FOOD COMMODITIES

CEREALS
Definition:
-Cereals are cultivated grasses, but the term is broadened to include sago, rice and arrowroot. All cereal
products contain starch, and may have some similar characteristics.
-A cereal is a grass, a member of the monocot family cultivated for the edible component of its grain. It is
composed of endosperm, germ and bran.
They are grown for their highly nutritious edible seeds which are known as cereal grains. They include maize,
rice, wheat, rye, barley, oats, millet, sorghum, tapioca, and sago and arrowroot flour.
FOOD VALUE
(i) Carbohydrates in cereal grains
The principal nutrient is carbohydrates in form of starch. Most of the starch is found in the inner part of the
grain known as the endosperm. It is therefore present in both wholegrain and refined cereals.
(ii) Protein in cereal grain
The protein in cereal grains is of lower biological value because only small amounts of some of the essential
amino acids present.eg wheat and many cereals are deficient in amino acid lysine. Cereal protein also contains
smaller amounts of amino acid methionine, tryptophane and isoleucine than do animal proteins.
Cereal products are frequently eaten with animal protein or pulses to supplement the missing amino acids.
(iii) Fat in cereal grains
Different types of grains vary in the amount of fat they contain .Oats contain the highest proportion (8%), in
wheat, the fat is mainly found in the germ. Whole meal and wheat germ flours contain 2-3% fat. Maize yields
good oil suitable for cooking.
(iv) Vitamins and Minerals in cereal grains
Cereal grains provide some of the B-group vitamins, especially thiamin and niacin. Small amounts of riboflavin
are also present. There is also vitamin A, C and D in cereals. Cereal grains are also a useful source of calcium
esp. wheat and oats if not processed.
(v) Dietary fiber in cereal grains
The outer areas of cereal grains are less digestible, but are a valuable source of dietary fibre. The highly refined
cereal products are deficient in this fibrous matter.
Types of cereals
1) WHEAT
The wheat grain is a seed and has the following parts:

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  The germ (2% of the grain). The embryo plant and is rich in protein, fat and B-vitamins.
- The bran (13% of the grain), contains the seeds coat which protects the developing embryo.
It is mainly fibre with some minerals and B-vitamins.
- The endosperm (85% of the grain), it is the food reserve; composed of starch granules mixed
with protein.
Products of wheat
 Flour e.g. whole meal flour Brown / wheat meal flour: the whole meal flour Wheat germ flour: where only
the germ is milled into flour. Can however keep up to 2 weeks.
White flour plain: Where the germ and bran are removed
Self-raising flour: usually white flour with raising agent
Starch reduced flour:
 Semolina: Where particles of endosperm are ground slightly coarse and gritty. Used for desserts
 Pasta: The term used for stiff pastes made of semolina or flour and water and sometimes eggs are added.
The pastes are rolled thinly or extruded into a variety of shapes. The shapes are dried before cooking.
 Wheat breakfast cereals: Are ready to eat breakfast cereals or snacks. They are produced from puffed wheat
e.g. All-Bran cereal, Weetabix,
Products made from wheat flour:
- Cakes
- Pastries
- Pancakes
- Breads
- Chapatis
- To thicken e.g. stews, sauces (roux based)
2) RICE
Aquatics plant and produce most successful crops when grown in water.
The main classifications include:
 Long grain: a narrow pointed grain suited for savoury dishes and plain boiled because of its firm structure
which helps to keep the rice grain separate. E.g. Patna, basmati
 Medium grain: an all-purpose rice suitable for savoury and sweet dishes e.g. Arborio, Carolina
 Short grain: short rounded grain best suited for milk puddings and sweet dishes because of its soft texture
e.g. Arborio.
Main Types
-Brown rice: has covering removed but retains its bran and as a result is more nutritious
-whole grain rice; whole and unprocessed
-wild rice; seeds of an aquatic plant related to the rice family
-ground rice; this is rice coarsely ground, used for milk puddings
-rice flour; used for thickening certain soups e.g. cream soups
-Rice paper- a thin edible paper produced from rice used in the preparation of macaroons, cake decoration.

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-pre-cooked rice
Products: rice breakfast cereal; produced alone or combined with wheat in the puffed form e.g. rice krispies
3. MAIZE
Maize is also known as corn, sweet or corn-on-the-cob and besides served as a vegetable it is processed into
cornflakes and corn flour.
Dry maize is rich in starch thus a cereal. Young green maize can be used as a vegetable and is rich in fiber e.g.
corn-on-cob.
Products of maize
a) corn flour’s flour produced from maize which is pure starch used for thickening soups, sauces, gravies and
also a main ingredient in custard powder.
b) Maize breakfast cereals;
Are cereals products made from maize taken for breakfast or as a snack e.g. corn flakes?
c) Savoury snacks.
Used to produce snack popular with children e.g. corn chips
d) Popcorn.
e) Cooking oil: i.e. the corn oil
f) Maize flour can be used for porridge, ugali, and can either be whole meal or white flour.
4) OATS
Oats are either rolled into flakes or ground into three grades of oat meal; coarse, medium and fine.
Products of oats
a) Rolled oats; bras is removed and the grain is steam treated before being rolled used mainly for porridge,
flapjacks and other biscuits.
b)oatmeal; grain ground into coarse flour after bran is removed used for porridge ,thickening soups, coating
foods, cakes (parkin), biscuits,
c) Oat breakfast cereal products; rolled oats are mainly used as part of other breakfast cereals e.g. muesli
5) RYE
A long thin grain which yields dark coloured flour. It is lower in protein than wheat flour and produces close,
heavy bread. It is also mixed with wheat flour to produce a variety of dark breads.
6) BARLEY
Barley is a very hardy cereal but is not grown for flour because of its very low protein content.
Products:
a) Malt extract: for the brewing industry
b) Malt flour: added to wheat flour for malt breads
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c) Pearl barley: the endosperm after the bran and husk are removed. Mainly used to thicken soups and stews.
d) Scotch barley: has only the outer husk removed; it needs long, slow cooking in stews and broths.
e) Barley water: Is a refreshing drink (pearl barley soaked in water) often flavored with lemon or oranges.
6) MILLET
It is in a group of highly variable small seeded grasses. It is high in protein, rich in amino acid, high in B-
complex vitamins, gluten free, easy to digest, high in fiber and minerals e.g. iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium.
Used as a breakfast cereal in form of porridge, can be used to enrich soups and stews, can be part of stuffing’s.
7) SORGHUM
Sorghum is high in fiber and iron with a high protein level rich in antioxidants which helps lower risks of
cancers, diabetes and heart diseases
Used as a breakfast cereal in form of porridge, can be used to enrich soups and stews, can be part of
stuffing’s, and in production of beer.
Others: Are classified under cereals but are not necessarily of cereal origin.
i) Tapioca: Obtained from the roots of a tropical plant called cassava. Used in milk puddings and
garnishing soups.
ii) Sago: Produced in small pellets from the pith of the sago palm. Used for making milk puddings.
iii) Arrow root flour: Obtained from the roots of maranta plant. This powder is suitable since it is clear/
transparent when boiled. It can be used instead of corn flour when a clear gel is required e.g. in fruit
flan. Can also be used to enrich cakes and puddings.
iv) Potato flour: A preparation of potatoes suitable for thickening certain soups and sauces.

Storage of Cereals and Products

 Flour: Storeroom must be dry and well ventilated; Flour should be removed from sacks and kept in wheeled
bins with lids. Old flour should not be mixed with new.
NB. Storage time varies according to the amount of fat present in the flour.
 Oats: should be kept in containers with tight fitting lids and stored in a cool well ventilated
storeroom. Care should be taken because of its high fat content.
 Rice: should be kept in tight fitting containers in a cool well ventilated store.
 Arrow root: easily contaminated by strong smelling foods therefore must be stored in air-tight tins.
 Breakfast cereals: are packed in sealed bags inside their cartons. After opening, carefully fold down inside
the carton to preserve crispness and freshness.
 Whole cereals should be stored in a well-ventilated cool dry place. They absorb moisture in a damp place
and may go mouldy. Store in containers with well-fitting lids to prevent mites, rodents and other insects
Purchasing specification:
Buy cereals when they are being harvested if possible since they are fresh. Buy from a reliable supplier.
Cereals should be nicely selected from any foreign objects and pests to avoid food hazards.
Avoid wet and torn packagings for those in packets / sacks

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Check on the expiry date for the packaged products and try to establish the season for the other cereals
especially if from an open air market.
References
Food Facts by Delia Clark
The Theory of Catering By Kinton and Ceseran
MEAT:
Meat is probably the most important food that is used and includes cattle, sheep, and pigs are reared for fresh
meat. Meat is used.

BEEF
Beef is the meat obtained from domesticated cattle.
Compared to other types of meat, it has longer connective tissues which make it to be tougher taking longer
cooking time and also digestion period. However, beef can be made more tender (soft) by:
 Hanging the meat after slaughtering as in butcheries for up to 14 days under the right conditions.
 Marinating by use of vinegar or lemon juice.
 Use of tenderizing salts or chemicals.
 Beating up meat pieces by use of meat hammer (steak hammer) before grilling or frying.
 Use of enzymes that break down the protein e.g. papain from the leaves of pawpaw tree is injected to the
blood stream of the animal just before slaughtering to ensure that it is evenly distributed.

N B: Tenderness in beef is probably the most important factor taken into account when judging the quality of
beef.

STRUCTURE OF MEAT
 Meat comprises fibres bound by connective tissue
 Connective tissue, elastin, is yellow and collagen, white
 Yellow tissue needs to be removed
 Small fibres are in tender cuts and young animals
 Coarser fibres in tougher cuts and older animals
 Fat assists in providing flavour and moistens meat in roasting and grilling
 Tenderness, flavour and moistness are increased if meat is hang after slaughter and before being used

Quality purchasing points for fresh beef.

 Fat- should be firm, brittle in texture and creamy white. Older animals have fat which is softer and
yellowish in colour. Should be moderate and not too much.
 Marbling- in lean meat is formed by small droplets of fat which should be evenly distributed,
especially in sirloin steak wing and also fore ribs.
 Colour- the colour of the meat should be bright red. The cut surface may become dull and sticky after it
is exposed to air for some time.
 Touch- lean beef should be firm and elastic to the touch and not flabby.
 Fluid- any moisture on the cut surface should be watery, not thick and sticky to the touch. The beef
should not be over moist or too dry.
 Grains- the grains should be fine. Long coarse fibres are a sign of cheaper quality cut of beef.

Storage
Large sections of meat such as sides, fore quarters, hind quarters, whole sirloins and rumps should be suspended
on meat hooks from racks fixed to the ceiling of the cold room.

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Cuts of beef should be stored on trays at 2°c and covered to prevent drying out of the cut surfaces. The trays
need to be changed daily to prevent the meat from lying on the collected blood.
Chilled beef should be stored at -2°c (28° F) and frozen beef at -18°c (0° F)

Cooking beef
The following are the methods which may be used in cooking beef:

Method Joint/cut
Roasting Topside, fore rib, middle rib, strip loin, wing rib, whole fillet.
Poele’ cooking Fillet, strip loin
Grilling Rump (point and rump steak)
Whole sirloin (T- bone and potter house steaks)
Strip loin ( sirloin and minute steaks)
Fillet (chateaubriand, fillet steak, tournedos)
Wing ribs (rib steaks)
Fore rib (rib steaks)

Shallow frying As for grilling

Boiling Silverside, thin flank, brisket, ox tongue, tripe
Stewing Shin, topside, thick flank, thin flank, chuck rib, clod and sticking,
plate, brisket, leg of mutton cut, kidneys, tripe.
Sautéing Fillet, strip loin
Braising Topside, thick flank, middle rib, chunk rib, leg of mutton cut, ox-
tail, ox tongue, ox heart, ox liver, tripe and sweet breads.

