RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION

pagation
Classification : Radio Wave Propagation
Classification : Radio Wave Propag
These layers are used for propagation of EM waves and that EM waves travel basically in any one of the three

of EMmethods
waves and that
given below:
• EM
These layers are used for propagation of
• Ground Wave
e three •methods
Space Wave
given below:
waves travel basically in any one of the t
• Sky Wave
• Ground Wave
• Space Wave
• Sky Wave
 What is Ground Wave /Surface Wave Propagation ?
What is Ground Wave /Surface Wave Propagation ?
• To radiate signals with high efficiency, the
antennas should have a size comparable to
• To radiate signals with high efficiency, the antennas should the
wavelength
have a size λ of the signal
comparable (at least λ~ofλ/4).
to the wavelength the signal (at
• At longer wavelengths (i.e., at lower frequencies),
least ~ λ/4).
• At longer wavelengths (i.e., at lower frequencies), the
the antennas have large physical size and they
antennas have large physical size and they are located on or
arevery
located on or very
near to the ground.
near to the ground.
• In•standard
In standard AMAMbroadcast,
broadcast,groundground based
based vertical vertical
towers are
towers
generallyare generally
used as used as
transmitting antennas. transmitting
For such antennas,
ground has a strong influence on the propagation of the
antennas. For such antennas, ground has a strong
signal.
influence on the propagation of the signal.
• The mode of propagation is called surface wave propagation
• Theandmode of glides
the wave propagation is called
over the surface surface wave
of the earth.
propagation and the wave glides over the surface
of the earth.
Properties of Ground Wave Propagation

• Used for a low-frequency range transmission, mostly less than 2MHz.

• Employs the use of large antennas order of which is equivalent to the wavelength of
the EM waves and uses the ground or Troposphere for its propagation.
• Signals over large distances are not sent using this method.
• It causes severe attenuation which increases with increased frequency of the waves.
The maximum range of coverage depends on the transmitted power and frequency
(less than a few MHz).
Sky Wave Propagation

• In the Frequency range 300 kHz–30 MHz, long distance

communication can be achieved2. Sky Wave Propagation
by ionospheric
reflection of radio waves back towards the earth.

• The sky wave, often called the ionospheric wave, is

radiated in an upward direction and returned to Earth at
some distant location because of refraction from the
ionosphere.
01-05-2020 Prepared by D

• Thisform of propagation is relatively unaffected by the

Earth's surface and can propagate signals over great
distances.

• Usually
the high frequency (HF) band is used for sky
wave propagation.
Properties of Sky Wave Propagation

• Used for the propagation of EM waves with a frequency range of 300KHz– 30MHz.

• Make use of the ionosphere so called due to the presence of charged ions in the region of about 60
to 300 km from the Earth surface.

• These ions provide a reflecting medium to the radio or communication waves within a particular
frequency range.

• Use of the property of the ionosphere for long-distance transmission of the waves without much
attenuation and loss of signal strength.

• Examples
Amateur radio , Citizens Band (CB) radio , International broadcasts
 3. Space Wave Propagation
• Space
Another mode
Wave Propagation of radio wave propagation is by space waves.
• Another mode of radio wave propagation
• The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting is by space waves.
••antenna
Another modeto
The space thewave
wave
of radio receiving
follows
propagationantenna
twois bydistinct: paths
space waves. from
The space the
wave transmitting
follows two distinct
paths from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna:
antenna to thethe
 one through receiving antenna
air directly :
to the receiving antenna,
the
•one
one through
through the air the air
directly to directly
the to
receiving
other reflected from the ground the receiving
antenna, to the antenna,
receiving antenna.
 the
• the otherother reflected
reflected fromtothe
from the ground groundantenna.
the receiving to the receiving antenna.
 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
Direct Wave Propagation

• At frequencies above 40 MHz, communication is essentially

• The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna. So,
l
LOS paths.
the receiving antennaAtmustthese
be located frequencies,
within the radio horizon ofthe antennas
the transmitting antenna. are relativel

and can be placed at heights of many wavelengths

• Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when propagated through the troposphere, the radio
above the
Because ofabout
horizon is actually LOS nature
one-third farther thanof propagation,
the LOS or natural horizon. direct waves get bl
some
• At point
frequencies above by
40 the
MHz, curvature
communication is of the
essentially limited earth
to LOS as
paths. illustrated
At these frequencies, in
the Fig.
antennas are relatively smaller and can be placed at heights of many wavelengths above the ground.
• If• Because
the signal
of LOS nature isofto be received
propagation, direct waves get beyond
blocked at some the pointhorizon then
by the curvature of the the

antenna must be high enough to intercept the LOS waves.

earth as illustrated in Fig.

