INDUSTRIAL

INSTRUMENTATION AND
PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM
(BASIC CONCEPT AND
PRACTICAL
TROUBLESHOOTING)

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I. BASIC CONCEPT OF INDUSTRIAL INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEM

1. WHAT IS INSTRUMENTATION?

2. WHAT IS PROCESS?

3. WHAT DO WE MEAN WHEN WE SAY PROCESS CONTROL?

4. WHAT IS THE NECESSITY OF PROCESS CONTROL?

5. WHAT ARE THE NECESSARY TASKS TO BE PERFORMED TO CONTROL A

PROCESS?

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INSTRUMENTATION:
is defined as the art and science of measurement and control of process variables (such as
Level, Pressure, Temperature, Humidity, Flow, pH, Force, Speed etc.) or is the science of
automated measurement and control within a production or manufacturing area.
PROCESS:
Process refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create end products.
The raw materials during process are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,
filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product
PROCESS CONTROL:
is the method which is used to control process variables when manufacturing products. It is
the automatic control of an output variable by sensing the amplitude of the output parameter
from the process and comparing it to the desired or set level and feeding an error signal back to
control an input variable.
Let’s see a simple example of water temperature control system. As in the fig. shown below
A temperature sensor attached to the outlet pipe senses the temperature of the water
flowing. As the demand for hot water increases or decreases, a change in the water
temperature is sensed and converted to an electrical signal, amplified, and sent to a controller
that evaluates the signal and sends a correction signal to an actuator. The actuator adjusts the
flow of steam to the heat exchanger to keep the temperature of the water at its
predetermined value.

MANUFACTURERS CONTROL THE PRODUCTION OF PROCESS FOR THREE

REASONS:
Reduce variability: -Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which ensures a
consistently high-quality product
Increase efficiency: -Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency
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Ensure safety: -A run-away process may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control
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of all of the process variables. The consequences of a run-away process can be disastrous

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THE NECESSARY TASKS TO BE PERFORMED FOR A PROCESS CONTROL
Three necessary tasks are needed to control a process:
 Measurement of process variables
 Comparison with the given set point
 Adjustment to avoid the error or the difference with the set point
In general, in order to control the process variable of a given process we need to measure,
compare and adjust the process variable to keep the given set point value of the process variable
as shown in the fig. below.

Therefore, we can conclude from the above concept that three types of instruments are required
for controlling of a process.

I. MEASURING ELEMENTS(SENSORS)
II. CONTROLLERS
III. CONTROL ELEMENTS (ACTUATORS)

Hence forth we are going to discuss in detail on the concept, installation, and troubleshooting of
these three things and interconnection between them.

I. MEASURING ELEMENTS(SENSORS)

What are sensors?

Sensors are devices that can detect physical variables (conditions) of a given
process such as temperature, pressure, level, flow, motion etc. and have the
ability to give a measurable output.
Let’s see examples of common Measuring elements we use in sugar factory: -
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There are so many different types of measuring elements we use in sugar
industries for process measurement system. We can categorize them in to two
groups as follows.

I. Discrete process measuring elements

II. Analog/continuous process measuring elements

I. Discrete process measuring elements

Discrete sensors typically take the form of switches, built to “trip” when the
measured quantity either exceeds above or falls below a specified value.
These devices are less sophisticated than so-called continuous sensors capable of
reporting an analog value, but they are quite useful in industry.
Many different types of discrete sensors exist, detecting variables such as position,
fluid pressure, material level, temperature, and fluid flow rate. The output of a
discrete sensor is typically electrical in nature, whether it be an active voltage
signal or just resistive continuity between two terminals on the device.

symbols of Discrete measuring and control elements for electrical schematic

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diagrams
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Common examples of Discrete process measuring elements
Limit switch: target not contacting the switch
Proximity switch: target far away
Pressure switch: low pressure (or even a vacuum)
Level switch: low level (empty)
Temperature switch: low temperature (cold)
Flow switch: low flow rate (fluid stopped)
A. LIMIT SWICTH
A limit switch detects the physical motion of an object by direct contact with that
object. It will be in its “normal” status when it is not in contact with anything (i.e.
nothing touching the switch actuator mechanism).
Limit switches can be either
- Normally open (NO) or
- Normally closed (NC) and may have multiple poles.
A normally open switch has continuity when a force applied and a contact is
made. While a normally closed switch opens when a force is applied.

Figure of: Normally Open-Normally Closed Limit Switches

Limit Switches -Advantages

 Limit switches are mechanical position-sensing devices that offer simplicity
and repeatability to processes.
 Mechanical limit switches are simplest in which contact is made and a
switch is engaged.
 Limit switches are easy to maintain because the operator can hear the
operation of the switch and can align it easily to fit the application
 They will not be affected by electromagnetic interferences (EMI).
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Limit Switches –Dis advantages

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They are subject to mechanical failure.

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 Their speed of operation is relatively low compared to non-contact sensors.
Must make direct contact with target.
Moving mechanical parts will wear out
 NB.
A single pole switch allows one circuit to be opened or closed upon switch
contact. Multiple-pole switch allows multiple circuits to be opened or
closed.
B. PROXIMITY SWITCH
A proximity switch is one detecting the proximity (closeness) of some object. By
definition, these switches are non-contact sensors, using magnetic, electric, or
optical means to sense the proximity of objects.
A proximity switch will be in its “normal” status when it is distant from any
detectable object.
Being non-contact in nature, proximity switches are often used instead of direct-
contact limit switches for the same purpose of detecting the position of a machine
part, with the advantage of never wearing out over time due to repeated physical
contact. Most proximity switches are active in design. That is, they incorporate a
powered electronic circuit to sense the proximity of an object.
Proximity Sensors
In general, there are three types of proximity sensors that are mostly used in
Sugar industries.
 Inductive type proximity sensor
 Capacitive type proximity sensor
 Magnetic type proximity sensor
Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive sensors are used to detect the presence of metallic objects. These
sensors require DC or AC voltage for the power to drive circuitry to generate the
fields and to produce output signal.
An inductive proximity sensor consists of four basic elements:
working principle
The oscillator circuit generates a radio-frequency electromagnetic field that
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radiates from the ferrite core and coil assembly. The field is centered around the

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 axis of the ferrite core, which shapes the field and directs it at the sensor face.
When a metal target approaches and enters the field, eddy current is induced into
the surfaces of the target. This results in a loading effect, or “damping” that
causes a reduction in amplitude of the oscillator signal.
The detector circuit detects the change in oscillator amplitude. The detector will
switch ON at specific operate amplitude. This ON signal generates a signal to turn
ON the solid state output. This is often referred to as the damped condition.
As the target leaves the sensing field, the oscillator responds with an increase in
amplitude. As the amplitude increases above a specific value, it is detected by the
detector circuit, which switches OFF, causing the output signal to return to the
normal or OFF (un damped) state.

1. Sensor coil and ferrite core

2. Oscillator circuit

3. Trigger/Detector circuit

4. Solid-state output circuit

Typical applications of inductive proximity sensors in control systems:

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Motion position detection, Motion control, Conveyor system control, Process

control, Machine control, Verification and counting
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 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Capacitive sensing is based on dielectric capacitance. A capacitor consists of two

plates separated by an insulator, usually called a dielectric. When the switch is
closed a charge is stored on the two plates. The distance between the plates
determine the ability of a capacitor to store a charge and can be calibrated as a
function of stored charge to determine discrete ON and OFF switching status.

