
• 11. Racial and cultural differences
• These areas of differences are briefly discussed and
described hereunder as follows:
• 1. Physical Differences: Man differs in his physical
developments structurally and functionally. These
differences are seen in height, weight, size of the body,
structure of different parts of the body, color of hair,
skin, physical strength and precision.
• 2. Mental Differences: Mental differences are noticed in
the form of perception, concept formation, and
imagination, formation of imaging, memory, and
attention.
• 3. Difference in Intelligence: people are having
characteristics such as genius, gifted, superior,
bright, averages, imbeciles and idiots on the basis
of their intelligence level.
• 4. Difference in Interests: Interest differs from
individual, to individual, man to woman, adolescent
to adult, society to society and culture to culture.
Every man has his own interest. Boys and girls
greatly differ in their interests in choosing courses,
books, pictures, games and dresses.
• 5. Difference in Attitudes: As far as attitudes are
concerned man differs from other. A person has different
attitude towards people, institution, customers and
traditions, religions, and social phenomena. A man tells/
thinks the laws of society as good and bad depending on
his attitude. Attitude forms in environment. Different
persons have different attitudes towards casteism,
religion, regionalism, linguist, political parties and
administration.
• 6. Difference in Aptitude: An aptitude is any special
ability that is possessed by an individual. Men differs their
aptitude related to musical, poetic, mechanical, artistic,
games and sports etc.
• 7. Difference in Achievement: Individual differs from
others due to his achievement in various fields of life
related to academic, social, mental, emotional, moral,
spiritual and intellectual. This depends on previous
experiences. Sometimes it is seen that one can
achieve much more than what is expected from them
on the basis of their intelligence level.
• 8. Personality Difference: Person differs from other
person due to his personality traits, temperaments,
qualities and behavior. It is exhibited that some
persons are extroverts and some are introverts which
are manifested by their activities.
• 9. Emotional Differences: In case of emotions one differs
from other. Some persons lose their emotions and some
persons do not lose their emotions. It is observed that
someone controls his emotions and others get irritate very
quickly. On the other hand one has the ability to control
the emotions with patience and tolerance. In some cases
listening to the serious facts one may start shading tears.
• 10. Social Differences: Some social factors like co-
operation, sacrifices, leadership, marriage ceremony, any
social function one individual differs from others in
performing the social functions. Someone feel hesitate to
mix with others where as some are shy and fail to mix with
strangers.
• 11. Racial and cultural Differences: It is seen
that race and culture also bring about
differences among the individuals. It depends
in geo-physical and geo-hydrological
influences. So German people are brave and
Russian people are tall. Besides this one differs
from others in case of food habits, dress
habits, speech and in other social traditions.
 3.4.5 Causes of Individual Differences

• Majority of the psychologists or educational

scholars agree that even though there are
many causes of individual differences, there
are few widely and commonly known causes
of individual differences in the issue of
personality. They include heredity,
environment, race, nationality, sex, age,
education, and etc.
 3.4.6 Educational Implications of Individual Differences

