You are on page 1of 61

6:

6.1
,,
,

, .

,
.

.

6.1.1
John von Neumann
(1928),
. George B.
Dantzig Simplex
.
Nash
.
Nobel.
, ,
Shapley. Lemke, ,

. Beautiful Mind
Russell Crow JohnNash
Nash Equilibrium !
6.1.2
, ,
,...,
,
,.
.
, , ,
.
, ,
.

.
.
.
.
.
,
.


.
6.1.3
.
.,

.
,n n,
n>2.
.
.

.,

.

.

, ,
.
,
.,
,,
.

.,
,
.

.
,
. .

,
,
.

. ,
(.12,)
,
. ,
,
.
6.1.4
.

, ,

. ,
,
.

,.
,.

,
.


,
. , ..
()
.
,
,
.

. , .
,
,

.
.,
.
,
.
.
, ..
,
.

6.2
,,
,
.,
.,
.
6.2.1
:


,
.
:

:

()
.

.

18

10

1,
,2,
.
2,
23,
3.

,
.

maxmin ,
/
.,minmax
.

min

18

maxmin =5

10

min

18

10

18

max

maxmin =5

minmax =5

2. , minmax 5
.
(maxmin ) (minmax
)
.
, 5 ,
5.
5
5.
:
maxmin= minmax
, ,
.

:
,
=[ij]m x n,
:

max{min {a ij}} = min {max{aij}}

i=1,...,m j=1,...,n

j=1,...,n i=1,...,m

, ,
,
=,

max {min gramm V }= min {max st lhV }

sto ceio

st leV

, pq
, p
q,:

pj pq "j

iq pq "I

,
, .
:

maxmin minmax

:
u maxmin minmax

. ,
,


maxmin minmax .
:
(p,q) ==pq.



. ,
,
minmaxmaxmin.
,,

.
, ,
.,
i, j. i
(i,l),ij il =. i
, j , kj, ij kj =.

,
, ,
,
.

.
(i,j)ij.

.
, .
,:


.

.
=
.
= .

:
INPUTA=[aij}mxn
DOi=1,m
R[i]=minA[i,:]
ENDDO
DOj=1,n
C[j]=maxA[:,j]
ENDDO
a=maxR[:]i=maxlocationR[:]
b=minC[:]j=minlocationC[:]
IFa=bTHEN
u=a
RETURNu,i,j
ELSE
RETURNa,b,i,j
ENDIF
:
A[i,:]i,
A[:,j]j
R[:]m
C[:]n.

6.2.2ASH(ashEquilibrium)
: (k.l) k
j, Nash
,
kl il
bkl bkj
i=1,,m j=1,,n.
0=kl Nash0=
bkl Nash .
,(),
6.1 .

Nash.
1:
.
2:.
3:Nash
(i,j),ij bij.
,,(),

.
:
:

(3,2)

(2,3)

(4,1)

(1,0)

Nash,
Nash, (1,1) (2,2),
(3,2)(1,0).

,
Nash
.

,
,
.
(
(1,0)
),
Nash
.
.


(),

.
:(k.l)
.


:(k.l)
(p,q):
kl pq

(6.1)

bkl bpq

(6.2)

. (k.l)
(p,q).,
.
: (k.l)
.
ParetoPareto.
****Pareto().
[,],(ij,
bij). (,b), (0, b0) (1, b1)
[,].
0,b b0(),
(,b) (0, b0).
,
(0, b0)(,b).

(,b)

(0, b0)

(1, b1)

6.1

(,b), (0, b0) (1, b1) ,


(,b)(0,b0),
(1, b1). (,b), (0, b0) (1, b1)
,(1,b1)
(0,b0),(,b).
,
,.
(0,b0)(1,b1)0 1 b0b1
,(0 1)(b0b1)<0,(0,b0)
(1, b1), (1, b1) (0, b0).
,(0,b0)
,
, ,
,.
[,],
Pareto.
[,],
Pareto . Pareto Pareto
ParetoPareto.***

:Nash(p,q)
Nash(k,l),(6.1),(6.2),
(p,q).
: Nash Pareto
.
,
,
Pareto , .
,

.
,
Pareto,.
:

(2,3)
3

(3,2)
2

(4,1)
1

(1,0)
0
0

6.2
,,(1,0)
Nash(2,2)Pareto.