The capacitive proximity sensor has the same four basic elements as an inductive
sensor:

1. Sensor (the dielectric plate)

2. Oscillator circuit

3. Detector circuit

4. Solid-state output circuit

The oscillator circuit includes feedback capacitance from the external target plate
and the internal plate. In a capacitive switch, the oscillator starts oscillating when
sufficient feedback capacitance is detected. The oscillation begin with an
approaching target until the value of capacitance reaches a threshold. At
threshold point the trigger circuit will turn on the output switching device. Thus
the output modules function as normally open, normally closed, or changeover
switches.
Features of capacitive sensors:
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 They can detect non-metallic targets

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  They can detect lightweight or small objects that cannot be detected by
mechanical limit switches
 They provide a high switching rate for rapid response in object counting
applications.
 They can detect liquid targets through non-metallic barriers, (glass, plastic,
etc.)
 They have long operational life with a virtually unlimited number of
operating cycles.
 The solid-state output provides a bounce-free contact signal
Magnetic Proximity Sensors
As with inductive proximity sensors, magnetic proximity sensor has:

1. LC oscillating
circuit,
2. A signal strength
indicator.
3. A switching
amplifier.
4. Strip of
magnetically soft-
glass metal.

This strip attenuates/reduces the oscillating circuit. If a magnet is brought closer,

the oscillating de-attenuates. The power consumption of a magnetic proximity
sensor therefore increases as the magnet is brought closer (in inductive proximity
sensor the power consumption reduces as the switching target is brought closer.)
A major advantage of this technology is that large sensing ranges are possible
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even with small sensor types. Permanent magnets are usually used to trigger
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magnetic proximity sensors.

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Eg: magnetically hard-substances, such as steel alloyed with other metals such as
aluminum, cobalt and nickel.
C. PRESSURE SWITCHS
Pressure switch is a device designed to monitor a process pressure and provide an
output when a set pressure (set point) is reached.
A pressure switch does this by applying the process pressure to a diaphragm or
piston to generate a force which is compared to that of a pre compressed range
spring.
A pressure switch is used to detect the presence of fluid pressure.
Pressure switches have different designs with different sensing elements, most
pressure switch use a diaphragm, piston or bellow as a sensing element. The
movement of this sensing element is used to actuate one or more switch contacts
to indicate an alarm or to initiate control action.
Here under is an example of schematic diagram of pressure switch with its basic
parts which uses piston sensing element. the operating principle is the same
with the pressure switches which uses diaphragm or bellow sensing element.

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As we can see from the above schematic diagram of sectional view. The main
parts of a given pressure switch is: -
Micro-switch insulated trip button
operating pin trip setting nut
range spring operating piston
switch case or housing
Micro switch
Micro switch is used to make or break an electrical circuit when the pressure
switch operates. The micro-switch on the sectional view diagram is single pole
double through (S.P.D.T) switch. It is made up of one NO and one NC contact,
when the pressure switch actuates, NO becomes close and NC becomes open.
insulated trip button
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This button causes the NC and NO contacts to switch when the pressure switch
actuates.
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operating pin

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The operating pin is attached to the operating piston. When the piston actuates as
result of inlet pressure change, the operating pin either moves up and make
contact with the trip button or moves down and break contact with the trip
button.
Trip setting nut (a range screw)
It is used to adjust the set point of the pressure switch. It does this by changing
amount of compression on the range spring.
The more the range spring is compressed by the trip setting nut, the higher the
pressure set point for the [Link] lesser the compression, the lower the
pressure set point will be for the switch.
Range spring
This is a pre-compressed spring and the force generated by this determines the
pressure at which the switch operates.
Operating piston
This is part of pressure switch in contact with the process. The process pressure
acting upon the area of operating piston generates the force that opposes the
range [Link] range of the switch is the function of the area of the operating
piston and the rate of the range spring.
Switch case or housing
The enclosure containing micro-switch and other accessories of pressure switch is
called switch case or housing. Switch housings are usually available either in
aluminum or stainless steel.
Operating principle of the pressure switch
As shown in the sectional view of pressure switch above, the inlet pressure is
applied to the bottom of operating piston. This piston is forced up wards by the
inlet pressure against the range spring.
The tension of the range spring can be adjusted so that it is compressed at a
certain pressure or set point. When this pressure is reached, the operating pin will
hit the trip button on the micro switch and change it over. The NO contacts will
become closed and NC will have opened.
The pressure at which the micro-switch changes over is set by adjusting the trip
setting nut. This nut adjusts the tension of range spring.
- D. LEVEL SWITCH
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A level switch is one detecting the level of liquid or solid (granules or powder) in a
vessel. Level switches often use floats as the level-sensing element, the motion of
which actuates one or more switch contacts.
A level switch will be in its “normal” status when it senses minimum level (e.g. an
empty vessel). For a level switch, “normal” status is any fluid level below the trip
threshold of the switch
There are different types of level switches. Widely used level switches are.
 Float-type level switches
 Tuning fork level switches
 Ultrasonic level switches
 Capacitive level switch
 Conductive level switch
Float-type level switches
It uses a float to sense the level of a liquid surface and actuating an electrical
switch by the motion of the float.

A float on an articulated arm follows the liquid level. A permanent magnet, in the
opposite end of the arm, creates a magnetic coupling to activate a micro-switch
located in a sealed enclosure.
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This design eliminates any direct connection between the process and the
instrumentation.
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The installation in the tank can be vertical or horizontal depending on the type of
float system used.
Tuning fork level switches
This level switch uses a metal tuning fork structure to detect the presence of a
liquid or solid (powder or granules) in a vessel as shown in the figure below.
An electronic circuit continuously excites the tuning fork, causing it to
mechanically vibrate. When the prongs of the fork contact anything with
substantial mass, the resonant frequency of the fork decreases.
The circuit detects this frequency change and indicates the presence of mass
contacting the fork. The forks’ vibrating motion tends to shake off any
accumulated material, such that this style of level switch tends to be resistant to
fouling
Ultrasonic level switches
This type of switch uses ultrasonic sound waves to detect the presence of process
material (either solid or liquid) at one point. Sound waves pass back and forth
within the gap of the probe, sent and received by piezoelectric (ability of certain
crystals generate voltage in response to applied stress) transducers.
The presence of any substance other than gas within that gap affects the received
audio power, thus signaling to the electronic circuit, that process level has reached
the detection point.
The lack of moving parts makes this probe quite reliable, although it may become
“fooled” by heavy fouling.

Capacitive level switch

sensing level by changes in electrical capacitance between the switch and the
liquid. The figure shows a couple of capacitive switches sensing the presence of
water in a plastic storage vessel. We can use also in sugar cane
chute level measurement at first mill in sugar factory.
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Capacitive level switch Conductive level switch

Conductive level switch

This is a form of electrical level detection where pair of metal electrodes contacts
the process material to form a complete electrical circuit for actuating a relay.
This type of switch, of course, only works with granular solids and liquids that are
electrically conductive.
(e.g. potable or dirty water, acids, caustics, food liquids, coal, metal powders) and
not with non-conducting materials (e.g. ultra-pure water, oils, ceramic powders).
As shown in the above figure Line voltage (120 VAC) energizes the primary coil,
sending a magnetic field through the laminated ferrous core of the relay.
This magnetic field easily passes through the center of the secondary coil, when
the secondary circuit is open (no liquid closing the probe circuit), thus completing
the magnetic “circuit” in the core.
With the magnetic circuit thus completed, the armature will not be attracted to
the core. However, when a circuit is completed by liquid level rising to contact
both probes,
the secondary coil’s resulting current “bucks the magnetic flux through its center,
causing more magnetic flux to bypass to the end poles where it attracts the
ferrous armature toward the core frame.
This physical attraction actuates switch contacts which then signal the presence of
liquid level at the probes.
The following pair of illustrations shows the two conditions of this level switch,
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with the magnetic lines of flux highlighted as dashed lines through the core as
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shown below.