• If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon then the receiving antenna must be high enough to
intercept the LOS waves.
 Direct Wave Propagation (Cont’d)
• If the transmitting antenna is at a height hT, then the distance to the
Direct Wave Propagation
horizon d (Cont’d)
Direct Wave Propagation
is given as (Cont’d)
T
• If the • If transmitting d
the transmitting antenna antenna
 2
is Rh
at a is
height hat
T , a
thenheight
the distanceh T
to, then
the the distance to the
• If the transmittinghorizon
antenna is at a height h T, then the distance
T T to the horizon d is given as T
horizon dTdTisis given given as as
dT R2isRhthe
where T radius of the Earth (approximately 6400 km).

where
dT is also called the radio
dT  2 RhT
dT is also 6400
where R is the radius of the Earth (approximately called
R is theofradius
horizon
the radio horizon of the transmitting antenna.
km).
of the Earth (approximately
the transmitting antenna. 6400 km).
• The maximum d isLOS distance
also called
T dMofbetween
the radio horizon the two antennas having
the transmitting antenna.
• The maximum •LOS
Thedistance
maximum d between
LOS the two antennas
distance d betweenhaving heights
the two h and h above
antennas the earth is given by
having
heights hwhere
T and M
h above M the earth is given by
R Ris the radius of the Earth (approximately 6400 km).
T R

heights hT and hR above the earth is given by

d is  T 2 Rh
also
d M d M2 Rh
T called
2 Rh
TR
the radio
2 Rh horizon
R
of the transmitting antenna.
• The maximum where h LOS distance
is the heightR dM between
of receiving antenna.
where h is the height of receiving
R antenna. the two antennas having
heights hT and hR above the earth is given by
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 16

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 16

d M  2 RhT  2 RhR
where hR is the height of receiving antenna.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 1

 Space wave propagation (Satellite)
Space wave propagation (Satellite)
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use this propagation method.
• Space• Forsatellite communication
very large distances, the height of the and very
tower used high-frequency
for transmission waves
is high enough to preventuse
waves from
touching the earth curvature thus preventing attenuation and loss of signal strength.
this propagation method.
• For very large distances, the height of the tower used for transmission
Properties of Space Wave Propagation
is high
• enough
Space waves to
are prevent
used for LOS waves
communicationfrom
as touching
well as satellite the earth
communication. curvature
thus preventing attenuation and loss of signal strength.
• Space satellite communication and very high-frequency waves use this propagation method.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 17

 es reflected or refracted back toward Earth from the ionosph
Structure of Ionosphere
electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere.
• Inradio communication, skywave or skip refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back
ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, from about 80 km
toward Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere.
0 km in altitude, where neutral air is ionized by solar photons and cosmic r
• The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, from about 80 km to 1000 km in altitude, where neutral air is
zation ionized
occurs due
by solar toandthe
photons cosmicabsorption
rays. of the ultraviolet and other high-ene
ation •coming from
Ionization occurs due tothe sun by
the absorption airultraviolet
of the molecules.
and other high-energ radiation coming from the sun by air
molecules.
Ionisation in the Ionospheric
Ionisation in the Ionospheric Layers Layers

 The ionosphere is further RADIATION CAUSING IONISATION IN THE IONOSPHERIC

subdivided into several layers, LAYERS
the details of which are given LAYERS PRIMARY IONISING
RADIATION FORMS
in Table.
C Cosmic
 Ionospheric Layers: C, D, E,
D Lyman alpha, Hard X-Rays
F1, F2, Regions
E Soft X-Rays and some
Extreme Ultra-Violet
F1 Extreme Ultra-violet, and
some Ultra-Violet
F2 Ultra-Violet
Electron density as a function of altitude

• Layers of high electrons densities : D, E, and F layers, as shown in

Figure.
• During the day the F layer splits into two layers called the F1 and F2
layers.
• The D layer vanishes completely at night.