,
,

(1,1)(3,2).
:

Nash.
,
Nash.

.,

.
Nash,
Nash ,
Nash
.
:()
,,
,
.,,
.

.
:
1.
2.
.
,
(,4),
,1


0.
4,
1
0.

,
:

(4,1)

(0,0)

(0,0)

(1,4)

(1,1) (2,2)
. ,
.(1,2)(2,1)
.

(1,1)(2,2)(4,1)(1,4)
.:

(0,0)
0
5

(4,1)

0
1

(5/2,5/2)

(1,4)

6.3

(1,1),
(2,2).
,
, 1
.
Nash.1
,

, 2.
,
, .

,
,
.


(4,1)+1/2(1,4)=(5/2,5/2).
,.

Nash,

Nash.
.

:Nash (k,l)(p,q).

I. , (k,q) (p,l)
Nash.
II. kl=pq bkl=bpq.

:[,][C,D]
r1, r2 1
2 :
C=r1+1

D=r2 +2

: Nash [,]
[i
].

6.2.3
,
. ,

, minmax
maxmin,.
: [, ].
:

a 0 = min {max {aij}}


i= 1,...,m j= 1,...,n

(1)

b0 = min {max{bij}}
j= 1,...,n i= 1,...,m

(2)

i , j

a 0 ={max {aij}}
j= 1,...,n

(3)

b0 = {max {bij}}
i= 1,...,m

(4)

,
minmax.

,
maxmin,max
min ,.
,
.

: [,],

.

:()
:

(5,5)

(0,20)

(20,0)

(1,1)


,
.
,:

max

(5,5)

(0,20)

5 minmax

(20,0)

(1,1)

20

minmax a0 = b 0 = 5

max

-minmax
(5,5)
(1,1),.
Nash .
, Nash
.
:

() Nash
,
(a 0 ,b 0)=(a 0,b 0).

(a0 ,b 0)

Nash (a0 ,b 0). (a0 ,b 0)


Nash (a0 ,b 0).
Nash
, (a0 ,b 0)
(a0 ,b 0),

Nash,

Nash.

Nash,
,
Nash

,
.
.

6.3M
6.3.1

,
.
.

:
1 2 .
,I
II.
, II I.
:

II

+1

+1

1212
.

min

+1

+1

+1

+1

max

Maxmin=1

Minmax =+1
minmax maxmin
.
1
II+1.
,I
1,
2,.
I 2, II
1 1 .
I
.
12,II

.II
.
,
. I
1 II .
.
,

. .. , I
1+1.
II.


.
,
,
maxmin , , minmax
.

.
.

.

(randomly),
.
.
:

.
.

,
.

1 2. ,
I:
II 1:(1)+(+1)=0.
II 2:(+1)+(1)=0.
I0,II.
II :

I1:(1)+(+1)=0.
I 2:(+1)+(1)=0.
II 0,I.
.
I II
0.
II.

6.3.2
(mixed strategy)
(probability distribution).
:m
x1

x2
m x= .

.
xm

:
m
xi = 1
i=1
xi 0,i = 1,...,m

x1=I
x2=I
y1, y2 II
x =(x1, x2 )

x1 +x2 = 1
x1

0
x2 0

Iy =(y1,y2)
y1 +y2 =1

y1

0
y2 0

II.
1:
={ x =(x1, x2 ) R2/ x1 +x2 =1, x 0}
Y= { y=(y1,y2) R2/y1 +y2 =1,y 0}
I II.

x2

x1
0
0

y2

y1
0
0

6.4
: :
m
={ x =(x1,x2,...,xm) Rm/ xi = 1
i=1

xi 0

i= 1,...,m x 0}

yj 0

j= 1,...,n y 0}

n
Y={ y=(y1,y2,..., yn)Rn/ yj = 1
j=1

simplex Rm Rn .
simplexR2

(6.4),

R3 (6.5), Rk, k 4.
simplex (convex polytope)
(vertices) .