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E. TEMPERATURE SWITCH
A temperature switch is one detecting the temperature of some substance.
Temperature switches often use (bimetallic strips or metal bulb filled with a fluid)
as the temperature-sensing element. the motion of bimetallic strips due to
temperature increment actuates one or more switch contacts.
Metal bulb filled with a fluid that expand with temperature causing the switch
mechanism to actuate based on the pressure this fluid exerts against a diaphragm
or bellows. Just like pressure switch does
F. FLOW SWITCH
flow switch is one detecting the flow of some fluid through a pipe. Flow switches
often use “paddles” as the flow-sensing element, the motion of which actuates
one or more switch contacts.
A flow switch will be in its “normal” status when it senses minimum flow (i.e. no
fluid moving through the pipe). For a flow switch, “normal” status is any fluid flow
rate below the trip threshold of the switch.
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II. ANALOG MEASURING ELEMENTS

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 1. TEMPERATURE MEASURING ELEMENTS: -
Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness measures in a definite scale.
there are changes in physical and chemical states of most substance when they are heated or
cooled. it is for this reason that temperature is one of the most important of the measured
variables encountered in industrial process.
Common temperature measuring elements/sensors we use in sugar factories are
Thermocouple, resistance temperature detector (RTD) and thermistors.

A. THERMOCUOPLE

Thermocouples are sensors for measuring temperature. They consist of two dissimilar metals
wires, joined together at one end. When this junction of the two metals is heated or cooled a
voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature.

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A thermocouple probe consists of thermocouple wire housed inside a metallic tube. The wall of
the tube is referred to as the sheath of the probe. Common sheath materials include stainless
steel and Inconel (nickel-chromium-based super alloys). Inconel supports higher temperature
ranges than stainless steel, however, stainless steel is often preferred because of its broad
chemical compatibility. For very high temperatures, other exotic sheath materials are also
available.
The tip of the thermocouple probe is available in three different styles. Grounded, ungrounded
and exposed.
With a grounded tip the thermocouple is in contact with the sheath wall. A grounded junction
provides a fast response time but it is most susceptible to electrical ground loops.
In ungrounded junctions, the thermocouple is separated from the sheath wall by a layer of
insulation.
The tip of the thermocouple protrudes outside the sheath wall with an exposed junction.
Exposed junction thermocouples are best suited for air measurement.

Thermocouple have plus and minus legs so polarity must be observed. They
can be directly connected to a local 2-wire transmitter and copper leads can be run back to the
receiving instrument. If the receiving instrument is capable of accepting thermocouple in
inputs directly you must use the same thermocouple wire or thermocouple extension wire all
the way back to the receiving instrument
Thermocouples are widely used in industrial applications specially in boiler plants of sugar
factories because they work reliably at very high temperatures and are less expensive than
RTD’s. In building automation, they are rarely required because most temperatures measured
are less than 100C. They are, however, used frequently in flue gas measurements in conjunction
with 2-wire transmitters

THERMOCOUPLE TYPES
As we have discussed in the above a Thermocouple is a sensor made from two dissimilar
metals. When these two metals are fused together at one end they create a junction. When the
junction experiences changes in temperature, a very small voltage is created (see millivolt
chart) which corresponds to a temperature reading. These different thermocouples can
measure and monitor temperature within a wide range of environments.
A primary consideration in choosing which thermocouple type to use in a given circumstance is
the range of temperatures over which the device is to be used. Some of the other selection
factors to be addressed include suitability for the conditions of use and expected service life.

The most common types of thermocouples offered by Blaze Technical are: Type K, Type J and
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Type T.
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TYPE K :| chromel (+) | alumel (-) | is the most common general purpose thermocouple. Type K
probes are reliable, inexpensive and has a wide temperature range. This is the most versatile
sensor type and can hold continuously high temperatures.
Thermocouples of this type are suitable for use in oxidizing or inert atmospheres at
temperatures up to 1260°C (2300F), These thermocouples are the traditional base-metal choice
for high temperature work. Type K is quite vulnerable to sulfur attack and should not be
exposed to sulfur containing atmospheres.
Temperature Range:
Thermocouple grade wire, -328 to 2,300°F (-200 to 1260°C)
Extension grade wire, 32 to 392°F (0 to 200°C)
Accuracy (whichever is greater):
Standard: +/- 2.2°C or +/- .75%
Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1°C or 0.4%
TYPE J | iron (+) | constantan (-) | has a more restricted range than Type K and a shorter
lifespan at higher temperatures.
These thermocouples are suitable for use in vacuum, air, reducing, or oxidizing atmospheres to
760°C (1400°F) and most stable in the low to mid-range temperatures.
Temperature Range:
Thermocouple grade wire, -346 to 1400°F (-210 to 760°C)
Extension grade wire, 32 to 392°F (0 to 200°C)
Accuracy (whichever is greater):
Standard: +/- 2.2°C or +/- .75%
Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1°C or 0.4%
TYPE T | copper (+) | constantan (-) | is a very stable thermocouple at low temperature ranges.
This type is moisture resistant, very stable, and useful to 370°C (700°F) in air, a temperature limit
imposed primarily by oxidation of the copper element and it is most often used in low temperature
applications including frozen foods.
Temperature Range:
Thermocouple grade wire, -452 to 700°F (-269 to 371°C)
Extension grade wire, 32 to 392°F (0 to 200°C)
Accuracy (whichever is greater):
Standard: +/- 2.2°C or +/- .75%
Special Limits of Error: +/- 1.1°C or 0.4
NB: - Alumel is an alloy consisting of approximately 95% nickel, 2% aluminum, 2% manganese,
and 1% silicon. This magnetic alloy is used for thermocouples and thermocouple extension
wire.
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Chromel is an alloy made of approximately 90% nickel and 10% chromium that is used to make
the positive conductors of ANSI Type E (chromel-constantan) and K (chromel-alumel)
thermocouples

TROUBLESHOOTING OF THERMOCOUPLE

first step in troubleshooting a thermocouple is to check that the leads are connected correctly.
the red lead is always negative. a type R thermocouple may not have color codes present so
look for the manufacturer’s mark indicating which is the plus or minus. this example has it
marked +. a type J thermocouple has one red lead and one white lead. the positive lead is iron
so it will be highly magnetic.
Each thermocouple type has a unique voltage vs. temperature relationship so the connected
instrument must be adjusted for that type of thermocouple.

GENERAL STEPS TO BE PERFORMED DURING THERMOCOUPLE TROUBLE SHOOTINGS

Check Instrumentation
• Verify instrument has been set for the thermocouple type being used.
Check Thermocouple
• Severely oxidized or corroded thermocouples should be replaced.
• Changes in wire composition can result from corrosion and contamination by elements such
as sulfur and iron.
• Green rot of a type K is caused by too little oxygen at 800°C to 1,040°C.
• Non-magnetic chromel wire will become magnetic.

Test Meter and Extension Wires

• Connect the extension wires to a test thermocouple of known values.
accuracy and observe the temperature reading
• Use a thermocouple simulator/calibrator
Extension wires
• Check that it is the same type as the thermocouple
• Short circuit or low insulation resistance will cause an error
RFI/EMI - Thermocouples are susceptible to electrical interference
• Use shielded twisted pair cables
• Short runs
Check probe and thermowell assemblies to insure that probe contacts bottom of thermowell.
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• Bore diameter closely matches probe diameter

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B. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTD)

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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are sensors used to measure temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature.
RTD’s employ the property that the electrical resistance of metals varies with
temperature. They are positive temperature coefficient (PTC) sensors whose
resistance increases with temperature. The main metals in use are platinum
and nickel. The most widely used sensor is the 100 ohm or 1000 ohm RTD or
platinum resistance thermometer.
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass
core. The element is usually quite fragile/breakable, so it is often placed inside a sheathed
probe to protect it. They are the most accurate sensors for industrial applications and also offer
the best long-term stability.