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 OFFAL:
It is the name given to the edible parts taken from the inside of the carcass liver, kidney, heart, sweet bread,
stripe, brains, oxtail, tongue and head are sometimes included under this term.
Liver
 Calf’s liver is considered the best in terms of tenderness and flavor. It is also the most expensive.
 Lamb’s liver is mild in flavor, light in colour and tender. Sheep’s liver, being from an older animal,
is firmer in substance, deeper in colour and has a stronger flavor.
 Ox or beef liver is the cheapest and if taken from an older animal can be coarse in texture and
strong in flavor. It is usually braised
 Pig’s liver has a strong full flavor and is mainly used for pate recipes
Quality points
 Liver should look fresh, moist, smooth with a pleasant colour and no unpleasant smell
 Liver should not be dry or contain an excessive number of tubes
Food value
Liver is a good source of protein, iron, vitamin A &D and it is low in fat

Kidneys
Quality points
 Suet, which is the saturated fat in which kidneys are encased, should be left on otherwise the kidneys
will dry out. The suet should be removed when kidneys are being prepared for cooking
 Both suet and kidneys should be moist and have no unpleasant smell
Food value
Similar to that of liver

Hearts
Quality points
 Hearts should not be too fatty an should not contain too many tubes
 When cut should be moist, not sticky and with no unpleasant smell

Sweetbread
These are the pancreas and thymus glands known as heart breads and neck.
Quality points
Heart and neck breads should be freshly and of good size.
They should be creamy white in colour and have no unpleasant smell.
Food value
Sweetbreads are an easily digested source of protein, which makes them valuable for invalid diets
Tripe
It is the stomach lining or white muscle of the ox consisting of the rumen or paunch and the honeycomb
tripe (considered the best), sheep tripe, darker in colour, is obtained in some areas

Quality points
Tripe should be fresh, with no signs of sickness or unpleasant smell
Food value
Tripe contains protein, is low in fat and high in calcium
Brains
Calf’s brain is that normally used. They must be fresh and have no unpleasant smell. They are a good source
of protein with trace elements

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 Tongues
Quality points
 Tongues must be fresh and have no unpleasant smell
 There should not be an excess of waste at the root end
Head
Can be used for stock, brawn (a cold meat preparation) and specialty dishes (calf’s head vinaigrette).
Heads should be fresh, not sticky, well fleshed and free from any unpleasant smell

 VEAL
Refers to the meat obtained from young calf especially below the age of 2 years and may weigh up to 100 kgs.
Good quality veal should be:
 Pale pink and firm
 Not soft or flabby
 Cut surfaces should not be dry, but moist
 Bones in young animals should be pinkish white, porous and with a small amount of blood in
their structure.
 The fat should be firm and pinkish white
 The kidney too should be firm and well covered with fat

 LAMB AND MUTTON
In Britain, five times as much lamb and mutton is eaten than in any other European country. Approximately
40% of the lamb and mutton consumed is home-produced and the balance comes from Australia and New
Zealand. As the seasons in Australia and New Zealand are opposite to those in Britain these supplies can be
integrated with our own. Most lamb carcasses imported are from animals aged between 4-6 months.
a) Lamb is under one year old-after one year it is termed mutton
b) The carcass should be compact and evenly fleshed.
c) The lean flesh of lamb and mutton ought to be firm and of a pleasing dull red colour and of a fine
texture or grain.
d) The fat should be evenly distributed, hard, brittle, flaky and clear white in colour.
e) The bones should be porous in young animals.

 PORK
Refers to the obtained from pigs. In most cases, boars (wild or male uncastrated pigs) are the main source of
pork although piglets (young pigs) are also a good source of a tender meat.
Good quality pork should be:
 Pale pink
 The fat is white, firm, smooth, and not excessive
 Bones are usually small, fine and pinkish.
 The skin or rind ought to be smooth.
The keeping quality of pork is less than that of any other meat; therefore it should be handled, prepared and
cooked with great care. Pork must always be well cooked, because Trichinellae (parasitic worms) may be
present and must be destroyed by heat. If they are present in the meat and are not destroyed in cooking they will
find their way into the voluntary muscles of those who eat pork and they will continue to live in the human
body.
BACON
Bacon is the cured flesh of a baconer pig. A baconer pig is the type that is specifically reared for bacon because
its shape and size yield economic bacon joints. The curing process consists of salting either by a dry method and
smoking, or by soaking in brine followed by smoking.
Green baking is brine cured but not smoked, it has a milder flavor and does not keep as long as smoked bacon.

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 a) There should be no sign of stickiness.
b) There must be no unpleasant smell.
c) The rind should be thin, smooth and free from wrinkles.
d) The fat ought to be white, smooth and not excessive in proportion to the lean.
e) The lean meat of bacon should be deep pink in colour and firm.
HAM
Ham is the hind leg of a pig cut round from the side of the pork with the aitch bone; it is preserved by curing
or pickling in brine and then dried and smoked. York, bradenham (Wiltshire) and Suffolk are three of the most
popular English hams.
Bradenham is easily distinguished by its black skin. The bradenham and Suffolk hams are sweet and mildly
cured. Imported hams include the Parma, Bayonne and Westphalia, all of which are carved paper thin and
eaten raw as hors-d`oeuvre.

Food Value
Meat, having high protein content, is valuable for the growth and repair of the body and as a source of energy.

PRESERVATION
Salting- meat can be pickled in brine and this method of preservation may be applied to silverside, brisket and
ox-tongues. Salting is also used in the production of bacon, before the sides of pork are smoked. This also
applies to hams.
Chilling- this means that meat is kept at a temperature just above freezing point in a controlled atmosphere.
Chilled meat cannot be kept in the usual type of cold room for more than a few days, and this is sufficient time
for the meat to hang, enabling it to become tender.
Freezing- small carcasses, such as lamb and mutton, can be frozen and the quality is not affected by freezing.
They can be kept frozen until required and then thawed out before being used. Some beef is frozen but it is
inferior in quality to chilled beef.
Canning- large quantities of meat are canned and corned beef is of importance since it has very high protein
content. Pork is used for tinned luncheon meat.
MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS

Milk is a white liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the primary source of nutrition for
young mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum,
which carries the mother's antibodies to the baby and can reduce the risk of many diseases in the baby. It also
contains many other nutrients.

As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from mammals during or soon after pregnancy and used as food for
humans though it has to be treated before consumption to make it safe.

The females of all mammal species can by definition produce milk, but cow milk dominates commercial
production. In 2011, FAO estimates 85% of all milk worldwide was produced from cows.
Fresh milk should be taken care of to ensure that it is not contaminated and therefore it should:
 Kept in the container in which it is delivered.
 Stored in the refrigerator for maximum of 5 days
 Be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onions and fish
 Order fresh milk daily
 Tinned milk should be stored in cool and dry, well ventilated rooms
 Dried milk is packaged in air tight tins and kept in a dry store

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  Sterilized milk will keep for 2-3 months if un-opened, but once opened, must be treated just as fresh
milk
Uses of milk
 As a drink or in preparation of hot drinks
 In soups
 In sauces
 Making batters
 In making milk custards and egg custards
 In making milk puddings
 In bakery products e.g. cakes
 Glazing pastries
Composition of milk
 Lipids/ fats
 water
 Protein- Normal bovine milk contains 30–35 grams of protein per liter
 Salts, minerals, and vitamins

Minerals or milk salts are traditional names for a variety of cations and anions within bovine milk. Calcium,
phosphate, magnesium, sodium, potassium, citrate, and chlorine are all included as minerals and they typically
occur at concentration of 5–40 mm the milk salts strongly interact with casein, most notably calcium phosphate.
It is present in excess and often, much greater excess of solubility of solid calcium phosphate. In addition to
calcium, milk is a good source of many other vitamins. Vitamins A, B6, B12, C, D, K, E, thiamine, niacin,
biotin, riboflavin, folates, and pantothenic acid are all present in milk.

 Carbohydrates

Milk contains several different carbohydrate including lactose, glucose, galactose, and other oligosaccharides.
The lactose gives milk its sweet taste and contributes approximately 40% of whole cow's milk's calories.
Lactose is a disaccharide composite of two simple sugars, glucose and galactose.

Types of milk based on fat content

 Standardized milk- This is made by combining buffalo milk and skimmed milk. The fat percentage is
maintained at 4.5% while the SNF is 8.5%.
 Whole milk: Whole milk must contain at least 3.25% milk fat and 8.25% milk solids by weight—which
means it derives about 50% of its calories from fat. Because of this relatively high fat content, whole
milk is best used only for infants and young children up to age 2.
 Reduced-fat milk (2%): This milk contains 2% milk fat. The percentage of milk fat refers to the
percentage of fat by weight, and much of milk's weight is water. Once you subtract the water from 2%
milk, for example, you're left with a product that contains 20% fat by weight; such milk actually derives
35% of its calories from fat. Drinking 2% milk is a good way to wean oneself from whole milk at first,
but is too high in fat as a permanent choice, unless your diet is otherwise very low in fat.
 Low-fat milk (1%): One-percent milk gets 23% of its calories from fat. Many people find low-fat milk
more appealing and a good compromise.

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  Skimmed milk/non-fat milk: This type of milk has as much fat removed as possible. It may not contain
more than 0.5% milk fat by weight, and usually contains less than 0.5 gm. of fat per cup, deriving just
5% of its calories from fat. Skimmed milk has about half the calories of whole milk. It is the best choice
for adults, and is the only type of milk that should be consumed by people on strict low-fat diets.
Unfortunately, skim milk has a very "thin" flavor and an unappealing bluish cast.

Types of milk based on method of treatment/ processing

 Pasteurized milk- this is milk which has been heated to
- 72˚c for 15 seconds and then cooled quickly to less than 8˚c or
- 63 ˚c for 15 minutes and then cooled quickly to less than 8˚c or.
 Homogenized milk – this is Pasteurized milk which has its fat content being evenly distributed all
through by passing it through a fine mesh under pressure.
 Sterilized milk- this is homogenized milk that has been packed in to bottles and then heated to 113˚c
through either batch process (where the bottles are placed in a chamber with hot air) or using the
continuous process (where the bottles are placed on a conveyer belt which then passes under water) for
15-30 minutes.
 UHT milk – this is homogenized which is heated to a temperature of 132 ˚c for 1 second, the milk is
then cooled and packed under sterile conditions.
 Evaporated milk- this is milk which has been heated at 80˚c until most of the water evaporates as
vapour to get an end product which is 2 times heavier than the original milk.
 Condensed milk- it is evaporated milk but with the addition of sugar.
 Dried milk- this is milk produced by the evaporation of water from the milk by heat to produce solid
that contain 5% or less moisture. Methods used include spray method and the roller method.