Electron density as a function of altitude, and various

ionospheric layers
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 22
Refraction by the Ionosphere
Refraction by the Ionosphere

 When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized layer, refraction, or

bending of the wave, occurs.
 Refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the velocity of the upper
part of a radio wave as it strikes or enters a new medium.
 The amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main factors:
the density of ionization of the layer,
the frequency of the radio wave, and
the angle at which the wave enters the layer

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 23

nals enter the ionosphere
Reflection at a low angle they are bent
by the Ionosphere
the ionized layer.
• When high-frequency signals enter the ionosphere at a low angle they are bent back towards the earth by the
ionized layer.
ncies just below the MUF, losses can be quite small, so
ectively• When"bounce" or "skip"
operating at frequencies between
just below thecanearth
the MUF, losses andso the radio signal may effectively
be quite small,

mes. "bounce" or "skip" between the earth and ionosphere two or more times.

eat enough, the wave only curves slightly downwards,

• If the ionization is not great enough, the wave only curves slightly downwards, and subsequently upwards as the
ionization peak is passed so that it exits the top of the layer only slightly displaced. The wave then is lost in space.
s as the ionization peak is passed so that it exits the top
splaced.
• ToThepreventwave then
this a lower is lost
frequency mustinbe space.
chosen.

quency must be chosen.

Properties of Ionization
Properties of Ionization
• The degree of ionization varies with the height. The density of
atmosphere decreases with height.
• At great heights the solar radiation is intense but there are few
molecules to be ionised.
• The ionospheric layer acts as a reflector for a certain range of
frequencies (3 to 30 MHz). EM waves of frequencies higher than 30
MHz penetrate the ionosphere and escape.
• The phenomenon of bending of EM waves so that they are diverted
towards the earth is similar to total internal reflection in optics.
Key factors within ionospheric High Frequency (HF) radio communication link

• Ray path
• Critical frequency
• Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
• Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF )
• Optimum Frequency (OF)
• Virtual Height and
• Skip distance
 of these paths.
Ray Path/Propagation Path
• The path that a refracted wave follows to the receiver depends
on the angle at which the wave strikes the ionosphere.

• Itmay also, reach the receiving antenna over a path involving

more than one layer, by multiple hops/skip between the
ionosphere and Earth, or by any combination of these paths.

• Ray paths with varying angles of incidence.

• The various angles at which RF waves strikes the layer are

represented by dark lines and designated as rays 1 through 6.

• Ray 1-- the propagation path is long. Ray paths with varying angles of incidence.
01-05-2020
• Ray 2 and Ray 3-- the rays penetrate deeper into the layer but Prep
the range of these rays decreases.

• When a certain angle is reached (Ray 3), the refraction of the ray is first returned to Earth , its second refraction from the
ionospheric layer.
• Ray 6-- the ray is not returned at all, but passes on through the layer.
 Frequency Selection Considerations
Selection of a suitable operating frequency (within the bounds of
frequency allocations and availability) is of prime importance for
successful communications between any two specified locations at any
given time of the day:

Critical frequency (CF)

Maximum usable frequency(MUF),
Lowest usable frequency(LUF),
Optimum working frequency(OWF) that can be used.
Critical frequency

 The critical frequency is an important figure that gives an indication of the state
of the ionosphere and the resulting HF propagation.
 It is obtained by sending a signal pulse directly upwards.
 Critical frequency is defined as the maximum frequency at which the total
internal reflection(TIR) takes place from the ionosphere.
The mathematical representation is given as:
f c  9 N max
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
Nmax is the maximum electron density /ionization density
(electrons per cubic meter)

Critical frequency varies depending upon atmospheric conditions, time of the day and the angle of
incidence of the radio waves by the antenna.
Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
• When a signal is transmitted using HF propagation, over a given path
there is a maximum frequency that can be used.
• A maximum frequency that can be used for communications
between two given locations. This frequency is known as the MUF.
• Waves at frequencies above the MUF are normally refracted so slowly
that they return to Earth beyond the desired location, or pass on
through the ionosphere and are lost.
• However, that use of an established MUF certainly does not
guarantee successful communications between a transmitting site
and a receiving site. Variations in the ionosphere may occur at any
time and consequently raise or lower the predetermined MUF.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 32