Internal construction of RTD

RTD with thermowell

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A representative value for the accuracy of a platinum resistance is +0.5 percent of the
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measured temperature. After one year there may be a shift of +0.05°C through aging. Platinum
resistance thermometers can cover temperature ranges from -200 to 800°C

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The RTD element is made from a pure material whose resistance at various temperatures has
been documented. The material has a predictable/expected change in resistance as the
temperature changes; it is this predictable change that is used to determine temperature The
commonly used materials are copper, nickel, platinum and 70% nickel, 30% iron and
it is one of the most accurate temperature sensors. Not only does it provide good accuracy, it
also provides excellent stability and repeatability.

RTDs are also relatively immune to electrical noise and therefore well suited for temperature
measurement in industrial environments, especially around motors, generators and other high
voltage equipment.

Thermocouple & RTD housings

RTD wiring
In the resistance thermometer the electrical resistance varies with temperature. For evaluating
the output signal, a constant current is passed through it and the voltage drop across it is
measured. For this voltage drop follows Ohm's Law, V=IR.
The measuring current should be selected to be as small as possible in order to avoid heating of
the sensor. It can be taken that a measuring current of 1 mA does not introduce any
appreciable errors. This current produces a voltage drop of 0.1 V in a Pt 100 at 0°C. This signal
voltage must now be transmitted through the connecting cables to the indicating or evaluation
point with a minimum of alteration.
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There are four different types of connecting circuit:

2-wire RTD circuit
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The connection between the thermometer and the evaluation electronics is made with a 2

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conductor cable. Like any other electrical conductor this cable has an electrical resistance which
is placed in series with the resistance thermometer. The two resistances are therefore added
together which is interpreted by the electronics as an increased temperature. With longer
distances the line resistance may amount to a few Ohms and produces an appreciable shift in
the measured value.

2 wire RTD circuit

3-wire RTD
In order to minimize the effects of the line resistances and their fluctuation with temperature it
is usual practice to employ a three-wire circuit. It consists of running an additional wire to one
contact of the RTD. This results in two measuring circuits of which one is used as reference. The
3-wire circuit makes it possible to compensate for the line resistance both in its amount and
also in its temperature variation. It is however a requirement that all three conductors have
identical properties and are exposed to identical temperatures. This usually applies to a
sufficient degree so that the 3-wire circuit is the most widely used method today. No line
balancing is required

3 wire RTD circuit

Leads resistance
RTD

4-wire RTD circuit

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The optimum form of connection for resistance thermometers is the 4-wire circuit. The
measurement depends neither on the line resistances nor on their variations due to
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temperature. No line balancing is required. The thermometer is supplied with the measuring

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current through the supply connections. The voltage drop across the measurement resistance is
picked off by the measurement lines. If the input resistance of the electronics is many times
greater than the line resistance, the latter can be neglected. The voltage drop determined in
this way is then independent of the properties of the connecting wires. This technique is usually
only used in scientific apparatus requiring accuracies measured in hundredths of a degree.

Temperature transmitter
A temperature transmitter is an electrical instrument that interfaces a temperature sensor (e.g.
thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor) to a measurement or control device (e.g. PLC, DCS, PC, loop
controller, data logger, display, recorder, etc.). Typically, temperature transmitters isolate,
amplify, filter noise, linearize, and convert the input signal from the sensor then send (transmit)
a standardized output signal to the control device. Common electrical output signals used in
manufacturing plants are 4-20mA or 0-10V DC ranges. For example, 4mA could represent 0°C
and 20mA means 100°C.
The problems of the 2-wire circuit as described above can be avoided without the use of a multi
conductor cable by employing a 2-wire transmitter. The transmitter converts the sensor signal
into a normalized current signal of 4 - 20 mA which is proportional to temperature. The supply
to the transmitter is also run through the same two connections, using a base current of 4 mA.
The 2-wire transmitter offers the additional advantage that the amplification of the signal
greatly reduces the effects of external interference.

RTD troubleshooting
Electromagnetic or radio frequency interference are the two most common causes of erratic
output from an RTD.

Second place, is damage to the sensing element from vibration or mechanical shock. Vibration
damage begins as erratic output or a shift up in indicated temperature and then eventually goes
to an open circuit.

A step change in measured temperature (usually an increase) is caused by moisture inside the
probe. Moisture causes a drop in resistance and a corresponding low measurement. As the
process heats up the moisture is driven out of the probe and the measured temperature
increases to normal. This symptom will be noticed on startup of a heated process. The moisture
seal in the probe has failed and there is no good method to repair it. Replacement is
recommended

No signal from the RTD can be caused by a wiring error. Landing the wires on the wrong
terminals of a transmitter or PLC will not damage the probe. Make the correction and all should
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be okay.
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25 | P a g e
Insulation resistance is a typical wire wound sensing element. They are about 1” long and 1/16”
diameter and are potted inside a stainless steel sheath. If moisture gets into the sheath and
sensing element the result can be a shorter path for the excitation current and the result is a
low resistance measurement.
• Low IR can cause a low temperature measurement due to shunting between the sensing
element wires
• Most IR failures are due to moisture and/or contaminants that may have entered the probe
IR decreases with an increase in temperature so at room temperature a value much higher than
what is really needed for an accurate measurement is required. An industrial grade RTD
accuracy is not significantly affected until the IR drops below a few megohms. The
measurement is made by touching one lead of a megohmeter to the leads and the other to the
probe sheath. Some industrial grade probes are tested to higher levels to insure maximum
performance at high temperatures.
Test method
• Lower resistance = lower measured temperature
• Test at 50 VDC minimum
• IR should be >100 megohms at 25°C

The first item on this list is an unusual situation that occurred recently. A response time that
changes from when the probe was installed new can be caused by the potting material
changing thermal properties after being exposed to excessive temperature. This situation
though was tracked down to faulty wiring in another part of the measurement loop. Delays in
response can also be caused by a delay setting in the transmitter programming. Many
programmable transmitters have a delay setting.

Difficulty tuning a measurement loop can be attributed to a sensor that responds either too fast
or too slow to keep up with the process changes. The solution is to replace the probe with a
faster one or to change the installation method to improve the response time. Probes that are
too fast can be slowed down by adding an insulation material such as a Teflon® sleeve over the
sensitive portion of the probe or programming a delay in the transmitter if so equipped.

Stem conduction is the most common cause of a measurement error. Insufficient immersion of
the probe in the process to overcome the effects of ambient conditions is the main cause.
Other sources can be radiation from a nearby heat source, fan blowing on the sensor, or a
probe that is not fitted properly in a thermowell.

If we have a connector in the measurement circuit using a 4 wire connection to the RTD is
recommended. This will compensate for any resistance differences in the leads due to worn or
corroded pins/sockets on the connection.

Corroded terminals can cause high resistance in the leads

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3-wire RTD circuits are susceptible – accuracy depends on each conductor having exactly the
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same resistance
• Terminals clean and tight

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 • Terminal block clean and dry, secured to head
• Wires are tinned, or terminated with spade lugs
• Connector pins connect firmly and are clean
• Use gold plated pins in a high quality connector
4-wire circuits also compensate for some poor maintenance
• Compensate fully for all lead wire resistance in the circuit

Summary RTD troubleshooting guides

Symptom Causes Solutions
Erratic output Element damage; RFI or Replace
EM -Add shielded cable, metal head
-Route wiring away from the noise source
No signal Element damage; wired -Replace
incorrectly -Correct wiring
Step change in output after Insulation resistance, moisture has -Replace
short time in service entered the probe causing a low -Dry out and monitor IR
temperature indication
One of the temp sensors Maximum service temperature Replace RTD
drops out occasionally and exceeded damaging potting -Check for correct wiring.
takes anywhere from 5-10 material. May be a transmitter -Test transmitter for correct
minutes to get back to failure. output and time delay settings
temperature again
Output changes after short RTD drifting due to high Test to verify drift
time in service vibration or shock -Replace with heavy duty RTD
-Use a thermocouple
Probe checks out okay in Stem conduction Increase immersion length
-

calibration bath but reads -Replace with probe designed for short
high/low in service immersion
-Insulate exterior portions of the assembly
-Check probe contacts bottom of
thermowell.
-Bore diameter closely
matches probe diameter

Thermistors
are made from certain metal oxides whose resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
Because the resistance characteristic falls off with increasing temperature they are called
negative temperature coefficient (NTC) sensors.