Milk products
Cream:
Is the layer of fat skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization or the lighter weight portion of milk
which still contains all the main constituents of milk but in different proportions? The fat content of cream is
higher than that of milk and the water content and other constituents are lower.
Types of cream
 Double cream this is cream which contains 48% of fat. It whipps easily and it’s good for making
puddings and desserts because it is thick. It can be piped after whipping.
 Clotted cream it contains 75% of fat, it is heat treated and can also be served with tea
 Extra thick double cream: it contains 48% of fat, it is homogenized and pasteurized and can be served
with pies, puddings and other deserts. It is thick thus it cannot be poured due to its consistency.
 Whipping cream: it contains 35% of fat, it whipps well but it is lighter when whipped
 Whipped cream: it contains 35% of fat, it has been whipped and it is used in cake decoration, topping
for ice-cream, fruit puddings etc.
 Sterilized cream: it contains 23% of fat and it is sterilized
 Single cream: it contains 18 % of fat. It is not sterilized; it is used in sauce making and can be poured
over puddings when serving.
 Half cream: it contains 12% of fat and it is not quite common
STORAGE OF CREAM
 Keep in the container in which it is delivered.
 Stored in the refrigerator until required
 Be kept covered as it easily absorbs smells from other foods such as onions and fish
 Order fresh cream daily
 Tinned cream should be stored in cool and dry, well ventilated rooms

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  Frozen cream should be thawed only as required and not refrozen

USES OF CREAM
a) When adding cream to hot liquids dilute the cream with some of the liquid before adding to the main
bulk this helps to prevent the cream from separating.
b) in preparation of hot drinks e.g. speciality coffees
c) In thickening soups
d) In sauces
e) Making batters
f) In making milk custards and egg custards
g) In topping up puddings
h) In bakery products e.g. cakes
i) In making ice creams

YOGHURT:
Yoghurt is a curd – like food, prepared from milk fermented by the addition of bacteria known as yoghurt
culture. Fermentation of lactose by these bacteria produces lactic acid which acts on milk protein to give
yoghurt its texture and characteristic. Yoghurt is left plain or it may be flavored with fruits, sugar, other
sweeteners or flavorings. Stabilizers such as gelatin may also be added.
Types of yoghurts
 Stirred yoghurt: which has a smooth fluid consistency.
 Set yoghurt: which is more solid and has a firmer texture
Storage of yoghurt
 Do not freeze as this will affect the texture and flavour
 Do not mix used potions with fresh one as this may cause cross- contamination
 Store away from strong smelling foods and cover tightly
 For packed yoghurt, once opened use within 3 days
 Keep refrigerated
 Keep in clean containers
Uses of yoghurt
 As a cold beverage
 In making curries
 As a dressing for vegetable salads
 As a marinade

Butters:
Butter is produced by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. One litre of cream or 5 litres of milk yield
approximately one ½ kg butter.
It contains a very high percentage of milk fat and fat soluble vitamins.
It may be salted or unsalted.
Ghee is clarified butter that is brought to higher temperatures of around 120 c after the water evaporates.

USES:
 As an alternative fat in cooking other foods
 As a flavouring for finished foods
 Butter can be used for making roux for soups and sauces.
 Making of all pastes except suet pastry
 Decorating cold dishes and cocktail savouries,
 Making cakes and butter creams.
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 It can be clarified and used for shallow frying of all kinds of food.
 Used as a spread
Storage of butter
 keep away from direct light or air to delay rancidity
 Store away from strong smelling foods and cover tightly
 Keep refrigerated
Cheese
This is a byproduct of milk produced by adding enzyme rennet to acidified milk to cause coagulation. The
solids are then separated from the whey and pressed to form a more compact product.
Quality purchasing points
 The skin or rind of cheese should not show spots of mildew, as this is a sign of dump storage.
 Cheese, when cut should not give off an over strong smell or any indication of ammonia
Types of cheese
Some examples of British cheese
Cheddar: - golden color with a close texture and a fresh mellow nutty flavor
Cheshire: - orange red or white, loose crumbly texture and a mild mellow, slightly salty flavor
Lancashire: - white in color soft and crumbly with a fresh mild flavor
Stilton: - white with blue veins, soft and close texture and a strong flavor
Some examples of French cheese
Roquefort: - blue cheese made from ewe’s milk, rich, sharp flavor with salty aftertaste
Camembert: - white, round with soft, close, creamy texture and full flavor
Some examples of Italian cheese
Mozzarella: - traditionally made from buffalo milk, pale and plastic looking, sweet flavor with a little bite
Parmesan: - hard, low-fat cheese, grated and used extensively in cooking
Ricotta: - fresh, white, crumbly and slightly sweet, similar to cottage cheese
Some examples of soft curd cheese
Cottage cheese:-a low-fat, high-protein product made from pasteurized skimmed milk; also available are very
low-fat, sweet and savory varieties
Fromage frais:- ( fresh cheese) or fromage blanc is a fat free soft curd cheese to which cream can be added to
give richer varieties; also available in low-fat, medium-fat, savory and fruit flavors.
Storage of cheese

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  Store in a cool dry, well ventilated place
 Keep away from other strong smelling foods
 Keep tightly covered
 Keep refrigerated
Food value
 Fat
 Protein
 Mineral salts
 vitamins
POULTRY

Poultry is a category of domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of collecting their eggs, or raising
for their meat and/or feathers. Poultry also includes other birds which are killed for their meat, such as pigeons
or doves or birds considered to be game, like pheasants. Poultry comes from the French/Norman word, poule,
itself derived from the Latin word Pullus, which means small animal. Examples of poultry are chicken, guinea
fowl, duck, ostrich, pigeons, doves, pheasants, turkey

Poultry is the second most widely eaten meat in the world, accounting for about 30% of meat production
worldwide, after pork at 38%.

The meatiest parts of a bird are the flight muscles on its chest, called breast meat, and the walking muscles on
the first and second segments of its legs, called the thigh and drumstick, respectively. The wings are also
eaten, usually (in the United States) without separating them, as in Buffalo wings; the first and second segment
of the wings are referred to as drumette (meatier) and flat when these need to be distinguished, though these
are technical terms.

Nutritive value of poultry

- Chicken is a easily digested source of protein to the human body as it has no strong connective tissues as
in meat.
- It provides some B vitamins, calcium and a little iron to the body.
- It is suitable for invalids, infants and convalescent diets because it is easy to chew and digest.

Cuts of poultry-chicken

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Techniques associated with poultry

 Plucking-it is the pulling of feathers against the way they lie after dipping in water before it reaches
boiling point.
 Stubbing-removing of short tick feathers with the point of a knife and the thumb, washing them off the
fingers in boiled water.
 Singing-burning (singe) of hairs with a gas stuffer or a charcoal jiko and also to remove the smell of raw
chicken.
 Trussing- done with a kitchen or a needle. It refers to the tying of chicken before roasting so as to
ensure that it maintains its shape and that the drum sticks and the legs do not open up and break apart.

Types of chicken
 A poussin- is a very small chicken suitable for one person and weighs up to 600 grams. It is normally of
4-6 weeks old. It is suitable for roasting and grilling.
 Broiler- is a young chicken specially bred and quickly fattened to produce a good sized bird in a short
time. It’s suitable for all methods of cooking. Also referred to as “poulet de grain”.
 Roasting chicken/ broiling fowl (poularde)- it’s a fully grown prime bird of about 1-1.5 kilograms.
 Boiling fowl- usually they are tough old birds which have completed their laying season. They are best
for gentle stewing or braising.
 Giblets- refers to the edible internal organs of a bird and includes the following: gizzards, heart, liver,
and the neck. They can also be used for preparation of chicken stock apart from the main meal.

Methods of cooking poultry.

-May be roasted whole when stuffed with rosemary leaves, chopped onions etc. Done in the oven.
-Chicken can be boiled and used for cold preparations.
-Can be casseroled, grilled or fried.

Signs of quality
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-plumb breast
-pliable breast bone
-firm flesh
-white skin, unbroken and with a faint bluish tint
-long hairs on the skin

TURKEY
Turkeys can vary in weight from 3.5 kgs- 20 kgs.
Signs of quality
-Large full breast with undamaged skin and no signs of stickiness
-Legs should be smooth with supple feet and short spur
-As the bird ages, the legs become reddish grey and become scaly. The feet become hard.
GUINEA FOWL
The young birds are known as squabs. When plucked it resemble a chicken darken flesh.
Quality point
- Plumb breast
- Pliable breast bone
- The skin should be white with a faint bluish tint and unbroken
- The legs should be smooth with small scales and spurs

PIGEON
Quality points
- Plumb breast
- The flesh should be mauve red in colour and the claws pinkish.

OSTRICH
Has meat with slightly coarser texture with less fat and lower cholesterol. Usually sold as a fillet or leg steak
DUCK/DUCKLING AND GOOSE/GOSLING
Quality point
- The feet and bills should be bright yellow
- The upper bill should break easily
- The webbed feet must be easy to tear

STORAGE OF POULTRY

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Chilled birds should be stored between 3˚c and 5˚c. Oven ready birds are eviscerated and should be stored in a
refrigerator.
Frozen birds should be kept in a deep freezer until required but must be thoroughly thawed, preferably in a
refrigerator before being cooked.
Frozen poultry should be checked that:
- The packaging is undamaged
- There are no signs of freezer burns which are indicated by white patches on the skin.
EGGS

The term egg applies to not only those of a hen but also to the edible eggs of other domesticated birds e.g.
turkey, goose, guinea fowl, etc. Most caterers make use of hen’s egg for much of the purposes compared to
others.
Eggs are an extremely versatile food commodity, suitable for inclusion in a wide range of products and dishes.
Hen’s eggs are graded in to four depending on their sizes:
 Small 53gms and under.
 Medium 53-63gms
 Large 64-73 gms
 Very large 73 gms and above.
Structure and composition of egg.
An egg is composed of three main parts:
 shell
 the egg white
 The yolk.

STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

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The shell
 Forms 11.5% of the egg. It is composed of 97% calcium carbonate, and 3% protein.
 It is porous enabling the developing chick to obtain oxygen. The pores also allow bacteria and odour to
enter into and water as well as carbon dioxide to escape.
 Just beneath the shell are 2 other membranes together lying close and they separate at the broader end to
form the air space. These membranes also act as chemical filters to bacteria thus protecting the inside.
 The colour of the shell may vary according to:
 Breed of the bird,
 Food eaten by the bird. This means that its colour does not affect the nutritional value of the egg.
 Older birds will produce eggs with weak shells.

Shell quality characteristics that must be considered are as follows:

 cleanliness
 soundness (unbroken)
 smoothness
 shape

The two most desirable shell qualities, cleanliness and soundness, are largely controlled by the production and
handling of eggs. Eggs with shell defects should be removed from eggs destined to the retail trade.
Egg white
 Also known as albumen and contains a mixture of proteins.
 Divided in to thick white and thin white.
 The white forms58.5% of the whole egg and consists of 88.5% water and 10.5% proteins, riboflavin
and other B vitamins as well as traces of fat.
 The main proteins in the egg are ovalbumin and mucin.

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 Yolk
 It is the central part of the egg and forms about 30% of the egg. It is supported at the center by the
chalazae.
 It consists of
 16.5% protein,
 33% fat and
 50% water
 Fat soluble vitamins A, D, E & K.
 Mineral elements, including iron and lecithin.
 Its colour varies depending on the amount and type of carotenes that the bird feeds on. The colour of the
yolk too does not affect the nutritional value of the egg.
 The yolk also is more vulnerable to bacterial attack when it is older, as the yolk membranes weaken.

In quality eggs the yolk should be:

 round,
 firm and stand up well, and
 Be yellow in colour.

Factors that may cause loss of quality are as follows:

 natural factors
 temperature
 humidity
 time
 handling
 storage
 tainting

Value of eggs
 They are good sources of high biological value protein,
 Provide little quantities of iron to the body.
 They are also poor sources of calcium since its only concentrated in the shell which is not eaten.
Quality points for fresh eggs
 Shell-should be clean, undamaged and slightly rough
 White-when broken, the egg should have a large proportion of thick white to thin white.
 Yolk-should be firm, round/dome shaped and good yellow colour.
 Smell- pleasant, bad eggs smell of hydrogen sulphide.
As the egg becomes older, they deteriorate and the thick white changes to thin white and water passes from the
white to the yolk. The yolk losses strength and begins to flatten. Water escapes from the egg and it’s replaced
by air thus the egg becomes lighter (that is why fresh eggs are heavier than stale ones.)
The storage temperature normally affects the time taken for eggs to deteriorate. Eggs stored at 3°C (37F) will
remain in first class condition for about 3 months whereas if stored in a hot place, deterioration occurs only after
a few weeks.