Maximum usable frequency (MUF)
The mathematical representation of critical frequency as a function of
MUF is:
f c  f MUF / sec  ; f MUF  f C / cos 
Where,
fc is the critical frequency in Hz
fMUF is the maximum usable frequency (3 to 4 times of fc)
θ is the angle of incidence
The factor sec θ is called the MUF factor and it is a function of the path
length if the height layer is known.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 33

Lowest Usable frequency (LUF)
 As there is a maximum operating frequency that can
be used for communications between two points,
there is also a minimum operating frequency. This is
known as the LUF.
 As the frequency of a radio wave is lowered, the rate
of refraction increases. So the wave whose frequency
is below the established LUF is refracted back to Earth
at a shorter distance than desired, as shown in Figure.
 The LUF is defined as the frequency at below which
the signal falls below the minimum strength required
for satisfactory reception.
 The LUF is the practical limit below which
communication cannot be maintained between two Refraction of frequency below the LUF
particular radio communications stations.

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 34

 Optimum Working Frequency (OWF)
• Neither the MUF nor the LUF is a practical operating frequency.
• When the radio waves at the LUF can be refracted back to Earth at the desired
location, the signal-to-noise ratio is still much lower than at the higher
frequencies, and the probability of multipath propagation is much greater.
• Operating at or near the MUF can result in frequent signal fading and dropouts
when ionospheric variations alter the length of the transmission path.
• The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely on with the least
amount of problems. It should be high enough to avoid the problems of
multipath, absorption, and noise encountered at the lower frequencies; but not
so high as to result in the adverse effects of rapid changes in the ionosphere.
• A frequency that meets the above criteria has been established and is known as
the OWF
OWF (Cont’d)
• The frequency, which is being used mostly for a particular
transmission and which has been predicted to be used over a
particular period of time, over a path, is termed as OWF.
• Estimates the maximum frequency that must be used for a given
critical frequency and incident angle. It is the frequency chosen to
avoid the irregularities of the atmosphere.

OWF  0.85 f MUF  0.85 f C / cos 

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 36

Virtual Height
• When a wave is refracted, it is bent down gradually, but not sharply. However, the
path of incident wave and reflected wave are same if it is reflected from a surface
located at a greater height of this layer.
• Such a greater height is termed as virtual height.
Virtual Height(Cont’d)
• As shown in Figure, the curve path reaches an altitude of h1 before
being returned to the Earth.
• If the incident and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex, they
meet at a height h’, which is called the virtual reflection height of the
ionospheric layer.

Fig. The curved path of a refracted ray associated with frequency

fob.
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 38
Virtual heights of various ionospheric layers
• The virtual height depends on conditions, the time of day, and the
layer, as shown in Table.
• Measurement of virtual height is normally carried
out by means of an instrument known as
Ionospheric Daytime Night time IONOSONDE.
Layer virtual re. virtual ref.
height height
• The basic method is to transmit vertically upward
a pulse-modulated radio wave with a pulse
F2 250-400 km -
duration of about 150 micro seconds.
F1 200-250 km -
F - 300 km
• The reflected signal is received close to the
transmission point, and the time T required for
E 110 km 110 km
the round trip is measured.

• Then Virtual height h=cT/2, c- velocity of light

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 39
 ip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a
 The
signal skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the
The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the pointto
is
Skiptransmitted,
distance and the point where it is received having point where
travelled a the a
where
radio signal is transmitted, and the point where it is received having travelled to the
phere,radio
and been
signal isrefracted back
transmitted, by
and the
the ionosphere.
point where it is received having travelled to the
ionosphere,
• and been refracted back by the ionosphere.
The skip distance is the distance over the Earth's surface between the point where a radio signal is
ionosphere,
transmitted, and been
and the pointrefracted back byhaving
where it is received the ionosphere.
travelled to the ionosphere, and been refracted
back by the ionosphere.
2 f 2
 f MUF  
   MUF 
 f C  f MUF 
2
Dskip  2h Dskip f C2h 
1   1
f 

Dskip  2h  C 
1

Where,
Where, Dskip: skip distance
Where,
h: height at which reflection happens
skip: skip distance
D skip : skip distance
fMUF: maximum usable frequency
fc:h:critical
: height at which height at which
reflection
frequency reflection happens
happens
: maximum fMUF : maximum
usable usable frequency
frequency
MUF
f : critical
: critical frequency
c frequency
• The size of the skip distance depends on the frequency of the wave,
the
01-05-2020 angle of incidence, and the degree of byionization
Prepared Dr. T. Deepa present. 40