• The following are some of the educational implications of

individual differences.
• Aims of education, curriculum, and method of teaching
should be linked with individual differences considering
the different abilities and traits individual.
• Curriculum should be designed as per the interest,
abilities and needs of different students.
• The teacher has to adopt different types of methods of
teaching considering individual difference related to
interest, need, etc.
• Some co-curricular activities such as Drama, music, literary
activities (Essay & Debate Competition) should be
assigned to children according to their interest.
• Teacher uses certain specific teaching aids which will attract
the children towards teaching considering their interest and
need.
• Various methods such as playing method, project method,
Montessori method, storytelling methods are to be used
considering/discovering how different children respond to a
task or a problem.
• The division of pupils into classes should not be based only
on the mental age or chronological age of children but the
physical, social and emotional maturity should be given due
consideration.
• In case of vocational guidance the counselor is to plan the
guidance technique keeping in view the needs and
requirements of the students.
 Sub theme 3: Chapter Two: Assessment
and Evaluation of Learning
• Learning Objectives
• After completing this chapter, the students are expected to:
• LO1: Define basic terminologies such as test, measurement,
assessment, evaluation.
• LO2: Mention the principles of assessment and evaluation.
• LO3: List the purposes of assessment and evaluation.
• LO4: Explain the types of evaluation in learning.
• LO5: Elaborate educational objectives or taxonomies.
• LO6: Identify classroom tests and assessments and
preparation principles.
• LO7: Discuss the methods of scoring both objective and essay
tests.
 2.1 Meaning of Terms
• The following terms commonly used are defined.
• Test: It is a task or series of tasks used to obtain
systematic observation presumed to be
representative of traits or attributes. It is presentation
of a standard set of questions to be answered by the
students. It is an instrument or systematic procedure
for measuring sample of behaviors.
• Measurement: Obtaining a numerical description of
the degree to which an individual possess a particular
characteristics. It answers the question “how much”.
It assigns numbers to attributes or characteristics.
• Assessment: Process of collecting, summarizing, and
interpreting information regarding student
performance. It is a much more comprehensive and
inclusive concept than testing and measurement. It
includes the full range of procedures (observations,
rating of performances, paper and pencil tests, etc)
used to gain information about students’ learning.
• Evaluation: Systematic process of collecting, analyzing
and interpreting information to determine the extent it
which students are achieving instructional objectives.
It is the process of making judgment, assigning values
or decided on the work of something performed.
 2.2 Types of Evaluation

• There are four types of evaluation. They are:

• Placement evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Summative evaluation
 Placement Evaluation
• It is carried out in order to fix the students in the
appropriate group or class.
• Students are assigned to classes according to their
subject combinations, such as Science, Technical, Arts,
Commercial etc. before this is done an examination will
be carried out. This is in form of pretest or aptitude
test.
• It can help to find out the entry behavior of students
before teaching. This may help the teacher to adjust his
lesson plan.
• e.g., tests like readiness tests, ability tests, aptitude
tests and achievement tests can be used.
 2. Formative Evaluation
• It helps both the student and teacher to
pinpoint areas where the student has failed to
learn so that this failure may be corrected. It
provides a feedback to the teacher and the
student and thus estimating teaching success
e.g. weekly tests, terminal examinations etc.
 3. Diagnostic Evaluation
• It is carried out most as a follow up evaluation
to formative evaluation.
• It is applied to find out the underlying cause
of students persistent learning difficulties.
• These diagnostic tests can be in the form of
achievement tests, performance test, self-
rating, interviews observations, etc.
 4. Summative Evaluation
• It is carried out at the end of the course of
instruction. It determines the extent to which
the objectives have been achieved.
• It is also called a summarizing evaluation.
• It looks at the entire course of instruction or
program.
• It passes judgment on the teacher and
students, the curriculum and the entire system.
It is used for certification
 2.3 Principles of Assessment and Evaluation
• Evaluation should be seen as an integrated process of
determining the nature and extent of students learning and
development. It is not simply a collection of techniques. This
process will be most effective when the following principles of
assessment and evaluation of learning are taken into
consideration. They are:
• 1. What is to be evaluated has priority in the evaluation
process.
• 2. An evaluation technique should be selected in terms of its
relevance to the characteristics or performance to be
assessed.
• 3. Comprehensive evaluation requires a variety of evaluation
techniques.
• 4. Proper use of evaluation techniques
requires an awareness of their limitation, as all
tools are subjected to various types of
measurement errors (sampling error and
chance factor).
• 5. Evaluation is a means to an end, not an end
in itself.
 2.4. Purposes/Functions of Assessment and Evaluation

• The functions can be classified under three

interrelated categories.
• (1) Instructional purpose (improvement of
teaching and learning).
• (2) Administrative purpose (provision of
effective educational management).
• (3) Guidance and counselling purpose
(provision of psychological support).
 2.5 Educational Objectives