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While storing eggs, you should:
 Store with the blunt edge upwards,
 Keep in a cool but a dry situation with a temperature range between 0-5°C.
 Keep away from strong smelling foods e.g. cheese, onions etc.
 Eggs should not be washed before being stored as washing will remove the natural protective coating.
 Eggs cannot be frozen whole, but when separated i.e. the yolk separately from the white.
 They can also be preserved through pickling.
N.B: long cooking of eggs at high temperatures encourages the production of hydrogen sulphide even in freshly
laid eggs. Some of the sulphur in the egg combines with the iron to form a greyish- green strong tasting
compound that can be seen as a layer around the yolk of hard boiled eggs.
This is as a result of over cooking or not cooling the eggs sufficiently in cold running water.
Uses of eggs
a) Enriching- egg improves the quality and texture of sugar paste. They can be added to sauces, soups and
milk puddings to provide extra proteins.
b) Thickening- eggs are used to thicken custards, sauces, soups etc. because of the coagulation of the egg
protein.
c) Colouring- egg yolks provide a distinct yellow colour which acts as a colouring agent to some dishes.
When heated, glazed pastry products also get an attractive brown colour.
d) Glazing- egg yolk, egg white or whole egg when well beaten can be brushed over pastries during or
before baking so as to give them an attractive golden brown colour.
e) Garnishing- hard boiled eggs and yolks can be sliced and used to decorate dishes when serving.
f) Emulsifying- egg yolks contain lecithin which is an emulsifier, and enables oil and water to mix to an
emulsion without separating.
Emulsion consists of fine droplets of a liquid e.g. oil dispersed in another liquid e.g. water or in a solid e.g. fat.
This is mainly use in mayonnaise and cake making when eggs are added to the fat and sugar in a creamed
mixture.
g) Binding- egg yolks included in croquette potatoes and stuffing’s coagulate on heating, ensuring that the
ingredients are held together during and after cooking.
h) Coating- eggs are used as a coating for fried foods either on their own or combined with flour and
breadcrumbs. This forms a protective layer on the outside of the food which sets and holds together and
prevents the dish from over cooking.
i) Aerating/ trapping air- both egg whites and yolk are capable of trapping air due to ability of over
filming to stretch. The ability of eggs to stretch is utilized in cake making. They are also used to trap air
as a raising agent. They are also used to lighten mousses and sweet breads. Also in making meringues,
Swiss rolls, Genoese sponges and soufflés.
j) Clarifying- egg white, when added to a liquid and heated, slowly coagulates and rises to the surface,
taking impurities with it. This is made use of in clarifying consommé, aspic and fruit jellies.
k) Main meals/ dishes- eggs can be served as dishes in their own right or with others as in omelettes,
crumbled eggs etc.
Methods of cooking eggs
 Poaching
 Boiling

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  Scrambling
 Baking
 Frying
 En cocotte

STORAGE OF EGGS

The storage of shell eggs during the main laying season, in order to conserve them for consumption when they
are scarce, has been practised for many centuries.

For the successful storage of eggs, the following conditions must be met.

 The eggs placed in storage must be clean; they must not be washed or wet.
 Packaging material used should be new, clean and odourless.
 Loss of water due to evaporation should be reduced to a minimum.
 The storage room must be free from tainting products and materials and should be cleaned regularly
with odourless detergent sanitizers.
 The storage room must be kept at a constant temperature and humidity must be checked.
 There should be air circulation in the storage room.
 Eggs should be stored so that they are allowed to breathe.
 As far as possible, interior quality should be monitored; there should be a good proportion of thick
white, the yolk should stand up well, and the flavour of white and yolk should be good.

If all of the above requirements are to be met, refrigerated storage is necessary.

Cold storage of eggs

In the tropics, eggs can deteriorate very quickly unless they are stored at low temperatures. The ideal
temperature for storage in such climates is 13°C or lower (usually between 10° and 13° C). Here refrigeration is
a necessity for successful commercial storage; however, it may be unavailable or the costs too high.

The most important factors in successful cold storage are as follows.

 The selection and packaging of eggs.

 The equipment and preparation of the cold store.
 Proper temperature, humidity and air circulation.
 Periodic testing for quality.
 The gradual adjustment of eggs to higher temperatures when removed from storage.

TRANSPORT OF EGGS

For the successful transport of shell eggs three essential requirements must be met.

 The containers and packaging materials must be such that the eggs are well protected against
mechanical damage.
 Care should be taken at all stages of handling and transport. Workers handling eggs should be instructed
so that they appreciate the need for careful handling. The provision of convenient loading platforms at
packing stations, loading depots and railing stations, and handling aids, such as hand trucks and lifts,
are of great help.

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  The eggs must be protected at all times against exposure to temperatures that cause deterioration in
quality as well as contamination, especially tainting.
 The permissible range of temperatures during loading and transport depends on the local climatic
conditions and the duration of the journey. Table 8 shows recommended temperatures for transport and
loading.
 Care is needed to avoid excessive shaking, especially where roads are bad. Egg containers should be
stacked tightly and tied down securely to minimize movement. Covers should be used to protect them
from the heat of the sun, rain and extreme cold where applicable. Where bicycles are used, a device
such as a special carrier suspended on springs may be helpful.

GAME MEAT
INTRODUCTION
The word game is a term traditionally used to refer to animals that are hunted for food. Today it is used to refer
to the same animals raised on ranches or farms, so they may be termed as domesticated animals. The wild
animals may be raised on farms and fed as regular livestock, or are raised on ranches and allowed to folage.
Classification of game
There are two categories of game
1. Furred game.
They include deer, rabbit. Squirrel, elk moose, antelope, bear, boar, buffalo, caribou, beaver, maskrat,
opossum, raccoon, armadillo, porcupine, camel, crocodile, alligator, kangaroo, etc
2. Feathered.
They are birds such as grouse, partridge, pheasant, plover, quail, snipe, squab, wild ducks, wild geese,
wild turkey, woodcock, Emu.
Note: some people say fish is game.
Game can also be classified as small or large game. All feathered game is small game but small game also
includes small furred animals such as rabbits. Large game is all furred animals.
Structure of game meat
Wild game tend to produce meat which is generally darker, stronger tasting and sometimes tougher than that of
domesticated animals.
Due to their diet and lifestyle, game animals produce certain enzymes in their tissues. These enzymes begin to
break down meat proteins a day or so after animal has been killed creating a soft palatable meat with a
characteristic game flavor.
The ageing process can play an important role in developing the flavor of game meat. Some game animals are
stored for periods of a few days or even a few weeks to develop their flavor. Traditionally game was hung
whole including fur, feathers and intestines for the entire period.
Game with the exception of young game tends to have tougher flesh than that of poultry, beef, sheep and pigs.
Game birds and animals have to fend for themselves in the quest for survival and as a result, the flesh of moving
parts especially the legs tend to be tough.
The amount of visible fat is less in game than poultry and meat with the exception of birds in the duck family.
This too is probably due to the active life style of these creatures.

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The flavor of meat of farm-raised game will be milder than that of actual wild game but stronger than that of
domesticated animals.
The meat from game birds though considered white will be darker than that from domestic animals. The birds
do more exercise which means more red blood cells are needed to supply the muscles with more oxygen.

FEATHERED GAME
Wild Duck
This includes mallard and widgeon. Average weight is 1-1 ½ kg. It is much less fatty than reared duck and has
more intense flavor. They are hand plucked and hung in cold room to mature. It is good for roasting and the
addition of little fat maybe necessary to avoid drying.
Teal
This is the smallest duck weighing 400-600gms. It is hung for 1-3 days. It is usually roasted or braised. Young
birds have small pinkish legs and soft down under the wings. It should be eaten while in season because the
flesh can be course and has a fishy flavor.
Snipe
This one weighs about 100gms. It is hung for 3-4days. The head and neck are skinned, the eyes are removed.
Birds are then trussed with their own beaks. When drawing the birds only the gizzard, gall bladder and
intestines are removed. The birds are then roasted with the liver and heart left inside.
Woodcock
These are small birds with long thin beaks. Their average weight is 200-300gms. They are usually roasted.
Grouse
These are tiny game birds the size of very small chicken. Its average weight is 300gms. They are usually hunted
and sold into stores. They are not easy to farm. They are hung for 5 to 7 days and have a rich flavor. The young
birds are roasted or grilled and the older birds are made in casserole. One bird provides one portion.
Guinea fowl
Its flesh is tender and slightly dry resembling a pheasant. The flavor isn’t especially game like, it is more like
chicken. It is Suitable for roasting, braising and casserole. One bird serves two people.
Partridge
They are small mild flavoured birds. The average weight is 200-400gms. They are hand plucked and hung in
cold room for 5-7days to mature. For young birds roast and serve in their own juices. The older birds are stewed
or braised. Since they are so small cook one per person.
Pheasant
It’s one of the most common game birds. The average weight is 1.5 -2kg. It is hand plucked and hung in cold
room for 5 – 8 days to mature. It has very lean meat, so lean that they will cook up tough and dry unless added
some fat. To roast young birds, wrap in foil to keep the bird moist. The older birds are stewed. Hens are smaller
and more tender and will serve three people and cocks will serve four.

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Pigeon
It is tasty. They are hand plucked and hung in cold room to mature. It is usually braised or made into a pigeon
pie .One bird per person is allowed.
Quail
These are small stocky game birds that are now mostly raised domestically. They weigh between 50-75gms.
They are never hung It is either grilled or roasted. One bird is allowed per person for a starter and two for main
meal.
FURRED GAME
Wild Rabbit
It’s the most common small game. It has a mild, lean tender and fine textured meat. A mature rabbit ranges
from 3 to 5 pounds and a young rabbit generally 2 to 3.The loin is often sautéed or roasted while the legs are
commonly braised or stewed. The quality of the fresh is a direct result of age, diet, and time of the year it was
killed.
Alligator
This is a white meat with a veal-like texture and shell fish-like flavor.
Crocodile
It has a firm textured light colored meat with a delicate fishy taste similar to monkfish. It absorbs other flavours.
It is also fatty.
Kangaroo
It is similar to venison in flavor. It has fine grained meat that once cooked is similar in texture to liver. It is best
served rare or medium rare.
Wild boar
The consumption of boar goes back thousands of years back. It was highly priced in the classical world.
Virtually all parts of the boar were eaten including its liver, stomach and even its blood. It was so tasty that the
aim of some recipes was to make the meat and innards of other animals taste like that of the boar. Boars head
was often the crowning meal of a Christmas feast.
Horse meat
The meat of horses has been consumed ever since the animal was domesticated 5000years ago. In Europe it was
only eaten during famine. Horse meat is prohibited in the diet of Jews, Muslim and most Hindus and the cannon
law. There are no known recipes on horse meat.
Venison
Venison is the meat of any species of deer, and can also mean meat from any large game animal and as with
most meats, and this list comprises the deer commonly hunted for sport and prepared for consumption. Venison
is the most common of the furred game. It will likely be found in a semi wild environment to maintain taste.
Venison is not only low in fat and cholesterol but high in vital nutrients like B vitamins, iron and phosphorous.
It is resistant to disease. It has a strong flavor which is woody and almost fruity. It is incomparable to beef but
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the texture is similar, but if one is prone to gout eat it in moderation. It has a wonderful flavor and does not
need marinade for extra flavor but since it is low in fat oil based marinade is good to give it extra moisture.
It can be roasted, braised, stewed, made into steak, fried or grilled.
Types of Venison
Bison

It should be prepared and hung like other game meats. As it is so lean it should be cooked quickly and served
rare or medium rare.

Kudu

This is a breed of wild African antelope that is culled in a controlled way. The animals are very large and the
meat has a stronger flavor than wild venison. It needs to be tenderized by marinating and cooking.