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 40

Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 40
Sky zone (Cont’d)
Sky zone
distance depends on
• The SKIP ZONE is a zone of
silence between the point where
the wave,
the ground wave becomes too
dence,weak
and for reception and the point
where the skywave is first returned
nizationto Earth.
present.
zone of silence
• The between
size of the the
skip zone depends
on the extent of the ground wave
round coverage
wave and becomes too
the skip distance.
and the point where the sky
• When the ground wave coverage is
d to Earth.
great enough or the skip distance
is short enough that no zone of
zone depends on the extent
silence occurs, there is no skip Relationship between skip zone, skip distance, and
ve coverage
zone. and the skip ground wave coverage
Refractive Index in the Ionosphere
 As the wave incident at angle of incidence,  i the wave is bent
towards the Earth. The bending of the wave produced by the
ionosphere follows optical laws.

 The direction of propagating the wave at a point in the

ionosphere is given by SNELL’S LAW

sin  i
n (1)
sin  r

Where,
 i is the angle of incidence at lower edge of the ionosphere
r is the angle of refraction at point P
n is the refractive index
εr is the relative permittivity of the ionosphere
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 42
 Relation between MUF & Skip distance for Flat Earth
Relation
Relation between
between
The ionosphere MUF
MUF
has many &&Skip
tiny layers Skip distance
, fordistance for
atmospheric for Flat
Flat
refraction Earth
Earth
Theionosphere
The ionospherehas
hasmany
manytiny
tiny layers
layers , for
, for atmospheric
atmospheric refraction
refraction

n0 sin  i  n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2  nk sin  k (2)

0

n0 nsinsini  n1 sin
 i n1

sin
1  n
1 2 sin
n2

sin
2 
 n
2 k sin
n  k k
k sin
(2) (2)

• The condition for the wave to return to earth is to have total internal reflection(TIR), which
•• The condition
begins when for
thethe wave
refracted to return
angle to
,θ earth
is 90 0. is to have total internal reflection(TIR),
The condition for the wave to returnr to0 earth is to have total internal reflection(TIR), which which
begins when the refracted angle ,θ is 90 . 0
• begins when theatrefracted
If this happens th
the k layer, angle ,θr is 90 .
r
• If this happens at the kth thlayer,
• If this happens at the k layer, n0 sin  i  nk sin0 90  nk
0 (3)
(3)
n0 sin  i  nk sin 90  0nk (3)
and since n0 = 1, n0 sin  i  nk sin 90  nk
and since n0 = 1,
and since n =
sin  i  0nk 1, sin 2
  n 2
  n   (4)
nk   r
k r
sin  i  nk sin 2i  nk 2  r
2 i 2 k r (4)
sin  i  nk sin  i  nk   r nk   r (4)
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 43
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 43
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• For a given angle of incidence θi and frequency f, the minimum electron density required
to achieve TIR is

2
NQ
 r  sin  i  1 
2 e (5)
 0 me w 2

Where, N is the electron density (m-3)

31
me is the mass of electron at rest , me  9.109 10 kg
w is the angular frequency of the wave , w  2f
Qe is the magnitude of electron charge Qe  1.602110 19 C
εo is the permittivity of free space   8.854 10 12 F / m
o

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 44

Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Critical Frequency (CF)
• If the maximium electron density present is Nmax, refraction of the wave at
normal incidence (θi=0 & sinθi = 0), the only possible way for the wave to be
totally internally reflected is if ε= 0.
• This requires the frequency to be less than the critical frequency fc, given by

2
NQ 81N
 r  sin  i  1 
2 e
 1  (5)
 0 me w 2
f 2

81N max
if εr= 0,
2
 1
fC

f C  9 N max
(6)

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 45

Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)
• Refractive Index as the function of frequency

n  1
2
w 2
p
 1
2f  p
2
 fp 
 1   
2
(7)
w 2
2f  2
 f  Where, wp is the angular plasma
frequency
2 2 2
 fp   fp  sin  i  fp 
n  1   
2
n  1    n   1   
 f   f  sin  r (8)
 f 