.

x3

0

0
1

1

0
0

0

1
0

x1

x2

6.5 simplex

Rm x
. X ={

e1,e2,em}simplex1 0,
m
m
2 0,....,m 0 i=1 li = 1, x =i=1 l iei

1
0
0



x = 1 0 + 21 + 3 0
0
0
1


1+2 +3=1
1,2 ,3 0
.

6.3.3minmax
III
m n.
xi yj I
iIIj.
xi yj 1.
ij .
: I x, II
y :
(x,y)=xTAy=

x y
i

ij

(1)

i=1 j=1

, ij
xi yj ,
(1).

Ix,IIj
I:
m

(x,ej)=x[:,j]= i=1xiaij

(2)

[:,j]j .
II ,
y,Ii :
n

(ei,y)= [i,:] y= ij yj

(3)

j=1


vonNeumannMorgenstern.(I)
, x ,
,(II)x.

,
.

I x ,II y
:
II( x ) = x y = miny Y( x ,y)=miny Y xy(2.4)

I =II( x ).
I x*
,II(x).
.:
*= maxxX II(x)
,(4),:

*=maxxX miny Y xy

(5)

:
1 3
1 3 T
) x TA =(
)
4 4
4 4

I x =( ,

-1

+ 1

+ 1
1 1
=( )
2 2
1

II y
:
1
2

1
2

II( x )= min( y1 y2 )
y1+y2 =1
y1,y2 0
,3
, y =(0,1)T.II
I.I
1
2

.
y2
min
1

y1
1
2

1
2

( , )T

6.6


simplex .
:
II( x )=minyY xy=minj=1,2,.n{ x [:,j]}(6)

[:,j] j j
.
(5)I:
*= maxxX{minj=1,2,.n{ x[:,j]}

(7)

: * (7)
I maxmin , x*
I
,maxmin .
* I
.
..
x*I
*(7):
*=miny Y (x*,y) =minj=1,2,.n {x* [:,j]}

(8)

x* I.
II
. y II,
I
=I( y ),
I( y )=maxxX x y =maxi=1,2,,m{[i,:] y }(9)

[i,:] ii
.
II
y
I(y).:
*=miny Y {maxi=1,2,,m{[i,:] y }}

(10)

:*(10)
II minmax , y*
II
minmax
.
III()
y**.
*= maxxX (x,y*) = maxi=1,2,,m{[i,:] y*}

(11)

:
x y

II( x ) I( y )

* *
maxmin minmax .
: x*y*I
II

* * *,*=(x*,y*)
Minmax.

..
Minmax :

:
*=*=*

: * = * = *
(x* , y* ),
,.

x , y , :

*= *=*= (x*,y*)=maxxX (x,y*)( x ,y*)


(12)

*= *= *= (x*,y*)=miny Y (x*,y) (x*, y )


(13)

I*
* x*.
x
*.
, *
,

,x*.I
.II.
: * = * ,
:
i.

ii.

iii.

*=*=*

(12) (13)
:
(x*,y)(x*,y*)

" y

(14)

(x*,y*)(x,y*) " x

(15)

11
(x,y).
(x*,y*).

42
=5

4
(x,y)=xy

x1 +x2 =1 x2 = 1 x1
y1 +y2 =1 y2 =1y1
(x,y)x1, y1.
:
(x,y)=(x1,y1)=x1 (4y1 +2(1y1))+(1 x1)(5y1 3(1y1))
4(x1,y1)Scilab
:
>// Initialize
>k=1
>fori=0:0.06:1,
>x1(k)=i,
>y1(k)=i,
>k=k+1,
>end
>//Define
> deff( [z]= (x1, y1), z = x1*(4 *y1+ 2 *( 1 y1)) + (1 x1)*(5* y13*( 1
y1)))
>//Draw
>fcontour(x1,y1,,20)
:
Initializex1 y1 .
Define.
Draw 20
.
minmax
(x, y) = x y
.