Axis Deer

It is native to Sri Lanka and India, the Axis Deer was brought to the United States in 1932 and now lives in the
wild and on ranches throughout Central and Southern Texas. A beautiful species, Axis Deer are reddish-brown
with white spots and have a dark stripe (also spotted) that runs from the nape of the neck to the tip of the tail.
Males have three-tined antlers and can weigh up to 250 pounds females can weigh up to 150 pounds. Their
natural diet consists of grasses, live oak, sumac, acorns and mushrooms. Their meat is mild in taste, extremely
tender and exceptionally low in fat (0.2%). Axis Deer is generally considered by most hunters to be the best-
tasting game meat.

Caribou

The Reindeer is known as Caribou in North America and is indigenous to arctic and sub-arctic climates.
Caribou vary in size and weight, with males averaging 400 pounds. Both sexes grow antlers, although the males'
antlers are larger. The color and depth of their fur is dependent on region and climate, but in general Caribou fur
has two layers: a thick undercoat and a long-haired overcoat, the hairs of which are hollow, which keeps the
deer warm. Caribou diet consists mainly of lichens in winter and tree leaves and grasses in warmer weather.

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Reindeer-hunting dates back to 10,000 BCE and is vitally important to many cultures for providing food.
Caribou venison is very high in protein, very low in fat, and can be eaten fresh or dried.

Elk

Elk is one of the largest land mammals indigenous to North America and eastern Asia, living in forest habitats
with a diet of grasses, plants, leaves and tree bark. Mature bull elk can weigh as much as 40% more than
females, upwards to 730 pounds and even as high as 1,200 pounds in the Roosevelt Elk subspecies. Elk venison
is higher in protein and leaner than beef, but it is high in cholesterol (a single serving has 83% of a daily intake
allowance). Elk has a less gamey flavor than other venison and is often compared to tasting like beef but with a
coarser texture.

Fallow Deer

Fallow Deer are one of the most common deer found throughout the world. Fallow Deer are medium sized in
height and weight (220 pounds for males, 110 pounds for females) and vary in color, from white to chestnut to
black. Bucks have large, flattened, shovel-shaped antlers. They eat a variety of plants and grasses. Fallow Deer
is the traditional venison in European recipes, having a strong taste, often counter-balanced by juniper berries
and wine marinades.

Red Deer

Sizes of Red Deer are comparable to the North American Elk and vary by region with a mature stag measuring
8 feet in length and weighing up to over 500 pounds The Red Deer's natural habitat is forest land, where they
browse rather than graze, preferring to eat oak and birch leaves, twigs, ivy and lichen. Until recently, Red Deer
venison in the United Kingdom was restricted to the aristocracy and royalty, but farm-raised Red Deer is now

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widely available in supermarkets. As with all venison, it is high in protein and low in fat, with a rich flavor and
is the most commonly used venison in British cooking.

Moose

The moose is the largest species in the deer family and is native to North America, Russia, Scandinavia and
northern Europe. Its diet consists of both aquatic and forest vegetation Males stand six feet tall from shoulder to
foot and can weigh up to 1,600 pounds, females weigh up to 1,300 pounds. Moose-hunting is extremely popular
for sport but also for harvesting venison, since a bull moose can yield over 900 pounds of meat. Moose venison
is high in protein, low in fat, and is similar in texture and taste to lean beef or bison.

Mule

The Mule Deer, so-named because of its large ears, is native to the western United States in the Rocky
Mountain region. They are small-to-medium sized with the bucks averaging 200 pounds in weight; females
average 125 pounds. Its diet consists of plants and berries in summer, and conifers and brushes, sage, in
particular, in winter, which imbues an unpleasant taste and gamy flavor to its venison. Mule Deer is a favorite
with sport-hunters, but it is not preferred for its venison.

South Texas (Nilgai) Antelope

The blue-gray-colored male, can weigh up to 600 pounds. The females (and calves) are light brown and about
one-third smaller. Their natural diet consists of grasses, seeds and fruits, although when food is scarce, they are
not particular in what they eat . Nilgai or South Texas Antelope venison is favored in restaurants for its veal -
like texture and light flavor, which is even milder than beef. Nilgai is lower in cholesterol than chicken and one-
third the calories of beef with less than 3% fat.

Sika Deer

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Sika (pronounced "shee-kah") Deer are a compact, "dainty-footed" deer indigenous to Japan . Sika Deer graze
and browse, eating grasses and leaves. Their coats vary in color from brown to mahogany with white spots. Sika
venison is a strong-flavored darker meat, which is often described as similar in taste to elk.

White Tailed Deer

The White Tailed Deer is small-to-medium sized with reddish coats in spring and summer and gray-brown coats
in fall and winter. The deer is named for its long white tail that it displays when sensing danger or threat.
Preferring forest lands, the deer's diet mainly consists of plants, cacti, grasses, acorns, fruits and mushrooms.
White Tailed Deer are commonly hunted for sport and venison, which has a characteristically game flavor,
although lighter in taste than other species (for example, the Mule Deer), and is very dependent on the deer's
diet.

Nutritional value
The nutritional value of game is similar to that of meat. Game it is used for building and repairing body tissues
and for energy. The major difference is the lower fat content. Most recipes use streaky bacon or practice larding
to prevent the meat from drying.
It has fat, protein, iron, zinc, potassium, phosphorous, and the vitamin B-complex.
As it is less fatty than other meat game is more easily digested with the exception of water fowl which has oily
flesh.

Buying qualities
1. Game should only be sold by wholesalers or shops with a license to sell it.
2. Check how long the bird or animal has been hung. It might be necessary for hanging to continue after
purchase.
3. Check that the game is fresh:
a. For feathered game, avoid if the smell is too high.
i. The smell should be pleasant
ii. The skin should show no signs of bruising or cuts.
iii. The flesh should be firm.
iv. A high quality bird has meaty legs and a well-fleshed or plump breast.
b. For furred game the flesh should not smell too high.
i. There should be no unpleasant odour.
ii. The flesh should feel firm and be free from bruising.

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 iii. The fat should be firm and not oily.
iv. There is little or preferably no juice running from the meat.
4. For quality in game birds and small animals look for ‘meaty’ legs and a plump breast. For large animals
such as deer, remember that the choicest parts are the leg and saddle.
5. Buy game when it is young if tender meat is required for roasting. Ideally, purchase early in the season.
If older game is purchased it will require moist methods of cooking.

Storage
1. Hanging is essential for all game. It drains the flesh of blood and begins the process of disintegration
that is vital to make the flesh soft and edible and also to develop flavor.
2. The hanging time is determined by the type, condition and age of the game and the storage temperature.
3. Old birds need to hang longer time than young birds.
4. Game birds are not plucked or drawn before hanging.
5. Venison and hare are hung with the skin on.
6. Game must be hung in a well-ventilated dry, cold storeroom. This need not be refrigerated.
7. Game birds should be hung by the neck with the feet down.

Cooking
Game needs to dressed within an hour of slaughter.
Game birds are no more difficult to cook than chicken, turkey or goose. Simple methods are usually the best.
Plain roasting for young tender birds or grilling for the small young birds and casserole cooking or pot roasting
for those that are a bit older and tougher also good for pies.
Lean birds will need frequent basting or should be larded with fatty bacon to keep tender.
Rabbit has the mildest flavor. Game is usually served with other strong flavours that can stand up to its taste.
Meat from game is leaner than domestic meat. This makes cooking it without it going dry a challenge. Any fat
on game is trimmed and then replaced by barding the meat because it does not generally taste good.
Game can be cooked using all the methods of cooking meat which includes roasted, braised, stewed, made into
steaks fried or grilled, made into casseroles, pies etc.
FISH AND SEAFOODS

INTRODUCTION
Because of health considerations, many people choose to eat fish in preference to meat and consequently
consumption of fish has steadily increased. Over 200 types of fish are on sale throughout the year.
Sea food - is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans. Though,
Seafood prominently includes fish and shell fish.
Shell fish include various species of molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms.
 Historically, sea mammals such as whales and dolphins have been consumed as food, though that
happens to a lesser extend these days.
 Edible sea plants, such as some sea weeds and microalgae, are widely eaten as seafood around the
world, especially in Asia.

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  The harvesting of wild seafood is known as fishing, and the cultivation and farming of seafood is known
as aquaculture, Mari culture, or in the case of fish, fish farming.
Fish – it’s a limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and fins and living wholly in water.

CLASSIFICATION OF FISH
Fish includes sea or salt-water fish, fresh water fish and shellfish.
1) Sea fish
This is fish classified according to their way of life:
a) Demersal fish
 They live at the bottom of sea. They are caught in nets dragged along the sea-bed by trawlers.
b) Pelagic fish
 They swim freely near the surface, usually in shoals.
 They are caught in nets hung vertically from the surface of the sea by boats known as drifters.
2) Fresh water fish
They are caught mostly for sport, and, with the exception of eels, salmon and trout, are not readily available to
the consumer.
Eels, sea trout and salmon spend part of their lives in fresh water and part in the sea.
Fish may be further classified according to their shape (flat or round fish) and, according their fat content, (as
fatty or white fish)

Examples of fatty/ oily round fish: Herring, mackerel, pilchard, salmon, sardines and white bait.
Examples of white round fish: cod, coley or saithe, haddock, hake and whiting.
Examples of flat white fish: halibut and plaice
3) Shellfish
They are of two main kinds:
a) Crustacean
 They are those fish which have legs and partially jointed shell and they include: crabs, Cray fish,
lobsters, prawns and shrimps.
b) Molluscs
 They are those which have a hard outer shell and no legs.
 These may be bivalves, which have a shell in two hinged parts such as oysters, mussels and scallops,
or they may have a shell like a snail, such as cockles and winkles.
 Shell fish have no backbone.

Purchasing requirements / specifications

i) It should be firm to touch
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 ii) The skin of really fresh fish is bright in appearance and glistering; it is moist and has a transparent outer
slime and the scales are plentiful
iii) The eyes should be clear, full and shiny – almost glistening.
iv) The gills should be red.
v) It should not, under any circumstances smell ‘fishy’, but should have a clean, fresh smell.
vi) When buying crab, tab it gently to make sure it doesn’t contain water.
vii) Mussels should not be bought if their shells don’t close when tapped.
viii) The scales should be flat, moist and plentiful.
ix) Fish should be purchased daily, if possible direct from the market or supplier.
x) The fish should be well iced so that it arrives in good condition.
xi) Fish may be brought on the bone or filleted
xii) Medium sized fish are usually better than big fish which may be coarse, small fish often lack flavor.
Storage of fish
Refrigeration
i) Scales, clean and gut fish. Place on a plate or tray or a lidded container, cover with a damp cloth and
then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the coldest part of the fridge and use within 2-3 days.
ii) Clean and rinse squid, cuttle fish and octopus. Place on the plate or tray or in a lidded container, cover
with a damp cloth and then with plastic wrap or the lid. Store in the coldest part of fridge and use within
2-3 days.
iii) Dead crustaceans (such as crab) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase. Refrigerate,
covered plastic wrap, on a plate or tray in a covered container in the coldest part of the fridge.
iv) Live crustacean (such as crabs) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase. Keep in a cool
place with a damp cloth over the container ensuring that the cloth remains damp.
v) Live molluscs (such as mussels) should be consumed as soon as possible after purchase. Place in
container, cover with a damp cloth and keep in the warmest part of the refrigerator, usually the crisper
(optimum 5˚c), ensuring that the cloth remains damp.
Before cooking discard any shells that are open and don’t close when tapped or gently squeezed.