• For MUF,  fp 
2

 r  90 ,
o sin  i  1     sin 90  1
o

 f MUF  (9)
2 2
 fp  f 2

fC
 f C sec  i
2 2
   1  sin  i  cos  i
2 2
MUF
cos  i
2 (10) f p  fc
 f MUF 
f MUF  f C sec  i (11)
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 46
Where, wp is the angular plasma frequency
Relationbetween
Relation between MUF
MUF & Skip
& Skip distance
distance (Cont’d)
(Cont’d)
MUF,
Skip Distance
h
f MUF  f c sec  i  9 N max sec  i cos  i 
 2 d 2

(12)
 h  
 4 
 This value of fMUF is called the maximum usable frequency, and is less than 40 MHz, and can be
as low as 25-30 MHz in period of low solar activity. 2h
cos  i 
 Equation (11) is called the Secant Law. d  4h
2 2

2
 Secant law is applicable for flat earth and ionospheric layer. f 2  fC
Eqn(10)
cos  i
MUF 2

2
 d  4h 
  d  4h
2 2 2 2 2
f 1 
h is the height of the layer
MUF
 
fC
2
cos  i 
2
2h 
 4 h 2

d is the skip distance on the flat

2
Earth’s surface f 2
d 2 d
01-05-2020
MUF

Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 1 f  f 1 47
Thin layer or flat Earth: ionised layer may be assumed to be thin layer with sharp ionisation density gradient, which gives mirror like reflection
of radio wave as shown.
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
cos  i  (12)
 2 d 2

 h  
 4 

2h
cos  i 
d  4h
2 2

f C2
Eqn(10) f 2

cos  i
MUF 2

2
2
f MUF 1  d 2  4h 2  d 2
 4 h 2
    
h is the height of the layer f C2 cos 2  i  2h  4 h 2

d is the skip distance on the flat 

2
Earth’s surface f 2
d 2 d (13)
MUF
 2 1 f MUF  f C 2
1 (13)
fC
2
4h 4h
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 48
Relation between MUF & Skip distance (Cont’d)
Skip Distance
h
tan  C  (14)
d /2

d
h  tan  C
2

2h
d
tan  C
1/ 2
 f 
2

d skip  2h  MUF   1 (15)
 f C  
Critical Angle
• the highest takeoff angle that will return a radio wave to the Earth under specific ionospheric conditions.

• Any wave, at a given frequency, that leaves the antenna at an incidence angle greater than the critical angle will be lost into space.

The wave will NOT be reflected when    C

The wave will be reflected when   C

Curved Earth Case :
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance
Curved Earth Case :
Considering the ionospheric layer is thin with sharp ionization density gradient so as to obtain mirror like
reflections. The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance
In this figure, 2θ is Considering
the angle subtended by layer
the ionospheric the skip
is thindistance d’ionization
with sharp at the center
densityofgradient
the earth.
so as to obtain mirror like
reflections.
From the geometryInof
thisFig., the
figure, 2θfollowing
is the angle relations are
subtended by theobtained:
skip distance d’ at the center of the earth.
'
d of Fig., the following relations are obtained:
From the geometry
Arc d  2 R ; Angle 2 
'

R
Arc d  2 R ; Angle 2 
' d '

OE  R; EB  h R
OE  R; EB  h
AD  R sin  ; OD  R cos  ; BD  OE  EB  OD
AD  R sin  ; OD  R cos  ; BD  OE  EB  OD
BD  R  hBD R 
 R cos h  R cos 

AB   AD  AB
 BD
2
 AD   BD 
2 2 2

AB2  R sin    R  h 2 R cos  

2 2
AB  R sin    R  h  R cos  
Fig. The ionized layer and the curved earth
Fig. The ionized layer and the curved earth
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 51
 Curved Earth Case :
Curved Earth Case :
The The
Relationship between the MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
Relationship between the MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
BD BD R  hR  hRcos  
R cos
cos  i cos
  i   (1)
(1)
AB ABR sinRsin
  RRhhRcos
2 2
  