6.7

.

: * = * = *
x* y*
.x1 y1
.:
(x*,y*)=(x1, y1)=(x1,y*)= (x*,y1)=*

,
.
(interchangeable) (equivalent).

pq
pq,
. p q
pq .
:pq,:
*=*=pq
pq
.

6.3.4:

2 2:
11
=21

12
22

.
.:

11 x1 y1 +12x1 y2 +21x2 y1 +22 x2y2=


x1 (11 y1 +12y2 )+x2(21y1+22y2 )=
, x >0
:
11 y1 +12y2=
21y1 +22y2=

x :
11 x1 +21x2=
12x1 +22 x2=

x1 +x2=1
y1 +y2=1

x, y
.

6.4Nash
,
.
,
.
,
.

.

.
: , ,
mxn.m,
m :

x =

x 1

x 2

x i

x m

:
m

i=1

xi = 1

xi 0,i= 1,...,m

n ,
n :

y =

y 1

y 2

y i

y n

:
n

j=1

yj = 1

yj 0, j = 1,...,n

y Y,
:
(,y)= y(1)

(,y)= y(2)

.
: , ,
mxn.(*,y*)
Nash, (,y)
:

y* * y*
*

y y

(3)
(4)

(a0* ,b0* ),

a0* = a(x* , y* ) = x* T A y*

(5)

b0* = b (x* ,y* ) = x* T B y*

(6)

Nash (*,y*).
(3) (4)


. (3)
f(x)= y*
, (4)
g(y)= y y.
x,y :
m

X={x= (x1,...,xm)T m xi = 1,x 0}


i=1

n
T

Y={y= (y1,...,ym)

y = 1,y 0}
j

j=1

(*,y*) YNash,
*

minxT Ay*

(7)

x X

minxTBy
yY

(8)

:,
(3) (4)


.

,.

:
.
:
1. 1950
Nash,.
2. (
Brouwer Kakutani),
,

.
:

N [A,B]={a(x,y):x X,y Y} (9)


.
[, ]
,. 22
2=11
y2=1y1
[, ]. (
SciLab).
:
=0
forx1=0:0.05:1,
fory1=0:0.05:1,
=(x1,y1),
=((x1,y1),

=+1
()=,
()=,
end
end
plot2d(,)

:()

,:

- 4 0 y1
= -4x1y1 - x2 y2 = -4x1y1 - (1- x1)(1- y1)
a (x,y) = (x1,x2)
0 - 1 y2

- 1 0 y1
= - x1y1 - 4x2 y2 = - x1y1 - 4(1- x1)(1- y1)
0
4

y2

b(x,y) = (x1,x2)

,
1,
[,].
(0,0)(1,4)(4,1),
.

6.8

: 6.9
0
5

0
1
2
3

4
5

6.9


,
2.

.
Nash (a0* ,b0* ),
[,]. Nash,
Nash (
).
[,]
Nash
[,].

:(,y)(,y)
Nash.:

I. , (, y) (, y)
Nash.

II. ,(,y)=(,y)(,y)=(,y).

(
)
.

:
Nash

:().

=(0,1),y=(1,0),=(0,1)
y=(1,0) Nash.
=(4/5,1/5) y=(1/5,4/5),

4 1 (4,1)
,
5 5 (0,0)

(0,0) 1/ 5
4
4

= (- ,- )
(1,4) 4 / 5
5
5

(4/5,4/5)
2
.

(5/2,5/2)

,

.

: ,
,
.
,
,

.,
,
.

Nash,.

,(

),
,.

6.4.1


.

.
: [, ],
minmax
:

a* = min{maxa (x,y)}
x X

yY

(1)

b * = min{max b (x, y)}


yY

(2)

x X

x,y

a* ={maxa (x, y)}


yY

(3)

b * ={max b (x, y}
x X

(4)

,
minmax.