• Educational objective is defined as an

intended outcome of an instruction that has
been stated in general enough terms to
encompass a set of specific learning
outcomes.
• They are sets of more detailed statements that
specify the means by which the various goals
of the course, course units, and educational
package will be met.
 2.5.1 The Importance of Stating Instructional
Objectives
• Well stating instructional objectives serve as a guide for
teaching and testing/evaluation and assessment. So, they
are specifically useful to:
• Help a teacher guide and monitor students learning.
• Provide criteria for evaluating students’ outcomes.
• Help in selecting or constructing assessment techniques.
• Help in communicating parents, students, administrators
or others on what is expected of students.
• Help in selecting appropriate instructional- Methods,
materials, activities, contents and the like.
• Uses as a feedback on how many of the educational goals
have been achieved.
2.5.2 Domains of Educational Objectives

• Benjamin Bloom and a group of people involved

in education came up with a list of levels.
Different levels of describing how you approach
a problem are called taxonomy/classification in
which each domain is classified into hierarchical
levels. Therefore, the domains of educational
objectives include the following:
• 1. Cognitive domain
• 2. Affective domain
• 3. Psychomotor domain
• Cognitive Domain: is concerned with knowledge
outcomes and intellectual abilities. Cognitive domain is
commonly assessed in the classroom. It is classified into
six hierarchical levels such as knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation.
• Affective Domain: is concerned with attitudes,
interests, feelings, emotion, preferences, appreciation,
beliefs, value and modes of adjustment. It has five
levels of classification such as receiving, responding,
values, organizing, and internalizing levels.
• Psychomotor domain: is concerned with
motor skills, bodily movement, and physical
performance. This level deals with the skill of
the students. It focuses on muscular activity
like driving a car, maintaining a machine,
typing, speaking, jumping, ridding bicycle,
drawing, designing, dancing, etc. It has five
levels such as imitation, manipulation,
precision, articulation, and naturalization.
 2.5.3 Guidelines to Stating General Instructional
Objectives

• The following are the guidelines for stating

educational or instructional objectives:
• State each general objective as an intended learning
outcome; in terms of students’ terminal performance.
• Begin each general objective with a verb; like knows,
applies, interprets, appreciate, understands etc.
• State each general objective to include only one
general learning outcome.
• State each general objective at the proper level of
generality; it should encompass a readily definable
domain of response.
 2.6 Classroom Tests and Assessments
2.6.1. Definition of Classroom Tests and Assessments

• Classroom tests are also known as teacher-

made tests. They are prepared by the teacher
for measuring and evaluating students
understanding and performance of the subject
matter or learning experiences.
 2.6.2 Types of Classroom Tests and Assessments

• There are different types of test forms used in the

classroom. Based on scoring they can be classified
as:
• 1. Essay test/subjective
• 2. Objectives test
• 3. Norm-referenced
• 4. Criterion referenced test
• But we are going to concentrate on the essay test
and objectives test types. They are presented
hereunder as follows:
 1. Objective Tests
• The objective test item has the following
characteristics:
• 1. Has only one best/correct answer.
• 2. Examinees write down or to supply a word or
phrase as an answer.
• 3. Examinees select from a given set of possible
answers or options.
• 4. Relatively easy for scoring.
• Objective test has the following types. They are in
indicated using a diagram as follows:
Objective test

Selection type

True/ False

Matching

Multiple choice

Arrangement

Interpretive

Supply type

Short Answer

Completion
 2. Subjective Test:
• Subjective type of test is known with the following
characteristics which are indicated hereunder as
follows:
• Students can give answer freely.
• Free answer type.
• Students can write and show steps freely
• Has few questions 5-6
• Take 2-3 hours exam time
• May not cover all the topics
• Scripts are written by the students
• Give organized idea
• Encourage creativity
• Discourage guessing
• Improve study habit

• It can also be classified in to two types as:

• Essay type test item
• Application type test item
 Authentic Assessment
• Authentic assessment measures the ability of students to
demonstrate practical skills and concepts; assessing practical
performance, process and product; evaluate students' abilities in
'real-world' contexts; it assesses students’ skills on authentic tasks
and projects activities; and it does not encourage rote learning
and passive test-taking.
• Authentic assessment focuses on students' analytical skills, ability
to integrate, creativity, work collaboratively, written and oral
expression skills. It values the learning process as much as the
finished product and it assesses non-cognitive performances such
as interests, skills, physical activities, laboratory experiments,
attitudes, project activities, and workshop products and the like.
• Authentic assessment also identified as:
• Performance assessment
• Outcome based assessment
• Product assessment
• Real life setting assessment
• Tools of Authentic Assessment
• Some of the major tools we can employ in
authentic assessment are as follows:
• 1. Observation and observation devices
• a. Checklist
• b. Anecdotal records
• c. Rating scales
• d. Running records
• 2. Project Work Assessment
• 3. Portfolio
• 4. Self-Assessment
• 5. Reflection
• 6. Rubric
 Planning Classroom Test and Test
Development
• Planning classroom test comprises development of quality
question demands to apply test preparation principles. No
one can be guaranteed to produce quality question in the
absence of test preparation principles and guidelines.
Besides, planning for test development is the process of
applying test blue print to produce quality questions.
• Hence, planning is helpful for validity, reliability and
usability of question development; helps to ensure pre-
specified instructional objectives and subject matter
(content); and leads to the preparation of table of
specification.
• Therefore, planning classroom test and test
development focuses on:
• Planning Stage
• Content Survey
• Scrutinize instructional objectives
• Develop table of specification
• Prepare questions/items
 Teacher-made tests have the following pit-
falls:
• 1. Do not appropriately consider all levels of learning outcomes.
Example, items fall within recalling and simple facts.
• 2. Not valid: They fail to measure what they are supposed to
measure. Validity is an instrument that measures what it is
supposed to measure.
• 3. Unrepresentative of the topics. Do not cover
comprehensively all the entire topics taught and are not
comprehensive.
• 4. Lack of clarity and wordiness. Example, ambiguous, not
precise, not clear and carelessly worded.
• 5. Fail to do item analysis.
• 6. Doing item discrimination, difficulty level, effectiveness of
distracters and the like.
• Therefore, while planning a classroom test, it is
advisable to consider the following basic guidelines
or considerations in planning a classroom test.
Hence, those considerations are indicated as follows:
• 1. Purpose identification
• 2. State instructional objectives and content
• 3. Determine relative emphasis to be given to each
learning outcome
• 4. Select appropriate item formats (objective or
subjective type)
• 5. Develop test blue print or Table specification
• 6. Prepare test items/questions
• 7. Deciding scoring pattern and the way of
interpretation
• 8. Deciding the length and duration of the test
• 9. Assembling test items and preparing
direction
• 10. Administer the test
 2.6.3 General Principles for Constructing Test
Items
• In order to construct or prepare test items, the
following general principles should be properly
considered by the test developer. They are:
• 1. Make the instructions for each type of question
simple and brief.
• 2. Use simple and clear language in the questions.
• 3. Write items that require specific understanding or
ability developed in that subject.
• 4. Do not suggest the answer to one question in the
body of another question. This makes the test less
useful, as the test-wise student will have an
advantage.
 2.6.4 Administering, and Scoring Classroom Tests