Freezing
i. Scale, gut, gill and wipe out all fish before freezing. Place in an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air
as possible, lable and date.
ii. Whole non-oily fish can be frozen for up to 6 months at -18 ˚c or less.
iii. Whole oily fish, and all fish fillets, steaks and cutlets can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18 ˚c or less.
iv. Meat from mulluscs (such as squid and mussels) can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18 ˚c or less. Gut,
clean, squid, cuttle fish and octopus remove meat from the shell place in an airtight freezer bag, extract
as much air as possible, label and date.
v. Crustaceans can be frozen for up to 3 months at -18 ˚c or less.. Place crustaceans (other than prawns) in
an airtight freezer bag, extract as much air as possible, label, and date.
vi. Place unpeeled prawns in a plastic container appropriate to the volume of prawns. Cover with water, seal
and freeze.
This forms a large ice block, which insulates the prawns. Do not add salt as it draws out the moisture.
Label, date and freeze as above.

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Preservation of fish
Preservation techniques are needed to prevent fish spoilage and lengthen shelf life. They are designed to inhibit
the activity of spoilage bacteria and the metabolic changes that result in less of fish quality.
Preservation methods maintain the quality of fish for a longer period of time.
Curing – fish curing is defined as the method of preserving fish by means of salting, drying, smoking and
pickling.
i. Salting
Salt is the preservative agent used to lengthen the shelf life of fish and fishery products.

Methods of salting fish

a) Kench-salting or dry salting – the fish is heavily salted with the ratio of 1:7 (1 part fish to 7 parts of
salt). Before, they are heavily salted, the fish are soaked in 10% brine to leach out blood and then half
dried for two hours. They are packed in wooden boxes to drain away. Some fish kenched are Indian
sardines, short-bodied mackerel, stripped mackerel and yellow-striped crevalle.
b) Brine salting – fish that are commonly brine salted are anchovy and herring.
c) Fermenting - is the making of fish paste and fish sauce.

ii. Drying and dehydrating

 Drying is the process in which moisture is removed by exposure to natural air current as humidity is
regulated by climatic condition.
 Dehydration is the process of removing moisture with the use of mechanical device that provides
artificial heat for drying.
Methods of fish drying
a) Salt drying – this is a method of drying fish where the fish are sprinkled and blended
thoroughly with dry salt before drying under the heat of the sun.
b) Brine salting – the fish are soaked in a saturated brine solution for a few hours prior to drying
under the heat of the sun.

iii. Smoking
This is the method of preserving fish by applying smoke with the aid of salting, drying and heat
treatment.

Types of smoking
a) Hot smoking – this is a slow type broiling where fish are placed near the fire at smoke
temperature.
b) Cold smoking – the fish are placed away from the fire at a distance of almost two meters with a
smoke temperature ranging from 32˚c to 43 ˚c.

Smoke producing materials: saw dust, corn cobs, rice hull, guava leaves, coconut husk, dried sugar
cane stakes, pill nuts shell, and tealeaves.

iv. Canning
The oily fish are usually canned. Some fish are canned in their own juice or in oil or tomato sauce.
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 v. Pickling
By use of vinegar to pickle. This method of preserving fish is usually done in making appetizer which is
considered semi-preservation because its shelf life is short. This method is used for home consumption
only.
Cooking fish
Fish are naturally tender and contain very little connective tissue, unlike meat, they require short cooking times
at a high temperature
Cuts of fish
 Fillet
 Steak
 Cutlet
 Butterfly fillet
 Quarter-cut fillets
 Canoe fillets
 Pocketed fish
 Escalopes
 Loin
Guidelines for cooking fish
i. Measure fish (dressed or stuffed, fillet or steak) at thickest part
ii. Allow 5-7 minutes cooking time per cm of thickness (10 minutes Per inch) for fresh fish.
iii. Allow 10-12 minutes cooking time per cm thickness (20 minutes per inch) for frozen fish
iv. Fish is ready when fish is opaque and flakes easily
NOTE:
Do not overcook.
Methods of cooking fish
Fish can be cooked by various methods such as baking, frying, poaching and boiling.
Conclusion
Fish are valuable, not only because they are a good source of protein, but are suitable for all types of menus and
can be cooked and presented in a wide variety of ways.

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VEGETABLES

In culinary terms, a vegetable is an edible plant or its part, intended for cooking or eating raw.
Vegetables are most often consumed as salads or cooked in savory or salty dishes.
Vegetables are classified according to the part of the plant they belong/represent e.g.
Above the ground - Fruits and seeds
- Flower bud
- Leaves
- Stems and shoots
- Brassicals
Below the ground - Tubers
- Bulbs
- Roots
ROOTS
Beetroot, carrots, celeriac, horseradish, mooli, parsnips, radish, salsify, scorzonera, swedes, turnips.
TUBERS
Jerusalem, artichokes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, yams.
BULBS
Garlic, leeks, onions, shallots, spring onions
LEAFY
Chicory, Chinese leaves, corn salad, lettuce, mustard and cress, radiccio, sorrel, spinach, Swiss chard,
watercress.
BRASSICALS
Broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, Calabrese, cauliflower, curly kale, spring onions
PODS AND SEEDS
Broad beans, butter or Lima beans, runner beans, mange-tout, okra, peas, sweet corn
FRUITING
Aubergine, avocado, courgette, cucumber, goulds, marrow, pepper, pumpkin, squash, tomatoes.
STEMS AND SHOOTS
Asparagus, beans, cardoon, celery, endive, globe artichokes, kohlrabi, sea kale.

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MUSHROOMS AND FUNGI
Ceps, chanterelles, horn of plenty, morels, cultivated mushrooms, shitake mushrooms.
FOOD VALUE
Roots vegetables contain starch, or sugar for energy a small but valuable amount of protein, some mineral salts
and vitamins. They are also useful sources of cellulose and water. Green vegetables are rich in minerals salts
and vitamins, particularly vitamin c and carotene. The greener the leaf the larger the quantity of vitamins
present. The chief mineral salts are calcium and iron.
Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of
vegetables varies considerably though generally they contain little protein or fat and varying proportions of
vitamins A, vitamin K, vitamin B6, provitamins dietary minerals and carbohydrates.
Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function.
Vegetables contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well.
A person who refrains from dairy and meat products and eats only plants is known as a vegan.
Diets containing recommended amounts of vegetables may help lower the risk of heart diseases and type 2
diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss.
The potassium provided by vegetables may help prevent the formation of kidney stones.
DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS
The USDA Dietary guidelines recommend consuming 3 to 5 serving of vegetables daily.
These recommendations can vary based on age, gender, and is determined based upon standard portions sizes
typically consumed as well as general nutritional content. Most of vegetables are serving is equal to half cup
and be eaten raw or cooked.
I.e. for leafy greens such as lettuce and spinach a single serving is typically one cup.
PURSHASING REQUIREMENTS
The purchasing of vegetables is affected by,
The perishability nature of products.
Varying availability owing to seasonal fluctuation and supply and demand.
The effects of preservation e.g. freezing, drying, canning vegetables.
Fresh vegetables are living organisms and will lose quality quickly if not properly stored and handled.
Automation in harvesting and packaging speed the handling process and helps retain quality.
THE ECC VEGETABLE QUALITY GRADING SYSTEM.
Extra class produces of the highest quality.
Class 1 produce of good quality

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Class 2 produce of reasonably good quality
Class 3 produce of low market quality.
ROOTS
Root vegetables must be clean, free from soil, firm, not soft or spongy, Sound, Free from blemishes of even
shape.
Beetroot
The whiskery roots should not be broken; some stalk should remain on top.
Carrots
Avoid woody or limp carrots
Kohlrabi
Buy when about the size of an orange, large root can be tough.
Parsnips
Choose even-Sized crisp looking parsnips; avoid spongy or brown marked specimens.
RADISH
Should be crisp and unblemished, avoid if spongy
SALSIFY
Choose smooth, tapered firm roots, avoid if flabby, leaves should be green-grey.
SWEDE
Avoid if blemished by spongy patches, holes or marks made by spade.
TURNIPS
Reject if spongy or blemished by holes, spots or brown patches.
BULBS
Leeks
Stems should be straight and unblemished, reject any with a strong smell and hard yellow stalk or leaves.
ONIONS
Look for firmness, skins should be papery, avoid slimy skins.
TUBERS
Jerusalem artichokes
Look for the smoothest shaped specimens, the very knobbly ones are wasteful.

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Potatoes
Reject if green or indented with deep eyes
Sweet potatoes
Avoid if damaged, should be firm and bright in color.
Yams
Avoid if damaged.
SHOOTS
Bamboo shoots
Retain crispness despite canning, canned often used in preference to fresh for convenience.
STEMS
Asparagus
Should be uniform size with well-formed heads, tastes bitter if stale, avoid if dry or wilted.
Celery
Stems should be firm and plump at base, not bruised, leaves should not be droopy.
Fennel
Reject if limp or bruised.
LEAVES
Green vegetables must be absolutely fresh and have leaves bright in color, crisp and not wilted in addition.
Brussels sprouts
Each sprout should be firm and compact, avoid if strong smelling or if outer leaves are yellow.
Choose firm, crisp heads with close packed leaves, reject if discolored, damaged or curling at edges.
Chinese leaves
Leaf edges should not be wilted or fawn-streaked.
Curly kale and Endive
Avoid if the leaves are limp or turning yellow.
Lettuce
Choose cabbage with fresh bright leaves, avoid if hearts have yellow or brown patches or if underside is
covered with slime.
Should feel solid, outer leaves should not be limp or brown marked.

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Mustard and Cress
Avoid if droopy, buy when stalks are about 9CM long.
Spinach/spring greens
Should be bright green and crunch and squeak when handled, avoid if limp, use on day of purchase.
Watercress.
Avoid if limp or yellow in color and flowering.
FLOWERS
Broccoli
Should have small fresh-looking heads with brittle stalks that snap easily.
Cauliflower
Look for firm leaves and head with creamy white flower buds, avoid if odour is strong or head colored brown or
grey
FRUITS AND SEEDS.
Artichoke (Globe)
Choose specimens with stiff leaves and slight bloom.
Aubergine
Look for skins that are bright and shiny, avoid if wrinkled or bruised.
Broad beans
If they are to be eaten whole, choose young beans with pods 5-7cm long, larger beans need to be shelled.
Courgettes
If very small 5 cm long can be cooked whole, if large, slice into rings, best used on day of purchase
Cucumber
Choose cucumbers that are straight with a clear bloom on the skin.
French beans
Buy when young and crisp
Baby marrow
Avoid large marrows because they tend to lack flavor and have coarse flesh and tough skin, the skin should
have a dull bloom.
Lady’s fingers (okra)

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Buy when young otherwise tough and stringy, avoid brownish colored ones, and pick smallest and brightest
ones.
Peas
Look for small, green plump pods, avoid if pods are wet.
Peppers
Choose specimens with smooth, glossy skins; avoid any with wrinkles or brown patches.
Pumpkin
Should be bought whole because once cut the flavor diminishes and mould appears very quickly
Runner beans
Avoid if tough and stringy, misshapen or pitted with brown or black, if fresh a runner bean will snap
between the fingers.
Sweet corn
Best eaten the day it is picked, cobs should be plump and enclosed by bright green stiff leaves, tassels at the top
should be black and withered.
Tomatoes
Should be firm with unwrinkled skin, the color should be bright.
Fungi
Mushrooms
Avoid if brownish looking or slimy.
PRESERVATION OF VEGETABLES
It is now a relatively common practice to bottle vegetables and herbs and spices in either oil, vinegar or a
mixture of both.
Food preservation usually involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi such as yeast or any other micro-
organisms as well as retarding the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation also include process
that inhibit visual deterioration such as the enzymatic browning i.e. Reaction in apples after they are cut which
can occur during food preparation.
Methods of preservation
 Freezing
 Canning
 Pickling
 Drying
 Dehydration
 Salting
Freezing- Is to pass from the liquid to the solid state by loss of heat or to acquire on surface or coat of ice
from cold. Many vegetables keep well in freezer when blanched and frozen soon after harvesting this can be the
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best method for retaining nutrients as well as color, texture, and flavor. Most vegetables can last 8-12weeks in
freezer.
Basic tips for freezing vegetables.
Freeze food immediately after packaging.
Keep freezer temperature at 00F or lower you can set your freezer control for 10 0F degrees F, the day before
freezing to speed the process.
Don’t try to pack your freezer with unfrozen produce
This will only lower the temperature in the frozen and lengthen the time need for the produce to chill.
CANNING
Canning is the process of sealing food in cans or tins to preserve it.
Vegetables with a bough water content, like tomatoes, mushrooms, beans and peaches but it is essential you
follow canning guidelines to the latter. Certain vegetables are preserved in tins e.g.
artichokes,asparagus,carrots,celery,beans,tomatoes either whole or puree, mushrooms.
Some basic tips in preserving vegetables by canning.
Choose only disease free vegetables and wash them well before processing
Use clean jars and new seal lids
Process in boiling water or a pressure canner for specified amount of time.
DRYING
Drying vegetables is also very easy process and can be done without any special equipment or speeded up by
using the oven or dehydration e.g. the seeds of legumes have the moisture content reduced to 10%.
Basic tips for drying vegetables.
Be sure the fruits and vegetables are fully mature and disease free.
Provide good air circulation while drying to prevent spoilage.
Don’t rush the process; partially dried vegetables won’t last long.
PICKLING
To preserve or flavour in a solution of brine or vinegar.
Cucumbers come to mind when we think of pickling, but many vegetables and fruits can preserved in this
manner. Onions and red cabbage are examples of vegetables preserved in spiced vinegar.
Some basic tips for pickling vegetables
Always follow a tested recipe even in vinegar, spoilage can happen. Canning pickled products by boiling water
methods further stops spoilage.