Due to the nature of the basic process the number of conducting electrons increases
27

exponentially with temperature; the characteristic therefore exhibits a strongly rising form. This
pronounced non-linearity is a disadvantage of NTC resistors and limits their useful temperature
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span to about 100°C. They can of course be linearized by an automation computer. However,

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accuracy and linearity generally do not meet the requirements over larger measurement spans.
Their drift under alternating temperatures is also larger than for RTD’s. Their field of use is
limited to monitoring and indicating applications where the temperatures do not exceed 200°C.
In such simple applications they are actually preferable to more expensive thermocouples
and RTD’s in view of their low cost and the comparatively simple electronic circuitry required. In
addition, they can be produced in very small designs with a fast response and low thermal mass

Thermistor Wiring
The resistance of thermistors is normally several orders of magnitude greater than any lead
resistance The lead resistance therefore, has a negligible effect on the temperature reading and
thermistors are almost always connected in a 2-wire configuration.
The advantage of Thermistor is it is highly sensitive to temperature changes making them useful
in temperature trip alarms. Unfortunately, they possess highly non-linear resistive properties
which restrict their useful range.

THERMOWELL
• Are metallic protecting tubes that are welded or screwed into a pipe or tank so
that they are part of the process fluid containment system.
• They may have to withstand high pressure, high temperature, or force from the
impact of flowing fluid.
• They must be compatible with the material of the tank or pipe for welding and for
corrosion resistance.

Temperature transmitter
A temperature transmitter is an electrical instrument that interfaces a temperature sensor (e.g.
thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor) to a measurement or control device (e.g. PLC, DCS, PC, loop
controller, data logger, display, recorder, etc.). Typically, temperature transmitters isolate,
amplify, filter noise, linearize, and convert the input signal from the sensor then send (transmit)
a standardized output signal to the control device. Common electrical output signals used in
manufacturing plants are 4-20mA or 0-10V DC ranges. For example, 4mA could represent 0°C
and 20mA means 100°C
Mode of operation
The measured signal supplied by a Pt100 (2, 3 or 4-wire system)/TC is amplified in the input
stage. The voltage, which is proportional to the input variable, is then converted into digital
signals by an analog/digital converter. These signals are converted in the microprocessor in
accordance with the sensor characteristic and further parameters (damping, line resistance
etc.). The signal prepared in this way is converted in a digital/analog converter into a load-
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independent direct current of 4 to 20 mA. The power supply is located in the output signal

circuit.

[Link] measuring elements

What is pressure?
Pressure is the action of one force against another force. Pressure is force applied to, or
distributed over, a given surface. The pressure P of a force F distributed over an area A is
defined as P=F / A. This means that we can increase the pressure by either increasing the force or by
reducing the area.
2.1, Glossary of Measurable Pressures

• Absolute Pressure: Measured above total vacuum or zero absolute. Zero absolute
represents total lack of pressure

• Atmospheric Pressure: The pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere.

Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.696 psia. The value of atmospheric
pressure decreases with increasing altitude.
• Differential Pressure: The difference is magnitude between some pressure value
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and some reference pressure. In a sense, absolute pressure could be considered as

a differential pressure with total vacuum or zero absolute as the reference.
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29 | P a g e
 Likewise, gauge pressure (defined below) could be considered similarly with
atmospheric pressure as the reference
• Gauge Pressure: is the pressure above atmospheric pressure. Represents positive
difference between measured pressure and existing atmospheric pressure. Can be
converted to absolute by adding actual atmospheric pressure value.
Line Pressure: Force per unit area exerted on a surface by a fluid flowing parallel
to a pipe wall.
• Static Pressure: Same as line pressure.
• Vacuum: Pressure below atmospheric.
• Working Pressure: Same as line pressure

2.2, PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS.

• Pressure Transducer: - Converts pressure into an analog electrical

signal, which is achieved by the physical deformation of strain gages
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which are bonded into the diaphragm of the pressure transducer and
wired into a Wheatstone bridge configuration.
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30 | P a g e
 • Pressure applied to the pressure transducer produces a deflection of the
diaphragm which introduces strain to the gages. The strain will produce
an electrical resistance change proportional to the pressure. One of the
most common is the strain-gage base transducer.
• Strain Gauge:

Strain gauge is used for the measurement of weight in terms of pressure.

As load is applied on it, its resistance changes by changing its length and/or cross
sectional area.

• pressure transmitters: - are transmitters used to isolate, amplify, filter

noise, linearize, and convert the input signal from the transducer then
send (transmit) a standardized output signal (e.g. 4-20mA) to the
control device as per configured.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROPROCESSOR BASED PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

sensors A/D µµµ D/A

µµ
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Analog PV
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Analog output 4-20 mA

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Regardless of sensor used, all transmitters have the same
basic block diagram
— Sensor measures analog pressure signal
— Analog to digital conversion is made
— Digital signal is conditioned in Micro-processor
— Digital to analog conversion is made (4-20 mA output)

[Link] measuring elements

• Liquid level measuring devices are classified into two groups:
 direct method: -using float technique in which case the actual level is
monitored,
 inferred / indirect method: -measuring pressure and calculating the
liquid level or property of the liquid such as pressure is sensed to
determine the liquid level
I. Common examples of direct method

A) Sight glass
is the simplest method for direct visual reading and it is normally
mounted vertically adjacent to the container as shown below.

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B) Float
Perhaps the simplest form of solid or liquid level measurement is with a float a
device that rides on surface of the fluid or solid within the storage vessel. The
float itself must be of substantially lesser density than the substance of
interest, and it must not corrode or otherwise react with the substance.

Fig. Level measuring using Floats

II. Common examples of indirect method

A) Differential Pressure
is often used as an indirect method of measuring liquid levels.
Pressure increases as the depth increases in a fluid. The
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pressure is given by
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Δp = g Δh
33 | P a g e
 where Δp = change in pressure
g = specific weight
Δh = depth

Here show examples of differential level detectors.

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Fig. 1 level measuring method using differential transmitter

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Fig. 2 dimensions to be taken for level measurement ranges
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Span and range equations

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 to determine span and range values from the above given figures(fig.2) for
specific application we use the following equations: -

equation (1): -
Span=Ax Gt
equation (2): -
Lower Range Value(LRV)=SxGt- ExGs
equation (3): -
Upper Range Value(URV)=(A+S)Gt- (ExGs)
Where A, S and E dimensions of length
Gt is the specific gravity of liquid in the tank
Gs is the specific gravity of liquid in the wet leg

Example: - let’s say there is a tanker with 10-meter height and it is used to supply
water for a given process, we need to control the level of water from being over
flow or empty. You are asked to mount the transmitter and minimum level at 10%
of height of the tanker. And maximum level is at 80% of height of the tanker.

a) What is the LRV (lower range value) to be configured to the DP

transmitter?
b) What is the URV (upper range value) to be configured to the DP
transmitter?
c) What is span value?