:().

,
:

min

x X

{ max

y Y

a ( x , y )}

2:

(,y)=(51+1)y1+x11,

y1. ,
1 :

x1 - 1 + max (- 5x1 + 1)y1 ,


0 y 1 1

(51+1)0,1 1/5,

(51+1)0,1 1/5.

,y1=1,
y1=0 y1.

:
1

- 4 x 1 ,an 0 x1 5
min
1
x1 - 1,an
x1 1
5


1=1/52= 4/52=4/5.

0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

6.10

0,6

0,7

0,8

0,9

.
y1 =4/5y2 =1/5
4/5.
: (4/5 , 4/5)
Nash
Nash
.

Nash,.
:
(),
()
()
. x,y a

(x,y) a

(x,y) b

.
.
,
,
, ,
,
.

6.5

, ,

, .


.
, ,
, , ,
.
, ,
,
.()
.

. .

,
,.

,
.

,
.

,,

. i j ij
, I,

j.
,.

12... n
1 11 12 ...1n
2 21 22 ...2n
:

...
.
.
m

.
.
m1 m2 ... mn

.:

30000

120000

3000000


,30000
,120000,


3000000. (
),
3000000 , ,
30000 .
( ),
.
.
,
.
:
1,2,,m .
.

,
,
, .
.

.
, ,
,
,
.
:
BayesLaplace
Minmax
Minmax Savage
Bayes..

6.6
PRISONERSDILEMMA
,
,2.

.
dominant strategies
.
:


. (
) .


.
, Bonnie Clyde.

.
Clyde

8
Bonnie1 Clyde

1
Bonnie8 Clyde

Bonnie
3

Clyde
Bonnie

Prisoners Dilemma
.


, ,

. .

.I

II I .

.
Prisoners Dilemma

,
.
,

TitFor Tat.:
1. Tit For Tat
.
2.
.
:

:
1 2. 1
2 TitForTat.
.
1

2
.
TitFor Tat:
#defineDEFECT0
#defineCOOPERATE0
All_D(){
returnDEFECT
}
Tit_for_Tat(intpartner_last_move){
if(partner_last_move==DEFECT)
returnDEFECT
else
returnCOOPERATE
}
Tit For Tat Tit For Two Tats.

TitFor TwoTats.

Tit ForTat

TitFor Tat.
Tit For Tat
Robert Axelrod The Evolution ofCooperation (Basic Books, 1984).

PrisonersDilemma,.
Axelrod
PrisonersDilemma:
1.
2.
3.
4. .
,
,.
Axelrod
TitFor Tat.
.
unprogrammedprograms
,
,
. ,
,
,
Tit For Tat
.
Prisoners Dilemma, Tit For Tat .
Tit For Tat
, ,
.