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Dehydration – the process of removing water from a substance or compound. Onions, carrots, potatoes and
cabbage are shredded and quickly dried until they contain only 5% water.
Salting- To preserve vegetables by treating with salt or salt solution. French and runner beans may be sliced
and preserved in dry salt.
STORAGE
Store all the vegetables in a cool dry well ventilated room at an even temperature of 4-8 c (39-46F) which will
help to minimize spoilage. Check vegetables daily and discard any that are unsound.
Remove root vegetables from their sacks and store in bins or racks.
Store green vegetables on well ventilated racks.
Store salad vegetables in a cool place and leave in their containers.
Store frozen vegetables at -18C or (0 0F) or below keep a check on use by dates, damaged packages and any sign
of freezer bun.
The fresher the vegetables the better the flavor so ideally they should not be stored at all. However as in many
case storage is necessary. Then it should be for the shortest time possible.
Green vegetables lose vitamin C quickly if they are bruised, damaged, stored for too long or overcooked.
To prevent bacteria from raw vegetables passing on to cooked vegetables, store them in separate areas.
Thaw out frozen vegetables correctly and never refreeze them once they have thawed out.
RULES FOR PREPARATION AND COOKING GREEN VEGETABLES.
1.Use all vegetables as fresh as possible and gathered when young or just mature for maximum value and for
the best flavor.
2 Soak the vegetable to drown and float any caterpillars or slugs for not more ten 10minutes in cold water to
which salt has been added to slow up the absorption of vitamins and minerals.
NB flies are more easily floated in unsalted water.
3 Rinse them thoroughly
to remove all the above pests.
4 Discard only the fibrous or withered parts. Dark outer leaves contain more vitamins.
5 Shred or slice hard and large vegetables with sharp knife. A blunt knife will crash cells and release oxidase
enzymes which will destroy vitamin. The shredded vegetable takes shorter
time to cook thus saving nutrients.
USES OF VEGETABLES IN COOKERY.
Makingsoups,sauces,stocks,stews,salads,asamaincourse,vegetableaccompaniments,pastry,garnishing,flavouring,
horsedevours-cold dishes and juices, dessert-sweet potatoes, avocado.

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FRUITS

DEFINITION
‘Fruit’ means the fleshly seed – associated structures of plant that are sweet or sour and edible in raw state, such
as apples, oranges, grapes, bananas and lemons.
Fruits can be available as fresh, frozen, canned, dried or crystallized.
Fruits are very important commodities in our daily diet for the following reasons: -
 They provide fiber and bulk to the diet.
 They make a meal more attractive because of their interesting colours and textures.
 Fresh fruits provide approximately 90% of the vitamin C in the diet.

CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS
They can be classified into: -
1. Berry fruits – They have a fragile cell structure.
Some of the fruits which fall under berry are: -
Black berries Black currant
Cranberries Goose berries
Grapes Raspberries
Red currant Straw berries
NB: Some of berry fruits fall under the class of dried fruits which include sultanas, currants, raisins, dates and
prunes.

2. Citrus fruits – They have a tough leathery pad which surrounds a succulent juicy mass of segments. Some
have seeds and others don’t.
Some of the fruits which fall under citrus are: -
Grape fruit Lemons
Oranges Tangerines

3. Fleshly fruits – They may be seedless or have seeds throughout the flesh or in a centre core.
Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -
Apples Bananas
Kiwi Melon
Water melons Papaya
Pineapple Pears
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Pomegranates Passion fruits

4. Stone fruits – They have a single seed which is surrounded by a fleshy portion.
Some of the fruits which fall under fleshly are: -
Apricots Avocado pears
Cherries Dates
Mango Peach
Plums
5. Tropical fruits – They include dates, figs, guavas, mangoes, passion fruit, pawpaw, etc.
FOOD VALUE
 Eating fruits provides healthy benefits to the consumers.
 People who eat more fruits as part of an overall healthy diet are likely to have a reduced risk of some
chronic diseases.
 The nutritive value of fruits depends on its vitamins content especially vitamin C. therefore they are
valuable as protective food.
 Eating fruits protects against certain types of cancers.
There are vitamins obtained from these fruits.
 Vitamins are organic food substances found only in living things, that is plants and animals.
 They are essential for our bodies to function properly.
 For growth, energy and for the general well being.
 With very few exceptions, the human bodies cannot manufacture or synthesize vitamins. They must be
supplied in our diet or in man-made dietary supplements.

We are going to look at different types of vitamins, their functions in the human body, and the fruit source of
these vitamins.

Vitamin A
 Helps cell reproduction
 Stimulates immunity
 It is needed for formation of some hormones
 Helps vision
 Promotes bone growth and tooth development
 Helps maintain healthy skin, hair and mucus membrane
 An effective preventive against measles
Deficiency
Can cause: - Night blindness
- Dry skin
- Poor growth
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Fruit source
Cantaloupes Grape fruit
Guava Tomatoes
Mango Papaya
Passion fruit Water melon

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
 It is important in the production of energy
 It helps body cells convert carbohydrates into energy
 It is essential for the functioning of the heart, muscles and nervous system
 Lack of it or not getting enough can leave one fatigued and weak.

Fruit source
Avocado Dates
Grapes Guava
Mango Orange
Pine apple

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 It is important for body growth
 Red cell production
 Helps in releasing energy from carbohydrates
Sources
Avocado Banana Dates Grapes
Mango Passion fruit Pomegranate Prickly pear

Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
 Assists in the functioning of the digestive system, skin and nerves
 Important for the conversion of food to energy
Fruit source
Avocado Mango
Dates Passion fruit
Guava Peach
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Vitamin B5 (Pentothenic acid)
It is essential for metabolism of food as well as in the formation of hormones and (good) cholesterol.
Sources
Avocado Gooseberry Pomegranate
Black currant Grape fruit Raspberries
Dates Guava Water melon
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
 It plays a role in the creation of antibodies in the immune system.
 It helps maintain hormonal never function
 It acts in the formation of red blood cells
 It is required for the chemical reaction of proteins
Too little B6 in the diet can cause dizziness, nausea, confusion, irritability and convulsions.
Fruit sources
Avocado Gooseberry Mango
Banana Grapes Passion fruit
Dates Guava Pineapple
Water melon Pomegranate
Vitamin 9 (Folate / Folic acid)
 Folate occurs naturally in fresh foods whereas folic acid is the synthetic form found in supplements.
 Folate is needed to produce red blood cells as well as components of the nervous system.
 It helps in the formation and creation of DNA and maintaining normal brain function and is a critical
part of spinal fluid.
 It reduces the risk for neural tube defect (NTD) affected pregnancy by 50 – 70%.
 Folic acid is vital for proper cell growth and development of the embryo.
Fruit source
Avocado Mango Pineapple
Black berry Orange Pomegranate
Dates Pawpaw Raspberries
Guava Passion fruit Strawberries
Vitamin C
 Protects body cells against the effects of free radicals which are potentially damaging by-products of the
body’s metabolism.
 Free radicals can cause cell damage that may contribute to the development of cardiovascular disease
and cancer.
 It is an effective antiviral agent.
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Fruit source
Black currants Kiwi Orange Pineapple
Grape fruit Lemon Pawpaw Strawberries
Guava Mango Passion fruit
Vitamin E
 Antioxidants – Which protects body tissues from damage of oxidation.
 Assists in the formation of red blood cell and the use of vitamin K.
 Women use it to minimize the appearance of wrinkles.
 Mothers use it to help heal minor wounds without scarring.
 It has the ability to sooth and heals broken or stressed skin tissue.
Sources
Avocado Guava Peach
Blackcurrant Kiwi Pomegranate
Blue berries Mango Raspberries
Cranberries Pawpaw (among others)
Vitamin K
 It is fat soluble and plays a critical role in blood clothing
 It regulates blood calcium levels
 Activates at least three proteins involved in bone health
Fruit sources
Avocado Cranberries Mango Pomegranate
Black berries Grapes Pear Raspberries
Blueberries Kiwi Plum Tomatoes
Minerals
Some fruits supply a small amount of iron and calcium, plus some trace elements.
Sources
Avocado Bananas Cantaloupe
Cherries Apple Pineapples
Kiwi is a good source of potassium and magnesium.
Other nutrients
 Most fruits are naturally low in fat, sodium and calories. None have cholesterol.
 Fruits are sources of many essential nutrients that are under-consumed including potassium, dietary
fiber, vitamin C and folate (folic acid).

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 
Diets rich in potassium help maintain healthy blood pressure. Fruit sources of potassium include
bananas, prunes, prune juice, dried peaches and apricots, honeydew melon and orange juice.
 Dietary fiber from fruits as part of an overall healthy diet helps reduce blood cholesterol levels and may
lower risk of heart disease.
PURCHASING REQUIREMENTS OF FRUITS
The following points should be adhered to when purchasing fresh fruits
1.Clean, free from traces of pesticides and fungicides
2.Free from external moisture
3.Whole and of fresh appearance (for maximum flavor – the fruit must be ripe but not overripe).
4.Firm according to the type and variety
5.Free from any unpleasant foreign smell or taste
6.Free from pests or diseases
7.Sufficiently mature must be capable of being handled and travelling without damage.
8.Free from any defects characteristics of the variety in shape size and colour.
9.Free of bruising and any other damage due to weather conditions. E.g. soft fruits deteriorate quickly;
especially if not sound therefore care must be taken to see that they are not damaged or overripe when
purchased. They should look fresh and no signs of wilting, shrinking or mould.
 Colour of certain soft fruits is an indication of ripeness e.g. strawberries or dessert gooseberries.
PRESERVATION
Preservation involves preventing the growth of bacteria, fungi such as yeasts or any other micro-organisms.
There are several points to be considered in preservation of fruits. These include:
 Safety for health
 Nutritive value
 Appetizing appearance
 Conditions that make fruit deteriorate and decay
The organisms that develop in fruit are not usually dangerous, as they are mainly moulds and yeasts. The
appearance of the preserved food and the flavor are most important and an attractive colour often indicates that
the correct method of preservation has been used.
Causes of spoilage
Fruits will decay if left to become overripe. For this reason they should be preserved in their prime condition
before decay has set in.
Decay may also be due to the development of micro-organisms; these are yeasts, moulds or bacteria. These
being living cells, require certain conditions for growth and to preserve food / fruits, this growth must be
prevented.