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B) Radar and Ultrasonic level measurement

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37 | P a g e
 • Radar and Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from
the transmitter (located at some high point) to the surface of a process
material located further below.
• The fundamental difference between them is the type of wave used:
radar instrument uses radio waves instead of sound waves. Radio
waves are electromagnetic in nature (comprised of alternating electric
and magnetic fields), and very high frequency (in the microwave
frequency range – GHz).
• Sound waves are mechanical vibrations (transmitted from molecule to
molecule in a fluid or solid substance) and of much lower frequency
(tens or hundreds of kilohertz – still too high for a human being to
detect as a tone) than radio waves

Ultrasonic level sensors emit sound waves, and the liquid surface reflects the
sound waves back to the source. The transit time is proportional to the distance
between the
liquid surface and the transmitter. These sensors are ideal/perfect for noncontact
level sensing
of very viscous fluids such as heavy oil and slurries. Practically, there are
limitations to this method, which include:

■ foam on the surface can absorb sound

■ speed of sound varies with temperature
■ turbulence can cause inaccurate readings

[Link] measuring elements

• Flow: - is the movement of fluid particles in a pipe.

• Flow rate: -the amount of fluid that passes a given point in a set time.

• Total flow: -total amount of fluid that passes a given point over an
extended period of time.
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common Flow measuring systems used in sugar factories are: -

38 | P a g e
Differential Pressure Type
– Orifice Plate
– Venturi Tube
– Flow Nozzles
– Pitot Tube (Annubar)
– Variable Area (Rota meter)
Mass Type – measures the mass flow rate directly.
– Coriolis
Velocity Type
– Magnetic
– Turbine
– Vortex

4.1. Differential Pressure Type

• Differential pressure measurements can be made for flow rate

determination when a fluid flows through a restriction. The restriction
produces an increase in pressure which can be directly related to flow
rate. The Figure in below shows examples of commonly used
restrictions; (a) orifice plate, (b) Venturi tube, (c) flow nozzle, and (d)
Dall tube.
N.B: a differential pressure transmitter with HP and LP connections is used to
measure the differential pressure with those flow restriction instruments

A. orifice plate: -
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The orifice plate itself is a circular disc usually stainless steel from 1 / 8’’ to
1 / 2” thick depending on size and flow velocity with a hole (orifice) in the
39 | P a g e
 middle and a tab projecting out to one side -- data plate data plate as
shown in the above figure (a). The thickness requirement of the orifice
plate is a function of line size, flowing temperature and differential
pressure across the plate.
Types of Orifice
The orifice is classified depending on the shape of the orifice and selection of an
orifice depends on application.
1. Concentric
2. Eccentric
3. Segmental

The Eccentric Orifice plates are similar to Concentric Orifice plates except for the
Off-set hole. They are used in application where concentric orifice plates
would plug up. For Ex Slurry flow measurement. Minimum Pipe line size for
these plates is 4” (102 MM).
Segmental Orifice Plates: The Segmental Orifice plates are similar to Concentric
Orifice plates except they have a segment instead of a hole.
• They are used in application where concentric orifice plates would
plug up. For Ex Slurry flow measurement.
• Minimum Pipe line size for these plates is 4” (102 MM).

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 The equation to calculate the flow of fluids using restriction/orifice
plate is as follows.

qm = Flow
C = Constant
 = Expansion Factor
a = Orifice Area
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p = P1 - P2
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1 = Density
=d/D
41 | P a g e
d = Diameter of Orifice
D = Diameter of Pipe
Flow is measured by creating a pressure drop and applying the flow
equation as the above equation.

B. Venturi Tube.

The Venturi tube shown as the Fig. below uses the same differential pressure
principle as the orifice plate. The Venturi tube normally uses a specific
reduction in tube size, and is not used in larger diameter pipes where it
becomes heavy and excessively long. The advantages of the Venturi tube are
its ability to handle large amounts of suspended solids. The differential
pressure taps in the Venturi tube are located at the minimum and maximum
pipe diameters. The Venturi tube has good accuracy but has a high cost.
• And it compromises.
Upstream Conical
Conical Throat
Conical Down stream

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 High Pressure Side Low Pressure Side
P P2
1

Rota meter

Rota meters are a variable area device. The float moves up and down in
proportion to the fluid flow rate and the annular area between the float and
the tube wall. As the float rises, the size of the annular opening increases. As
this area increases, the differential pressure across the float decreases. The
float reaches a stable position when the upward force exerted by the flowing
fluid equals the weight of the float. Every float position corresponds to a
particular flow rate for a particular fluid's density and viscosity. For this reason,
it is necessary to size the rotameter for each application. When sized correctly,
the flow rate can be determined by matching the float position to a calibrated
scale on the outside of the rotameter. Many Rota meters come with a built-in
valve for adjusting flow manually.

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 4.2. Mass type flow measurement
• Mass flow can be defined as the mass of fluid passing a given cross
sectional area in a pipe per unit time
• Operating Principle of Coriolis Meter
– Uses a U-shaped tube as a sensor
– Applies Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion to determine flow
rate.
– Force = mass x acceleration
– The flow tube vibrates at its natural frequency by an
electromagnetic drive system.
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44 | P a g e
 • Coriolis Effect
– Fluid flowing through the upward moving tube, pushes
downward against the tube.
– Fluid flowing out through the downward moving tube,
pushes upward against the tube.
– The combination of upward and downward resistive forces
causes the sensor tube to twist (Coriolis effect).

• Signal Transmission
– The amount the tube twist is proportional to the mass flow
rate of the fluid flowing through it.
– Electromagnetic sensors located at each side of the tube
measures the respective velocity of the vibrating tube at
these points.
– The sensor sends this information to the transmitter which
gives an output signal directly proportional to mass flow
rate.

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45 | P a g e
 4.3. Velocity Type flow measurement

4.3.1. Magnetic flow meter: -

Magnetic flow meter use Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The liquid
is the conductor which has a length equivalent to the inside diameter of the
flow meter. The liquid conductor moves with an average velocity V through
the magnetic field of strength B. The induced voltage is E.
E = BDV / C
• where C is constant to take care of proper units.

Fig-3 principle of flow measurement using magnetic flow meter.

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Advantages:
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1. It is totally obstruction less and has no moving part

2. Pressure drop is no greater than piece of pipe of same length
46 | P a g e
 3. Suitable for most acids, bases waters and aqueous
4. Widely used for slurry services
5. Can be used as bi-directional meters.
Disadvantages:
1. Fluids should be adequate electrical conductors
2. Electrical installation care is required
3. Pipe should be full

4.3.2. Turbine type flow measurement

• Turbine flow meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor suspended in the
fluid stream on a free running bearing. The axis of rotation of the rotor
in perpendicular to the flow direction and the rotor blades sweep out
virtually to the full bore of the meter. The fluid impinging on the rotor
blades causes the rotor to revolve within the linear flow range of the
meter. The angular speed of rotation in directly proportional to
volumetric flow rate. The speed of rotation in monitored by an
electron -magnetic pick up coil
• Application:
Due to excellent preference characteristics the turbine meter in
widely used for high accuracy custody transfer.
Turbine meter
is kept in
rotation by the
linear velocity
of the stream
in which it is
immersed.
The number
of revolutions
the device
makes is
proportional to RELUCTANCE INDUCTANCE
the rate of
Both operates
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flow
on the
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principle of
field moving
47 | P a g e
through a coil.
 RELUCTANCE
• Permanent magnet in the coil.
• Blades are made of a paramagnetic material- Mat. Attracted by magnet
• As blade approaches the cone, mag field is deflected causing voltage
generation in coil.
Each blade produces a separate and distinct voltage pulse

INDUCTANCE
• Permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor.
• As mag. Rotates past pick up coil position, it generates voltage pulse for
every complete revolution of rotor.
• One pulse per revolution

4.3.3. vortex type flow measurement

Vortex meters can be used on most clean liquid, vapor or gas. However,
they are generally chosen for applications where high flow range ability is
required. Due to break down of vortices at low flow rates, vortex meters will
cut off at a low flow limit. Reverse flow measurement is not an option. For
regular service applications this meter is the meter of choice by many end
users.
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Basic Flow Equation: Q = A * V
Flowing Velocity of Fluid: V = (f * d) / St
f = Shedding Frequency
d = Diameter of Bluff Body
St = Stouhal Number (Ratio between Bluff Body Diameter and
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Vortex Interval)
A = Area of Pipe
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49 | P a g e
 [Link]
• what is controller?
Controller is a device that receives data from measurement instruments
(Sensor, Transducer or Transmitter) and compares that data with the
programmed set point value, and if necessary generates a signal output to a
control element (actuators) to take a corrective action.