6.7
[1] Fink, E. C., Gates, S.,& Humes B. D.(1998) GAME THEORY TOPICS,
SageUniversityPapersSeriesonQuantitative Applications intheSocial
Sciences,07122.ThousandOaks,CA:Sage.
[2] Robert J. Aumann and Sergiu Hart (1992). Handbook of Game Theory.
NorthHolland.
[3] Arnold,Statisticalpatternrecognition,(1999),ISBN0340741643.
[4] Berger,JamesO,StatisticalDecisionTheoryandBayesianAnalysis
[5] http:://www.econ.rochester.edu/eco108
[6] http://wwwcourse.fas.harvard.edu
[7] http://gamethory.net
[8] http://GameTheoryinGreek.htm
[9] http://verenike.ergasya.tuc.gr/~sakis/GameTheory.html
[10] http://williamking.www.drexel.edu/top/class/histf.html
[11]
http://www.dmst.aueb.gr/gr/Courses/4sem/19_math_prog/PPTS/THEORI
A_PAIGNION.doc
[12] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/gameheory/#PD
[13] http://www.pitt.edu/~jduffy/econ1200/Lectures.htm
[14] http://www.bsos.umd.edu/econ/econ414/new_page_2.htm
[15] http://icg.fas.harvard.edu/~ec1052/lecture/index.html
[16] http://web.mit.edu/14.12/www/
[17] http://www.u.arizona.edu/~mwalker/431LecNotes.htm
[18] http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~gov2005/Lectures/
[19] http://research.microsoft.com/users/breese/tutorial/
[20] http://www.cc.gatech.edu/classes/AY2002/cs4640_spring/
Bayes.pdf
[21] http://webcourse.technion.ac.il/236607/Winter20022003/
ho/WCFiles/Lect1.ppt
[22] http://faculty.cs.tamu.edu/rgutier/courses/cs790_wi02/l4.pdf
[23] http://www.ece.umd.edu/class/enee408g/lecture/408F02_lec7.pdf
[24] http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~nat/Courses/CSI5387/ML_Lecture_6.ppt
[25] http://www.icg.tugraz.ac.at/~Education/Vorlesung/
BVMU_VO/WS2003/vo07_03s.pdf
[26] http://www.ee.columbia.edu/~vittorio/Lecture5.pdf
[27] http://www.cs.tcd.ie/Padraig.Cunningham/nds101/BayesianNetworks.ppt
[28] http://www.ai.mit.edu/courses/6.825/syllabus
[29] http://webcourse.technion.ac.il/236607/Winter20022003/
ho/WCFiles/Lect1.ppt
[30] http://www.statistics.com/content/bookstore/Bayes/carlin.php3
[31] http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~daf/bookpages/
Slides/Templatematching.ppt
[32] http://www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~alatan/Courses/pr02.pdf
[33] http://www.stats.wits.ac.za/about/stats300.html
[34] http://www.eas.asu.edu/~morrell/598/lecture1.pdf
[35] http://prlab.ee.memphis.edu/frigui/ELEC7901/BAYES/BayesDecis.html
[36] http://www.statslab.cam.ac.uk/~rrw1/stats/S16.pdf
[37] http://www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~alatan/Courses/pr02.pdf

[38]

http://www.oakland.edu/~bouchaff/PatternRecog/pdfslides/CSE616ch2pa
rt1.pdf
[39] ALT, J., CALVERT, R. L., arid HUMES, B. D. (1988) "Reputation and
hegemonicstability:Agametheoreticanalysis."AmericanPoliticalScience
Review 82:445466.
[40] ARROW, K. J. (1951) Social Choice and Individual Values. New York:
Wiley.
[41] AXELROD, R. (1980a) "Effective choice in the Prisoners' Dilemma."
JournalofConflictResolution 24:325.
[42] AXELROD, R. (1980b) "More effective choice in the Prisoners'
Dilemma."Journalof ConflictResolution 24:379403.
[43] AXELROD, R. (1981) "The emergence of cooperation among egoists."
AmericanPolitical ScienceReview 75:306318. AXELROD,R.(1984)The
EvolutionofCooperation. NewYork:BasicBooks.
[44] BINMORE, K. (1992) Fun and Games: A Text on Game Theory.
Lexington,MA:D.C. Heath.
[45] BRAMS, S. J. (1985) Superpower Games: Applying Game Theory to
Superpower Conflict. NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress.
[46] BRAMS, S. J,, and KILGOUR, M. D. (1988) Theory and National
Security. NewYork: BasilBlackwell.
[47] CALVERT,R.L.(1987)"Reputationandlegislativeleadership."Public
Choice 55: 81119.
[48] COHEN,R.E.(1995)WashingtonatWork.NeedhamHeights,MA:Allyn
&Bacon.
[49] FEARON,J.(1994)"Signalingversusthebalanceofpowerandinterests."
Journalof ConflictResolution 38:236269.
[50] FINK,E.C,HUMES,B.D.,andSCHWEBACH,V.L.(1997)"Thesize
principle and the strategic basis of an alliance: Formalizing intuitions."
InternationalInteractions 22:279294.
[51] FUDENBERG, D., and MASKIN, E. (1986) "The Folk theorem in
repeated games with discounting or with incomplete information."
Econometrica54:533554.
[52] GATES, S., and HILL, J. S. (1997) "Democratic accountability and
governmental innovation in the use of nonprofit organizations." Policy
StudiesReview 14:00CM300.
[53] GATES, S., and HUMES, B. D. (1997)Games, Information, and Politics:
Applying Game Theoretic Models to Political Science. Ann Arbor:
UniversityofMichiganPress.
[54] GIBBONS, R. (1992) Game Theory for Applied Economists. Princeton:
PrincetonUniversityPress.
[55] HARGREAVES HEAP, S., and VAROUFAKIS, Y. (1995) Game
Theory:ACriticalIntroduction. London:Routledge.
[56] HARSANYI, J. (1967) "Games Of incomplete information played by
Bayesianplayers." ManagementScience 14:159182,320334,486502.
[57] KREPS, D. M., and WILSON, R. (1982) "Reputation and incomplete
information."JournalofEconomicTheory 27:253279. LUCE,R.D.,and