• Administering the Test

• Administering is the process of invigilating an exam
under good or necessary conditions in test
administration such as physical conditions (comfortable
as possible), and psychological readiness (relaxed as
possible). I test administration, do the following:
• Do not give tests immediately before or after long
vacation or a holiday.
• Try to establish a positive mental attitude in students
who will be tested.
• Teachers should do their best to lessen tension and
nervousness of students.
• Teachers should make sure that the students
understand the directions and those sheets
are being used correctly.
• Writing the time left onTests
Scoring the blackboard at 15-
minute intervals.
• Careful proctoring discourages cheating.
 Scoring Tests
• Both essay and objective tests are scored by the
teacher differently. Let us see them one by one as
follows:
• Scoring Essay Tests
• Scoring essay tests is difficult since they are
susceptible to subjectivity. There are two common
methods of scoring essay questions. These are the
point or analytic method of scoring and the
global/holistic rating method of scoring essay items
or tests.
• 1. The Point or Analytic Method: In this method each
answer is compared with already prepared ideal
marking scheme (scoring key) and marks are assigned
according to the adequacy of the answer. This method
is generally used satisfactorily to score Restricted
Response Questions. It is desirable to rate each aspect
of the item separately and this provides greater
objectivity.
• 2. The Global/Holistic Rating Method: In this method
the examiner first sorts the response into categories of
varying quality based on his/her general or global
• impression on reading the response.
• The standard of quality helps to establish a relative scale,
which forms the basis for ranking responses from those with
the poorest quality response to those that have the highest
quality response.
• Usually between five and ten categories are used with the
rating method with each of the piles representing the degree
of quality and determines the credit to be assigned.
• For example, where five categories are used, and the
responses are awarded five letter grades: A, B, C, D & E. The
responses are sorted into five categories: A: quality, B: quality,
C: quality D: quality and E: quality.
• There is usually the need to re-read the responses
and to re-classify the misclassified ones.
• This method can be used for the extended response
questions where relative judgments are made.
• Using this method requires a lot of skill and time in
determining the standard response for each quality
category.
• It is desirable to rate each characteristic separately.
This provides for greater objectivity and increases the
diagnostic value of the results.
• Therefore, when scoring essay questions, the scorers need to
consider the following procedures for scoring essay questions:
• Prepare the marking scheme/ideal answer/outline- constructing
the test items.
• Indicate how marks are to be awarded for each section of the
expected response.
• Use the scoring method (analytic or global) that is most
appropriate for the test item.
• Decide how to handle irrelevant factors: Include legibility of
handwriting, spelling, sentence structure, punctuation and
neatness.
• Score only one item in all the scripts at a time, to control the “halo”
effect in scoring.
• Evaluate the marking scheme (scoring key) before actual scoring by
scoring a random sample of examinees actual responses.
• Make comments during the scoring of each
essay item. These comments act as feedback
to examinees and a source of remediation to
both examinees and examiner.
• Evaluate the answers to responses
anonymously without knowledge of the
examinee whose script you are scoring. This
helps in controlling bias in scoring the essay
questions.
 Scoring Objective Tests
• Various techniques are used to speed up the scoring of
objective tests. There are three methods of scoring
objective tests. They are:
• 1. Manual Scoring: Manual scoring is done by simply
comparing the examinees answer with the marking key.
Use hand to score and commonly used method of scoring.
• 2. Stencil Scoring: When separate answer sheets are used
by examinees for recording their answers, prepared by
pending holes on a blank answer sheet. Scoring is then
done by laying the stencil over each answer sheet and the
number of answer checks appearing through the holes is
counted.
• 3. Machine Scoring: Usually for a large
number of examinees. The answers are
normally shaded at the appropriate places
assigned to the various items. These special
answer sheets are then machine scored with
computers and other possible scoring devices
 Sub theme 1: Curriculum and TTLM Development
UNIT 1: Curriculum Conceptions and Definitions