In general, there are three types of local controllers

 Mechanical (such as pneumatic, hydraulic) controller

 electronic controller
 Programmable controller
controllers also reside in a digital control system such as computer based central
controller(DCS)
• controllers may perform complex mathematical functions to compare a
set of data to a set point or they may perform simple addition or
subtraction functions to make a comparison.
• Controllers always have an ability to receive input, to perform
mathematical function with the input and to produce an output signal,

• common examples of controllers include: -

 On-Off type controller
 Proportional controller
 PID controllers: -
from single loop controller up to PLC and DCS controllers

A. On-Off Type Controller: -

It is the simplest form of process variable control device: - for
example temperature control device.
The output from it is either ON or OFF, with no middle state.
 It will switch the output only when the temperature crosses the set
point.
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 For heating control, the output is ON when the temperature is below

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the set point, and OFF above set point.

50 | P a g e
  Since the temperature crosses the set point to change the output
state, the process temperature will be cycling continually, going from
below set point to above, and back below.
 On-off control is usually used where a precise control is not necessary,
where the mass of the system is so great that temperatures change
extremely slowly, or for a temperature alarm.

B. Proportional Control
Proportional controls are designed to eliminate the cycling associated with
on-off control.
A proportional controller decreases the average power supplied to the heater as
the temperature approaches set point.
This has the effect of slowing down the heater so that it will not overshoot the
set point, but will approach the set point slowly and maintain a stable
temperature.
This proportioning action can be accomplished by turning the output ON and OFF
for short time intervals.
This “time proportioning” varies the ratio of “on” time to “off” time to control the
temperature.
The proportioning action occurs within a “proportional band” around the set
point temperature. Outside this band, the controller functions as an on-off unit,
with the output either fully on (below the band) or fully off (above the band).
However, within the band, the output is turned on and off in the ratio of the
measurement difference from the set point.
At the set point (the midpoint of the proportional band), the output on:-off ratio is
1:1; that is, the on-time and off-time are equal. if the temperature is further from
the set point, the on- and off-times vary in proportion to the temperature
difference.
If the temperature is below set point, the output will be ON longer; if the
temperature is too high, the output will be OFF longer
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[Link] Controller
A Proportional–Integral–Derivative(PID) controllers - named after the
Proportional, Integral and Derivative control actions they perform - are used in the
vast majority of automatic process control applications in the industry today.
PID controllers are responsible for regulating flow, temperature, pressure, level,
and other industrial process variables
It can be found in virtually all kinds of control equipment’s, either as a stand-alone
(single-station) controller or as a functional block in Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs) and Distributed Control Systems (DCSs)
PID controllers are most useful in a continuous process control such as
temperature, pressure, flow and level control temperature, pressure, flow and
level control.

Tuning of controllers

 what is tuning?
 why controllers need tuning?

• Tuning is the selection of the values of the PID parameters.

• a process controllers are tuned in order to achieve two things: -

 the system responds quickly to the errors

 the system remains stable (PV does not oscillate around the set point)

Tuning parameters: -

Controllers automatically compares the value of the PV to the set point to

determine if an error exist. If there is an error, the controller adjusts its
output according to the parameters that have been set in the controller.

What are the parameter modes that have been set in the controller?

what do they determine?

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52 | P a g e
The parameter modes are: -

 proportional mode: - determines how much correction should be

made, that is the magnitude of the correction (change in controller
output)
 Integral mode: - determines how long should the correction be
applied, that is the duration of the adjustment to the controller output.
 Derivative mode: - determines how fast should the correction be
applied, that is the speed at which the correction is made.

Common PID controllers are: -

 single loop (single variable) controller

 multi loop (multi variable) controller
 programmable logic controller(PLC)
 distributed control system(DCS)
Single loop controller: -
is a controller with one input and one output?
We can take an examples where we can use single loop controller in the process
of sugar production.
 clear juice level control in evaporators
 juice temperature control in juice heaters
 draft juice flow control in diffuser plant
etc.
Multi loop controller: -is a controller which have more than one in put (process
variables) and output controls. for example: -
 Exhaust steam pressure controller to control make up steam to
exhaust steam line and relief valve.
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 C. Programmable logic controller (PLC
what is PLC?

• PLC is: -
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming memory
for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific functions
such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to control, various
types of machines or process through digital or analog modules.
OR
• PLC is a type of computer commonly used in commercial and industrial
control applications.
• PLCs differ from office computers in the types of tasks that they
perform and the hardware and software they require to perform these
tasks.
All PLCs monitor inputs and other variable values, make decisions based on a
stored program, and control outputs to automate a process or machine.

Main Components of PLC

A PLC basically consists of

two elements:
• the central processing unit
• the input/output system

The central processing unit (CPU)

executes the control program stored in the PLC’s memory. In essence, the CPU is
54

the “brains” of a programmable controller. It functions much the same way the
CPU of a regular computer does, except that it uses special instructions and
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coding to perform its functions.

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The CPU has three parts:
• the processor
• the memory system
• the power supply
The processor is the section of the CPU that Provides intelligence to command
and govern the activities of the entire PLC systems, that is the main function is to
analyze data coming from field sensors through input modules, make decisions
based on the user’s defined control program and return signal back through
output modules to the field devices.
The memory system is the section of the CPU that stores both the control
program and data from the equipment connected to the PLC.
The power supply is the section that provides the PLC with the voltage and
current it needs to operate.
I/O Module
The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to external field devices.
The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals received
from or sent to the external input and output devices.
Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to logic
levels acceptable to PLC’s processor.
Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of driving
the connected discrete or analog output devices.
• In general, we have two types of I/O modules: -

I. discrete I/O module

II. Analog I/O Module
I. Types of discrete I/O Module: -

 DC input module

 AC input module

 DC output module

 AC output module
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 DISCRETE I/O MODULE

DC INPUT MODULE

IS NEEDED TO:
 Prevent
USE TO voltage
DROP THE transients from
VOLTAGE TO damaging the
LOGIC processor.
LEVEL  Helps reduce
the effects of
electrical noise

Current Buffer,
FROM INPUT Limiting OPTO- Filter,
DEVICE
Resistor ISOLATOR hyster To processor
esis
Circuit
s

PLC input modules must

convert a variety of logic
levels to the 5Vdc logic
levels used on the data
bus
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 IS NEEDED TO:
 Prevent
AC INPUT MODULE voltage
transients
CONVERTS THE from
AC INPUT TO DC damaging the
AND DROPS THE processor.
VOLTAGE TO  Helps reduce
LOGIC LEVEL the effects of
electrical
noise

Rectifier Buffer,
OPTO-
, Filter,
ISOLA
FROM Resistor TOR Hystere TO
INPUT Network sis PROCESSOR
DEVICE Circuits

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 IS NEEDED TO:
DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE  Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
 Helps reduce the
effects of electrical
noise

Amplifier
TTL OPTO-
RELAY TO
FROM TRIAC OUTPUT
PROCESSO Circuits ISOLATOR
X’SISTOR DEVICE
R

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 Output connection

II. Types of analog I/O Modules

• Used for special signals and special applications which are beyond the
scope of discrete I/O modules.