Methods of preservation
1. Drying
This is an action or process of making or becoming dry. Examples of fruits that can be preserved by drying
include apples, pears, apricot, dates, peaches, bananas and figs. Plums when dried are called prunes, and
currants, sultanas and raisins are produced by drying grapes.
2. Canning
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This is a process of sealing food in cans / tins to preserve it. Almost all fruits may be canned; apples – they are
packed in water and known as solid packed apples; other fruits are canned in syrup.
3. Quick freezing
This is process of passing from the liquid to solid state by loss of heat i.e. to be killed or harmed by cold or
frost. Examples of fruits preserved by this method include strawberries, raspberries, loganberries, apples,
blackberries, gooseberries, grapefruit and plums. They must be kept below 00 C (320F).
4. Bottling
This method is used domestically, but very little fruit is commercially preserved in this way; cherries are bottled
in maraschino.
5. Candied, glace and crystallized fruits are mainly imported from France.
6. Jam Some stone fruits and all soft fruits can be used.
STORAGE OF FRUITS
There are different methods of storage that depends on the type of fruits to be stored.
Cold storage
Apples are stored at temperatures of between 1-40C (34 – 390F), depending on the variety of apple.
Gas storage
Fruits can be kept in a sealed storeroom where the atmosphere is controlled; the amount of air is limited, the
oxygen content of the oar is decreased and the carbon dioxide increased, which control the respiration rate of
the fruit.
i. Hard fruits e.g. apples are left in boxes and in a cool ventilated store.
ii. Soft fruits e.g. raspberries and strawberries should be left in their punnets or baskets in a cold room or a
refrigerator as they deteriorate rapidly warm weather.
iii. Stone fruits – Best placed in trays so that any damages fruit can be seen and discarded.
iv. Peaches and citrus fruits are left in their delivery trays or boxes.
v. Bananas should not be stored in too cold a place because their skin turns black
USES OF FRUITS
With the exception of certain fruits like lemon, cranberries, fruits can be eaten as a desert or in its raw state.
Some fruits have desert and cooking varieties e.g. apples, pears, cherries and gooseberries.
Tropical fruits
Bananas – As well as being used as a desert they are grilled for a fish garnish, fried for fritters and sieved a
garnish to poultry. They are also used in fruit salad and other sweet dishes e.g. banana flan and a garnish for
chicken Maryland.
Dates – Whole dates are served as a desert.
Guavas – They can be eaten with cream or mixed with other fruits.
Mangoes – Ripe fresh mangoes have smooth pinky – golden flesh (apple) with a pleasing flavour. They may
also be yellow-orange in colour. They are serves in halves sprinkled with lemon juice, sugar, rum or ginger.
They can also be used in fruit salad.

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Pawpaw – It is eaten when ripe with lime or lemon juice.
Grapes – Black and white grapes are used as a desert in fruit salad and as a fish garnish.
Melons – Care must be taken when buying melons because they should not be over or under ripe. This can be
caused by carful pressing the top or bottom of the fruit. The stalk should be attached otherwise the melon
deteriorates quickly.
Cooking fruits
Wash gently and quickly, never soak them
Avoid crushing fruit before cooking
Stew for the minimum of time in the minimum of water covered.
If fruit is required whole, dissolve sugar in the cooling water, it may prevent it from breaking in the syrup or
water.
Sieve all the juice in the fruit.
REFERENCES
David Fosket Theory of catering 11th Edition
Hammond’s Jill Davies Cooking explained 4th Edition
Dr. Decuypere’s Nutrient chart
FATS AND OILS
Fats and oils are composed of chains of molecules called fatty acids that are composed mainly of carbon atoms.
Fats are composed of the elements:
 Carbon
 Oxygen
 Hydrogen
These elements make up molecules of glycerol and fatty acids, which combine to form fat molecules. One
molecule of glycerol combines with three molecules of fatty acids to form a fat molecule. The scientific name
for this fat molecule is triglycerol (triglyceride).
At least 40 different fatty acids are known each with its own chemical name. This may be either saturated or
unsaturated according to the way in which their carbon and hydrogen atoms are arranged.
Fats and oils are high energy foods providing about 9 calories per gram of fat. This is more than twice the
energy content of sugars and starches. Fats are solid at room temperature while oils are liquid at room
temperature. This is because they have different melting points due to the types of fatty acids they contain.
In general the more saturated fatty acids a fat contains, the more solid it will be and the more unsaturated fatty
acid it contains the more liquid it will be at room temperature.

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

They are fatty acids holding all the hydrogen atoms possible.
Fats that are solid at room temperature are mostly made up of saturated fatty acids.
Examples:
Fatty Acid Found In

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Butyric acid milk, butter
Palmitic acid animal fats
Lauric acid dairy foods, coconut oil
Stearic acid beef fat

UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

They are fatty acids missing a pair of hydrogen atoms resulting in double bonds.
a) Monounsaturated fatty acids
They have one double bond in the molecule e.g. oleic acid found in most animal and plant fats especially
olive oil.
b) Polyunsaturated fatty acids
They have more than one double bond in the molecule e.g. linoleic acid and linolenic acid both mainly found in
vegetable oils.
Unsaturated fatty acids occur mainly in oils.

SOURCES OF FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are obtained from both plants and animals.
Animal sources
-Meat
Lard, bacon fat(pigs)
Suet
-dairy produce
Milk
Butter
Cheese
Cream
Egg yolk
-fish
Fish liver oils(cod and halibut)
Oily fish
Plant sources
-Seeds
Cotton, maize, sesame, olive, soya, sunflower, rapeseed
-Nuts and pulses
Brazil, peanuts, etc.
-Kelnels
Palm, etc.
-Fruits
Avocado pear
TYPES OF FATS AND OILS
ANIMAL FATS
1. Butter
Butter is made of cream which has to be separated from milk. After being separated from the milk, the cream is
pasteurized. Undesirable flavours and air are removed, then it is held at 4.5 oC to harden the fat globules. It is
then held at 15-180C for 3-4 hours to develop acidity (for flavor) and to prepare it for churning. It is then cooled
to 70C and churned. Churning breaks up the seal of milk solids around the fat globules so that they
coalesce(stick together). The non fat milk solids then mix with the liquid in the cream to form buttermilk, which
is drained off and sold as a drink. The fat is then chilled, washed and hardened and salt is added. This helps to

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preserve the butter. However some butter is sold unsalted. After this the butter is worked until smooth and then
packed.
Butter contains:
82% fat
15% water
0.4% protein
2.3% minerals
Varying amounts of vitamin A and D
Uses
 Spreading on bread and biscuits
 Finishing vegetables
 For cake-making
 For butter icing, homemade cream
 For preparing and soups
 For preparing roux for the sauces
 For preparing sauces such as maître d hote

2. Ghee
Ghee is clarified butter that has been simmered until all the protein mixture has been removed the butter takes
over a browned nutty flavor. Ghee has much higher smoke point and longer life than clarified butter. It is used
for cooking or for finishing various vegetables.
3. Suet
Suet is obtained from the fat around the vital organs e.g. kidneys, usually from the ox. The fat content varies
from 70-99% and it is solid and hard composed of mainly saturated fatty acids.
Uses:
 Making pastry
 Making puddings
 Making dumplings
 Making sweet mince meat
Vegetable suet made from hydrogenated vegetable oils is suitable for vegetarians.
4. Dripping
Dripping is the fat released during the roasting of a joint of meat (usually beef). On cooling, it separates in a
layer of fat and a layer of meat extractives in a jelly. The fat can be used for roasting other joints or vegetables
or for shallow frying
Can also be spread on bread or toast.
5. Lard
Lard is produced from pigs that that are specially reared for this purpose. The fat is obtained from the fatty
tissues under the skin. They are cut into small pieces and heated to remove the lard. This is called rendering.
Antioxidants are added to prevent rancidity and it may be modified to improve its baking qualities.
Uses:
 Used as a shortener for pastry but it is mixed with margarine to add flavor.
 Used for deep and shallow frying
ANIMAL OILS
Fish liver oils are rich in vitamin A and D. They used to be given to children to supplement their diet so as to
prevent rickets.
Fish oils are classified as Omega -3 polyunsaturated oils.
E.g. cod liver oils, halibut oil, Scotts emulsion etc
-It eases pain and joints stiffness associated with arthritis
-It is used during pregnancy to lower the risk of type 1 diabetes in the offspring

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-It improves breast milk by increasing fatty acids (promotes brain development), vitamin A (prevents infection)

VEGETABLE OILS
Vegetable oils are those oils which are derived from grains, beans and seeds.
-Grain oils include corn oil from maize
-Legume oils include soy oil from soya beans
-Seed oils include sesame oil, sunflower oil and canola oil
-Fruit and nut oils include coconut oil, almond oil, palm oil, macadamia oil, hazelnut oil etc
Choice of oil
For the right choice of oil to be made, the following factors should be taken into account:
 Price – variation will occur according to supply and demand.
 Intended use – some oils are versatile others are of limited use.
 Durability – in use and in storage
 Nutrition and health concerns
 Flash point – for frying purposes an oil, when heated reach a high temperature without smoking. Food
being fried will absorb the oil if the oil smokes at a low temperature. As oils are combustible they can
catch fire (known as flash point)
Production of oils
Oil is contained in the cells of the seed. It is extracted from them either by squeezing or dissolving the oil in a
solvent.
The process involves the following stages:
 Cleaning the seeds
 Breaking the seeds by rollers
 Cooking the seeds in steam
 Expelling the oil by squeezing or extracting the oil with a solvent(hexane) which is later vaporized
 Removal of natural acids
 Bleaching to lighten the colour
 Deodorizing and improving the taste and smell.

Margarine
Margarine is produced from milk and a blend of vegetable oils emulsified with lecithin, flavouring, colouring,
and vitamin A and D.
The oil used in manufacture of margarine do not contain vitamin A and D. These are added during production.
There are several grades of margarine i.e.
-Block (hard or semi-hard)
-Soft (butter substitute)
-Semi-hard for pastry making
-Cake margarine
-Some margarines are blended with butter.

Production of margarine
Margarine is first made by extracting the oils and fats from the raw materials, and these are then refined,
flavoured and coloured then mixed with fat free pasteurized milk. The emulsion is then churned, cooled and
packed. Cake and pastry margarine are blended in a different manner to table margarine to produce the required
texture.
Uses: Uses of margarine are similar to butter.

Cooking fats

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White cooking fats suitable for making pastry and other dishes are produced in a similar way to margarine
except that they are nearly 100% fat.
Uses:
-Creaming in cake-making -Frying

FUNCTIONS OF FATS AND OILS

 Fats contribute to the flavor of foods e.g. olive oil in salad dressing
 Fats contribute to the colour of food e.g. palm oil gives a yellow to orange colour
 Fats are sometimes use as glazes to give a shiny finish to food e.g. glazed carrots
 Fats may be used as basting agents to prevent foods from drying out
 Fats are used in preparation of flour-based sauces e.g. white sauces where it prevents the flour particles from
clumping
 Fats help to retain moisture in baked foods e.g. cakes and bread during storage
 Fats are used for greasing baking tins and sheets

STORAGE OF FATS AND OILS

Fats should be stored in a cool place, covered to prevent rancidity and away from strong odours which they
could absorb.
Oils that have been used for frying should be strained to remove any impurities and food particles which may
cause them to become rancid.

References:
1. Theory of catering by Kinton and Ceserani, 8th edition
2. Foods and Nutrition by Anita Tull, 4th edition
3. Cooking Explained by Hammond Barbara, 4th edition

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