• Learning objectives of the unit

• At the end of this unit trainees are expected to:
• Critically analyze the various definitions and conceptions of
curriculum
• Identify the various foundations up on which curriculum
needs to be anchored.
• Classify the field‘s internal and external boundaries or
curriculum domains
• Appreciate the different curriculum definitions, conceptions,
approaches, foundations and domains of curriculum.
• Define curriculum in the TVET context
 1.1 What is Curriculum?
• Some of the definitions are
• There is no universally accepted single definition
for curriculum so far
• The word curriculum is derived from the Latin
term Currere which stands for a racing chariot or
running.
• All planned learning activities (in a sequence of
linear steps)intended to achieve certain goals for
which the institution is responsible (Tyler & Taba).
• a system, be it linear or non-linear, for dealing with
people (managerial and systems curricularists)
• Curriculum encompasses planned educational
experiences to achieve learning [Link]
includes content, structure, pedagogy, and
assessment.
 1.2 Levels of Curriculum
• Curriculum can be derived from different levels
starting from broader societal level to narrower
experiential level
• 1. Societal level of curriculum- the farthest(large)
from the learners since this is where the public
stakeholders (politicians, special interest groups,
administrators, professional specialist) participate
in identifying the goals, the topics to be studied,
time to be spent in teaching/learning, and
materials to aid instruction.
• 2. Institutional level of curriculum- refers to
the curriculum derived from the societal level,
with modification by local educators or lay
people; often organized according to subjects
and includes topics and themes to be studied;
may also include standards, philosophies,
lesson plans and teaching guides.
• 3. Instructional level of curriculum- refers how
teachers use the curriculum developed in societal
level and modified in the instructional level or
what authorities have determined; involves the
teacher‘s instructional strategies styles and
materials used.
• 4. Experiential level of curriculum- the curriculum
perceived and experienced by each student and
many, therefore, vary among lessons because of
individual differences.
 Curriculum approach
• Is reflects one’s perceptions, values and knowledge about
curriculum and curriculum work.
• Reflects a holistic position or a meta-orientation encompassing
curriculum’s foundations, curriculum domains, and curriculum
theory and practice.
• Expresses a viewpoint about curriculum development and
design; the role of the learner, teacher, and curriculum specialist
in planning curriculum; the curriculum’s goals; and the
important issues that need to be examined.
• Curriculum textbook writers sometimes adhere to more than
one curriculum approach
• Curriculum approaches can be categorized in to two broad areas
as technical/scientific or non-technical/non-scientific
perspective.
 A. Technical-Scientific Approach
• It reflects the traditional view on education and
formal methods of schooling.
• It views curriculum development as something
similar to engineering and architecture which used
instruments and empirical methods in preparing
blueprints
• It has three sub-approaches:
– Behavioral-Rational Approach
– System- Managerial Approach
– Intellectual- Academic Approach
B. Non-Technical/Non-Scientific Approach

• It also has three sub-approaches:

• 1. Humanistic- Aesthetic Approach:- Promotes the
liberation of learners from authoritarian teachers -
Encourages group learning activities
• 2. Reconstructionism:- Considers the school as an
agent of change, an institution of social reform -
internationalism and pluralism which are beyond
individual concerns
• 3. Reconceptualist Approach:- Purpose of education
is to anticipate society from traditional,
 1.3 Foundations of Curriculum
1.3.1 Philosophical Foundations

• Philosophy is the way we perceive the world

around us and how we define what is
important to us, it helps us to understand what
we are, why we are and where we are going
• Philosophical foundations refer to the
philosophies, values, ideals and ideologies
because they represent points of view which
guide the development of the curriculum at a
particular time.
 1.3.2 Sociological Foundations
• It is about the social setting, especially the
relationship between schools and society and
how that relationship influences curriculum
decisions.
• Social wisdom is essential for curriculum
planners and developers. Curriculum decisions
take place in complex social settings, through
demands that society imposes and that filter
down to schools.
 1.3.3 Psychological Foundations
• In the development of psychological
foundations, the more significant exploration
has revolved around theories of learning. This
is because psychology provides a basis for
understanding the teaching and learning
process.
 1.3.4 Historical Foundations
• The history of society in general is interwoven
with attempts to meet societal needs for
skilled man power.
• While the need for trained personnel has been
recognized throughout history, the problem of
providing such personnel has become
increasingly difficult, as the rate of change in
needs for workers has accelerated.
 1.4 Domains of Curriculum

• Curriculum’s domain defines the field’s internal boundaries-

the accepted knowledge presented in published articles and
books.
• Although curricularists generally agree on the foundation
areas (the field’s external boundaries), they often disagree
on curriculum’s knowledge domains.
• Many efforts have been made to determine these domains.
However, still opinions regarding what curriculum
knowledge base essentially vary among scholars.
• The US curriculum professors validated 49 curriculum
practices which are grouped into nine curriculum domains:
• 1) Curriculum philosophy;
• 2) Curriculum theory;
• 3) Curriculum research;
• 4) Curriculum history; etc…
 UNIT 2: Theories of Curriculum
• Learning Objectives of the Unit:
• At the end of this unit, trainees are expected to:
• Critically analyze the meaning, definitions, and
characteristics of curriculum theory.
• Identify the similarity and difference between
curriculum theories and models.
• Classify the different curriculum theorizations.
• Scrutinize the different types and views of Curriculum
Theory.
• Appreciate the professional value of curriculum theory.
 2.1 Curriculum Theory: Meanings, Definitions, and Characteristics