R cos
2 2

 2     R  
h R h
R 
cos   
R cos2 2
f 2
 
2
f
cos  i   i R sin
2
cos Since f2  cos  i 
Since C
 cos  2
2
2    R  h  R cos2 
2 2 C2 i
R sin    R  h  R cos   f MUF
MUF

cos 2 f
2
 R  h  R cos 2
 R  h2  R cos  
2

2 i  f
2
 C (2)
cos  i   C

2
f R sin2   R  h  R cos  22 (2) 1

f 2
MUF
MUF
R sin    R  h  R cos   cos  
OA

R
OA R  R
OB h


R  h
 1  
hR  R  h 
1

cos    1  
R  1  
When the skip distance d’ is maximum. OAB  90O OB R  h   R  h   R 
R 1  
When the skip distance d’ is maximum. OAB  90 and the skip distance.
The curvature of the earth limits both the MUF O
h  R
This limit
The curvature of isthe
obtained when aboth
earth limits wavetheleaves
MUF theand
transmitter
the skipatdistance.
a grazing cos   1  h
Rh  cos   1   ...
angle OAB = 90 o◦.
This limit is obtained when a wave leaves the transmitter at a grazing cos   1  R h
Under thiso condition, R
1  sin   1 
2 h  cos   1   ...
angle OAB = 90 ◦. R
Rh
Under this condition,
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 1  sin 2   1  52
R
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 52
Curved
CurvedEarth
EarthCase
Case: :
The
TheRelationship
Relationshipbetween
betweenMUF
MUFand
andthe
theskip
skipDistance(Cont’d)
Distance(Cont’d)
Since
Since thethe actual
actual value of θofisθ very
value is very small,
small, thisthis relation
relation cancan
be be expanded
expanded as as

h h
 1 1 
coscos
R R
h h h h  
2 2
h h 2 22h 2h 2h2h
 1 1 
 sin
1  1sin 2 2
1  1   1 
2 2
 1  1    
1  1   1   
2 2
R R R R 2 2 R R R R RR (3)(3)

From Fig
From Fig
., ., Arc
Arc 2 R2R
d d  ' '

'2 '2 22h 2h

d d 4R4R  4R4 .R .  8hR
2 22 2 2
8hR
R R  d '2 d '2 
    '2 '2
'2 '2
d d h h  8 R 8 R  dd
d 
'
d 8hR
'
8hR(or()or )h h  cos cos1  1  1  1 
R R R R

coscos  11  2 2 (4)(4)
8 R8 R 8 R8 R
Curved Earth Case :
Curved
The Earth Case
Relationship : MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)
between
The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

2h 2h
Eqn (3)  2
 sin    
R R
2h 2h
Eqn (3)  2
 sin    
R R
 8R  
2d
'2
d d'2 '
sin  
'
d (5)

2dR 
sin     '2 2
 2R '
4 R'2 2 R' d (5)
d
8R  d sin  
sin      2R
4 R of 2sin
By substitutingR the values 2
R  and cos 

By substituting the values f of2 sin  

and cos 
R  h  R cos  
2
Eqn (2) cos  i  
2 C

f
f
2
MUF2  R sin    R  h  R cos

2
R  h  R cos  
2 
2

Eqn (2) cos  i  

2 C

01-05-2020
f 2
MUF  R sin    R  h  R cos  
2
Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa
2
54

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 54

The Relationship between MUF and the skip Distance(Cont’d)

f 2

h d '2

8 R
 2

(6)

 4  h  8R
C
2 2
f MUF
'2
d d '2

'2
2 d
f 4 d '2
 d  '2 2
 f 
2
 (7)
 1
 
MUF
2 2   h    MUF
  1
fC h d '2
4  8R   f C  
8R
The equations (8) and (9) give maximum usable frequency in terms of skip distance

1/ 2
 d '2  1/ 2
   
d   f MUF
'2

2
 (9)
 f C 1  4 d  2 h    
 
f MUF 2 
(8) '
 1
 hd
'2
  8 R   f C  
 8R  
01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 55
The Relationship between MUF and skip distance
(a) Flat Earth case