Analog input modules

Analog output modules

Analog input module: -

PLCs, like other digital computers, are discrete systems that only
understand 1s and 0s. Therefore, they cannot interpret analog signals
in their continuous form. That’s why we need Analog input interfaces
to translate continuous analog signals into discrete values that can be
interpreted by PLC processor.
analog output module: -
Analog output interfaces are used in applications requiring the control of
field devices that respond to continuous voltage or current levels.
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multi-bit analog output instructions which are similar to those used with
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multi bit discrete outputs are used to send analog information to field device.

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 The module then transforms this value, from digital to analog and passes it to
the field control device.
Connection of analog I/O module

Input/output (I/O) Devices

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They supply a signal or data They wait for a signal/data from
to the PLC. Examples are: the PLC to perform their control
Switches, Push Buttons, functions.
sensors, etc… Examples include Lights, horns,
Input device tells the PLC, motors, and valves These devices
“Hey, something is happening stay put until the PLC
Out here…you need to check says, “You need to turn on now”
this out to or
see how it affects the control “You’d better open up your
program.” valve a little more,”

Input/output (I/O) signals

 Discrete Input signal

A discrete input, also referred to as a digital input, is an input that is either in an
ON or OFF condition. Pushbuttons, toggle switches, limit switches, proximity
switches, and contact closures are examples of discrete sensors which are
connected to the PLCs discrete or digital inputs. In the ON condition a discrete
input may be referred to as a logic 1 or a logic high. In the OFF condition a discrete
input may be referred to as a logic 0 or a logic low.

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  Analog Inputs signal

An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous signal. Typical analog
inputs may vary from 0 to 20 milliamps, 4 to 20 milliamps, or 0 to 10 volts. In the
following example, a level transmitter monitors the level of liquid in a tank.
Depending on the level transmitter, the signal to the PLC can either increase or
decrease as the level increases or decreases.

 Discrete Outputs signal

A discrete output is an output that is either in an ON or OFF condition. Solenoids,
contactor coils, and lamps are examples of actuator devices connected to discrete
outputs. Discrete outputs may also be referred to as digital outputs. In the
following example, a lamp can be turned on or off by the PLC output it is
connected to. A discrete output may be referred to as a logic 1 or a logic high in
the on condition and a logic 0 or a logic low in the OFF condition.

 Analog Outputs signal

An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous signal. The output may
be as simple as a 0-10 VDC level that drives an analog meter . Examples of analog
meter outputs are speed, weight, and temperature. The output signal may also be
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used on more complex applications such as a current-to pneumatic transducer

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that controls an air-operated flow-control Valve by sending 4-20 mA.

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 Programming a plc

A program consists of one or more instructions that accomplish a task.

Programming a PLC is simply constructing a set of instructions.
There are several ways to look at a program such as ladder logic, statement lists,
or function block diagrams. Ladder logic (LAD) is one programming language used

with PLCs. Ladder logic uses components that resemble elements used in a line

diagram format to describe hard-wired control .

All PLCs use two basic instructions:

1. Contacts 2. Coils

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In PLC talk, this three-step process of monitoring the inputs, executing
the PLC control program, and changing the status of the outputs accordingly is
called the scan.

A PLC Scan Cycle

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 Examples of PLC programming
AND circuit

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 Example: AC Motor Start/Stop Circuit

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 PLC hard wiring diagram

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 Distributed control system(DCS)
The word ‘Distributed’ supports following functionalities
Physical Distribution Nodes or Subsystems can be Distributed i.e. located
physically apart
Functional Distribution - Specific Functionality is imparted for a Node based on
the combination of hardware and software used. e.g. Application work-processor
with Historian, Application work-processor with control configuration software
Structural Distribution - Different Structural hardware platforms (Application
Workstation processor, Workstation processor, Control processor etc.) are used to
achieve the required functionality

[Link] CONTROL ELEMENTS (ACTUATORS

Final control element is a device that receives output signal from controller and
takes an action at the process according to the given instruction from controller to
avoid the error b/n PV and SV of the given process.
common control devices are: -
 solenoid valves
 control valves
 Drives or variable speed drives (pumps, etc.)

[Link] valves
A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units:
• A solenoid (electromagnet) with its core
• A valve body containing one or more orifices
Flow through an orifice is shut off or allowed by the movement of the core when
the solenoid is energized or de-energized.

Types of Solenoid Valves

A. 2-Way Valves
Two-way valves have one inlet and one outlet pipe connection. They are used to
allow or shut off fluid flow, and are available in either:
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• Normally Closed – closed when de-energized and open when energized.

• Normally Open – open when de-energized and closed when energized.
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 B. 3-Way Valves
Three-way valves have three pipe connections and two orifices (when one is
open, the other is closed, and vice versa).
They are commonly used to alternately apply pressure to and exhaust pressure
from the diaphragm operator of a control valve, single -acting cylinder, or rotary
actuator.

Normally Closed – when the valve is de-energized, the pressure port is closed and
the cylinder port is connected to the exhaust port. When the valve is energized,
the pressure port is connected to the cylinder port and the exhaust port is closed.
Normally Open – when the valve is de-energized, the pressure port is connected
to the cylinder port and the exhaust port is closed. When the valve is energized,
the pressure port is closed and the cylinder port is connected to the exhaust port.

C. 4-Way Valves
Four-way valves are generally used to operate double-acting cylinders or
actuators. They have four or five pipe connections: one pressure, two cylinder,
and one or two exhausts
• let’s say we have two positions of cylinder A and B
• In Position A pressure is connected to one-cylinder port, the other is
connected to exhaust. In Position B, pressure and exhaust are reversed
at the cylinder ports.

2. control valves
Valves are mechanical devices specifically designed to direct, start, stop or
regulate the flow, temperature or pressure of a process fluid.

Types of control valves:

A. Butterfly type control valve
Butterfly Sometimes known as a disc valve. It takes the form of a disc normally
mounted central on a shaft. By rotation of the shaft the disc will travel from a
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position closing off the flow when across the pipe, to fully open at 90° to the
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pipe, when allowing the maximum possible opening and flow. 'Offset disc'

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 butterfly valves are available for special control applications; they tend to
give a more linear characteristic but are also slightly more expensive. By use
of different seat materials, they can be made to suit water, gas and steam
control.

Fig. butterfly type control valves

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 Globe type control valves

Globe Also known as plug and seat-type valves. The body is arranged to give a
fluid flow up through an orifice. A plug lowered into the orifice will give control of
the flow from maximum to zero when the plug is fully inserted into the orifice or
seat. Normally the seat material is metal.

DIAPHRAGM

ACTUATOR
SPRING

STEM

BONNET

TRIM

BODY

Figure of Globe /plug and seat type valve

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 C. Ball type control valve
By inserting a ball with a hole through it in line with the flow direction in
the valve body, a control of the flow can be achieved by rotating the ball
through 90° similar to the butterfly valve.

PRESSURE OPERATED ACTUATOR

A pressure operated process actuator should basically satisfy the following
requirements...
• Should operate on 3 to 15 psig signal.
• Should have a failsafe action on supply failure.
• Should have minimum hysteresis.
• Should be powerful enough to act against the unbalance forces.
• Should be reversible
Control Valve Accessories
AFR: Air filter regulators are used to provide a clean and regulated air.
Positioner: Applications on which they should be used include the following...
* When the best possible control is required.
* When max. loading pr.>20 psi is required.
* When reversing action is necessary.
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* For split range operation.

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* Also is used to change flow characteristic of a valve

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 Valve Accessories
• Position transmitter: position transmitters are provided for valve
position indication.
• Hand wheels: Hand wheels are mounted on the control valves for
manual operation in an emergency or in the event of air failure or
diaphragm rupture. They may also be used as limit stops to prevent full
closure or full opening of valves.
• Air lock relay: Air lock relays are used for achieving fail safe operation.
• I/P convertor converts electrical signal 4- 20mA in to 3-15psig
pneumatic signal.
Span
Zero adjustment
Adjustment

Figure of Pneumatic positioner

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