• Curriculum theory refers to the scholarly inquiry

into the nature, purpose, and principles of
curriculum design and implementation. It includes:
• Meanings: Various interpretations and perspectives
on curriculum theory.
• Definitions: Formal definitions and
conceptualizations of curriculum theory.
• Characteristics: Key features and attributes of
curriculum theories.
 2.2 Types and Views of Curriculum Theory

• Traditionalist Theory: Emphasizes subject

matter, discipline-based learning, and
transmission of knowledge.
• Progressive Theory: Focuses on student-
centered approaches, active learning, and
critical thinking.
• Reconstructionist Theory: Advocates for social
justice, equity, and transformative education.
2.2.1 Models and theories differentiated
• Models are sub-theories.
• Curriculum models represent curriculum theory.
• Models are detailed perspectives on some particulars of
the curriculum in action, but not the total picture.
• But models fail to account for the complexities of the
planned curriculum, the enacted curriculum, and the
experienced curriculum, they are not entirely
satisfactory solutions to the problem of creating
curriculum theories.
• However, various models in curriculum have been
empirically tested and are widely used in curriculum
research process.
• The most popular curriculum development models are
the
• Product models of Ralph Tyler (1949) and Hilda Taba
(1962) and
• Process model of Laurence Stenhouse (1975)
• The product model is results-oriented. Grades are the
prime objective, with the focus lying more on the
finished product rather than on the learning process.
• The process model, however, is more open-ended, and
focuses on how learning develops over a period of time.
 A. Ralph Tyler’s Objectives (Product) Model

• Four Basic Principles known as Tyler’s Rationale

– 1. Determine the program’s purposes (objectives)
– 2. Identify educational experiences related to purpose
– 3. Organize the experiences
– 4. Evaluate the purposes
– 5. Tyler’s model is linear; it involves a certain order or
sequence of steps from beginning to end.
• Also named as Means-End model
 B) Hilda Taba’s Objectives Model
• She developed Tyler’s conceptual scheme into an
orderly planning procedure of seven steps:
– 1. Diagnose needs
– 2. Formulate objectives
– 3. Select content
– 4. Organize content
– 5. Select learning experiences
– 6. Organize learning experiences
– 7. Determine what to evaluate and ways & means of doing it
• A grass-roots approach to curriculum development
(Where teachers are responsible)
 C) Laurence Stenhouse’s Process Model

• He rejected the idea that objectives could be the basis

of a complete model applicable to all aspects of
education.
• In this model the following issues have got due
attention
– Selection of contents- the content shows important
procedures, key concepts and criteria inherent in the field
of knowledge.
– Devising teaching methods and materials.
– Selection of principles of procedures (learning strategies)
– Evaluation by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge
• Strong sides of the process model:
• It considers learning as a process, but not as an
end.
• It gives high attention to both intended and
unintended learning.
• Weaknesses of the process model
• It is vulnerable to subjectivity
• It assumes/gives autonomy for individual
teachers.
• The product/Objective model
• Strengths of the objective model
– It can be applied to any subject and to any level of teaching
– It provides a set of procedures which are necessary and very
easy to follow and which appear to be most logical and
rational.
• Weaknesses of the objective model
• It gives more emphasis for the intended curriculum by
not valuing the unintended one.
• There are no explicit guidelines about why certain
objectives are chosen over the others.
 2.3 Classification of Curriculum theorizing

• Curriculum theorists can be placed in various

categories
• 1. Traditionalists
• 2. Conceptual empiricists
• 3 Re-conceptualists/ Critical theorists
• 4. Post modernists
 2.3.1 Traditionalists
• Mainly concerned with the bases for selecting,
organizing and sequencing curriculum content.
• For traditionalists, schools are academic
institutions with a more purely academic
purpose, which is to develop the mental ability
of students in particular.
• Focus on schools and are less interested in
basic research and in theory development
(Pinar, 2009).
 2.3.2 Conceptual empiricists