1/ 2
2  f 
2

d d skip  2h  MUF   1
f MUF  f C 1
4h 2  f C  

(b) Curved Earth case

1/ 2
 d '2  1/ 2
   d   f '2

2

 f C 1  4

   1

f MUF
'2 2 d  2 h 
'
  MUF

 hd   8 R   f C  
 8R  

01-05-2020 Prepared by Dr. T. Deepa 56

An electromagnetic wave at frequency f is propagating through a lossy
dielectric medium having conductivity σ, permittivity $ = $0 $r , and
8.2
8.2Ionospheric
IonosphericPropagation
Propagation 377377
permeability µ = µ0 . Derive an expression for the attenuation
8.2 Ionospheric Propagation per unit
377
Solution: For a lossy dielectric medium, the propagation constant is given by
length of the medium.
Solution: If σ/(ω$)
For a lossy dielectric# 1,8.2show
medium, the
8.2 that
propagation the
Ionospheric
Ionospheric
attenuation
constant is
Propagation
Propagation given
377 by is
377 given by
√
60πσ/ $r . For a lossy dielectric
Solution: γ 2
= medium,
(σ + jω$)(jωµ)the= propagation
(α
γ = (σ + jω$)(jωµ) = (α + jβ)
2
+ jβ) 2
2 constant is given by
Solution:
Solution:ForFor
a lossy
a dielectric
lossy medium,
dielectric the propagation
medium, the constant
propagation is givenisbygiven by
constant
• For a lossy where
dielectric
α and βmedium, the propagation
are the attenuation and the phase constant is given by
constants. Expanding
2 = (σ + = (α +
where α and β
and equatingγ
2 are the attenuation and the phase 2
constants. Expanding
the
γ =γ(σreal and jω$)(jωµ)
the imaginary parts
2 + jω$)(jωµ) = (α + jβ) 2 jβ)
and equating the real=and (σ the
+ jω$)(jωµ) = (α + jβ) 2
imaginary parts
α − β = −ω µ$
2 2 2
(8.6.1)
wherewhere
α and
α and
β β are
are the
the attenuation
attenuation
where α and β are the attenuation 2and
α − β
2αβ
2the
and
and
=
phase
−ω
= ωµσ
the
the
2
µ$
constants.
phase
phase Expanding
constants.
constants. Expanding
Expanding
(8.6.1)
(8.6.2)
andand
equating the
equating real and
the real the imaginary parts
and equating the real andandthetheimaginary
imaginary
2αβ = ωµσ
parts
parts (8.6.2)
Substituting the expression for
2 β from2 Eqn (8.6.2) into Eqn (8.6.1) above
α − β2 = −ω
2
µ$ 2 (8.6.1)
we get
Substituting the expression
2
= −ω
2αfor−ββ2from Eqn2µ$ (8.6.1)
(8.6.2) into Eqn (8.6.1) above
α2αβ−=
β =
! ωµσ"
−ω µ$ (8.6.2) (8.6.1)
we get
2αβ
ωµσ= ωµσ
2
(8.6.2)
2
α − = −ω µ$
2

Substituting the expression for β 2 2αβ

! 2α="2ωµσ
from ωµσ
Eqn (8.6.2) (8.6.2)
2into Eqn (8.6.1) above
Substituting the expression = −ω
αfor−β from Eqn (8.6.2)
µ$ into Eqn (8.6.1) above
we get This can be written as 2α
we get the expression for β from!Eqn" (8.6.2) into Eqn (8.6.1) above
Substituting !
This can be written 2as α4ωµσ " 2 ωµσ 2
+ 2 2
= 0
we get α − ω
2α
! µ$α
ωµσ
−
= −ω
" 2
2 µ$
! 2 "
2
α − = −ω µ$
ωµσ 22
 $ µ$ σ
α = ω% 1+ −1
2  ω$ 

For σ/(ω$) " 1, using binomial expansion we can write

) ! "2 ! "2
σ 1 σ
1+ #1+
ω$ 2 ω$

and hence the attenuation constant reduces to

-
σ µ
α=
2 $

Substituting $0 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m and µ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m we get

60πσ
α= √
$r
EXAMPLE 8.4

A line-of-sight 10 GHz microwave link is to be established on the surface of

the earth (mean radius 6370 km). The straight line distance between the two
antennas is 60 km and the height of the transmit antenna is 60 m. Calculate
the minimum height of the receive antenna assuming that the propagation
is taking place in the absence of atmosphere.
Solution: Substituting R = 60 × 103 m, r0 = 6370 × 103 m, and ht = 60 m
in Eqn. (8.69)
√ ! !
R = 2r0 ( ht + hr )
! √ !
60 × 10 = 2 × 6370 × 103 ( 60 + hr )
3

we get the minimum height of the receiver as hr = 82.2 m.

Let us now consider the propagation of radio waves under standard

atmospheric conditions (dN/dh = −39/km). A horizontally launched ray