RAIFFA, H. (1957) Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical


Survey. NewYork:Wiley&Sons.
[58] MAYNARD SMITH, J. (1982) Evolution and the Theory of Games.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
[59] MAYNARD SMITH, J., and PRICE, G. R. (1973) "The logic of
animalconflict."Nature246(2):1518.
[60] MILGROM,P.,andROBERTS,J.(1982)"Predation,reputation,and
entrydeterrence."JournalofEconomicTheory 27:280312.
[61] MORROW,J.(1989)"Capabilities,uncertainty,andresolve:Alimited
information mode!of crisis bargaining."American Journal of Political
Science 33:941972.
[62] MORROW, J, (1994) Game Theory for Political Scientists. Princeton:
PrincetonUniversityPress.
[63] MYERSON,R.(1991)GameTheory:AnalysisofConflict.Cambridge,
MA:Harvard UniversityPress.
[64] NICHOLSON, M. (1989) Formal Theories in International Relations.
NewYorkCambridgeUniversityPress.
[65] ORDESHOOK, P. C, (1986) Game Theory and Political Theory.
Cambridge:Cambridge UniversityPress.
[66] ORDESHOOK, P. C. (1992) A Political Theory Primer. London:
Routledge.
[67] OYE, K. A. (ed.) (1986) Cooperation Under Anarchy. Princeton:
PrincetonUniversity Press.
[68] POWELL, R. (1987) "Crisis bargaining, escalation, and MAD."
AmericanPoliticalScienceReview 81:717735.
[69] RASMUSEN, E. (1989) Games and Information. Cambridge: Basil
BlackweU.
[70] SCHELLING, T (1966) Arms and Influence. Cambridge, MA:
HarvardUniversityPress.
[71] SCHELLING, T. (1978) Micromotives and Macrobehavior. New York:
Norton.
[72] SCHWELLER, R. (1993) "Tripolarity and the Second World War."
InternationalStudiesQuarterly 37:73107.
[73] SELTEN, R. (1978) "The chainstore paradox." Theory and Decision 9:
127159.
[74] SNYDER,G.H.(1971)'"Prisoner'sDilemma'and'Chicken'modelsin
international politics." InternationalStudiesQuarterly 15:66103.
[75] SNYDER, G. H., and DIESING, P. (1977) Conflict Among Nations.
Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress.
[76] TAYLOR,M. (1976)AnarchyandCooperation. London:Wiley.
[77] TAYLOR, M. (1987) The Possibility of Cooperation. Cambridge:
CambridgeUniversity Press.
[78] TAYLOR, M., and WARD, H. (1982) "Chickens, whales, and lumpy
goods: Alternative models of public goods provision." Political Studies
30:350370.
[79] TROCKEL, W. (1986) "The chainstore paradox revisited." Theory and
Decision 21: 163179.

You might also like