• Concerned with research for theory

development. They develop hypothesis and test
them (Pinar, 2009).
• Actively explore the application of cognitive
science to curriculum and instructional research.
• Conceptual empiricists emphasize on content-
based theories.
– E.g. Benjamin Bloom, Jerome Bruner, George Posner
and Robert Stake
2.3.3 Re-conceptualists/ Critical theorists

• Shifted their attention from curriculum

development to curriculum understanding. They
critique the field of curriculum.
• Focus on liberation of schools and society from the
political and economic establishments.
• They have a value laden perspective and a politically
emancipatory intent (Pinar, 2009).
• Reflect and hypothesize on the imbalances and
inequalities experienced in the society and the
world in general.
 2.3.4 Post modernists
• This is an emerging paradigm in curriculum theory
that draws heavily on dynamism of knowledge.
• Post modernists posit that there is no one way to
interpret or theorize about curriculum.
• Postmodernism and critical theory commonly
criticize universalist ideas of objective reality,
morality, truth, human nature, reason, language,
and social progress.
• Post modernists engage in deconstructing the
world, curriculum theory included. This includes
redefining curriculum.
 2.4 Types & Views of Curriculum Theory

• There are two major categories of curriculum theories –

design theories and engineering theories
• Design theories: address the basic organization of the
curriculum plan. For this, curricularists draw on
philosophy as well as on sociological and psychological
theories.
• Engineering theories: explain, describe, predict, or
even guide curriculum-development activities. They
involve specific plans, principles, and/or methods or
procedures. Engineering theories of curriculum are also
partially based on principles of measurement and
statistics.
 Other forms of classification
• A. Structure-oriented theories: concerned
primarily with analyzing the components of the
curriculum and their interrelationships. Structure-
oriented theories tend to be descriptive and
explanatory in intent. Descriptive theories describe
events that took place in the past.
• They examine questions such as the following:
What principles seem to govern issues of content
selection, organization, and sequencing? For
example, how can curricular elements are
articulated?
• B. Content-oriented theories: Concerned
primarily with determining the content of the
curriculum; with specifying the major sources
that should influence the selection and
organization of the curriculum content.
• Content-oriented theories tend to be
prescriptive in nature.
• Prescriptive theories serve to guide future
actions.
• C. Value-oriented theories (critical & re-conceptualist theorists)
• Concerned primarily with analyzing the values and assumptions of
curriculum makers and their products. Value-oriented theories
tend to be critical in nature. Major Proponents: James McDonald,
Michael Apple,
• D. Value-oriented theorists examine issues such as the following:
• In what ways do the schools replicate the power differentials in
the larger society?
• What is the nature of a truly liberated individual, and how does
schooling inhibit such liberation?
• As curriculum leaders determine what constitutes legitimate
knowledge, how do such decisions reflect their class biases and
serve to inhibit the full development of children and youth?
• E. Process-oriented theories
• Concerned primarily with describing how
curricula are developed or recommending
how they should be developed.
• Some process-oriented theories are
descriptive in nature; others are more
prescriptive.
 2.4 Functions of a theory

• A. Description function
• B. Prediction function
• C. Explanation function
• D. Guidance function
• A) Description function
• Curriculum theories serve to describe curriculum
phenomena such as the elements of curriculum
(objectives, content, learning experiences and
evaluation) and curriculum processes (planning,
development, and implementation).
• B) Prediction function
• Some theories have predictive powers and can tell
us what will very likely happen if we do this or that,
the decision to choose one alternative over another
is ours.
• C) Explanation function
• Theories address the why? question.
• A theory points out the relationship between
phenomena and suggests the reasons for the
relationships.
 D. Guidance function
• A theory helps researchers to collect and analyze
relevant data about a phenomenon. Theories
serve a directive function especially in research.
• But, theories may not always produce correct
answers and they never tell us what we should
do (Henson, 2001).
• Thus, the role of the theory is not to guide our
behavior, rather it is to help guide our thinking.
UNIT 3: Stages of Curriculum Development
page 16