CHAPTER

TWO
CELLULAR COVERAGE OF WIRELESS
NETWORKS

Areas to be covered:
 Cells and cellular coverage –
Transmitter-Receiver configuration
 Wireless waves
 Cells and cellular coverage –
Transmitter-Receiver configuration

• Wireless network eliminates need for devices to be tethered with wire or cable.
• In wired networks, devices are connected to physical ports, while in wireless networks, devices communicate with one
another in a cell.

• A cell is a physical coverage area of a wireless network that supports/facilitates communication of devices within that
area.
• The devices communicating in a cell can be categorized into:

i. Transmitter devices – the device the sends signals

ii. Receiver devices – the device that receives signals
 Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…Continued
Basics of Transmitter-Receiver Communication

• In a cell, communication between transmitter and receiver takes places over free space through RF (radio frequency)
• For the transmitter and receiver to communicate, they must use the same frequency (or channel).
• What is a frequency – Consider a road. It is meant as the channel/platform upon which vehicles can pass through or travel.
Likewise a cell frequency is a channel through which signals can travel from one point to another – from the transmitter to
receiver [and back].

Radio Frequency in Detail

• It is called a RADIO frequency because it’s an electromagnetic radiation that has a specific wavelength (distance it can cover
in the cell to trace and reach another device).
• Frequency is measured in HERTZ (Hz)

Hertz = no of cycles per second

Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…Continued

Radio Frequency in Detail…Continued

1 Hz = 1 cycles/sec
 Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…Continued

Radio Frequency in Detail…Continued

Frequency Unit Names

Unit Abbreviation Meaning

Hertz Hz Cycles per second

Kilohertz KHz 1000 Hz

Megahertz MHz 1, 000, 000 Hz

Gigahertz GHz 1, 000, 000, 000 Hz

 Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…Continued

Radio Frequency in Detail…End

• Electromagnetic waves do not travel in a straight line. They travel by expanding in all direction away from antenna.
Like you have seen waves travelling in water when you drop or throw a stone in a water body.
• This is the reason radio frequencies are also called radio waves
 Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…Continued
Modes of Communication

• Transmitter and receiver can communicate in two modes, depending on the direction of the signals:
i. Unidirectional communication
ii. Bidirectional communication

iii. Unidirectional communication

Cells and cellular coverage – Transmitter-Receiver
configuration…End
Modes of Communication….End

ii. Bidirectional communication

 Wireless Waves
1. Satellite waves
2. Infrared waves
3. Broadcast radio waves
4. Microwave
5. WiFi
6. Bluetooth
 Wireless Waves…Continued
1. Satellite waves
• Satellite communication is one type of self-contained
wireless communication technology
• It is widely spread all over the world to allow users to
stay connected almost anywhere on the earth.

How it works:

• Satellite communication contains two main

components: the space segment and the
ground/terrestrial segment.
• The ground segment consists of fixed or mobile
transmission, reception, and ancillary equipment and
the space segment, which mainly is the satellite itself.
• A beam of waves is sent between the terrestrial and
ground satellite transmitters/receivers.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
1. Satellite waves…Continued/End

Characteristics of satellite waves

• Long-wave transmission
• High speed transmission
• Can pass through barriers

Applications of Satellite waves

• Internet
• GPS
• Missile guiding systems
 Wireless Waves…Continued
2. Infrared waves
• Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a device or system through IR radiation.

How it works
• IR is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer than that of red light.
• In the electromagnetic spectrum, IR radiation lies between microwaves and visible light. So, they can be used as a source
of communication.

Characteristics:

• Long wave than microwave

• Only travels at a line of sight
• Shorter than bluetooth

Applications:

• It is used for security control, TV remote control, and short-range communications

 Wireless Waves…Continued
3. Broadcast Radio waves
How it works:

• Devices such as TV’s and FM/AM radios receive radio waves and convert them to mechanical vibrations in the speaker to
create sound waves.
• Mostly an audio broadcasting service, radio broadcasts sound through the air as radio waves. The radio uses a
transmitter that is used to transmit the data in the form of radio waves to a receiving antenna.
• Radio broadcasting may be done via cable FM, the net, and satellites.
• A broadcast sends information over long distances at up to two megabits/Sec (AM/FM Radio).
Characteristics:
• Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in the EM spectrum,
according to NASA, ranging from about 0.04 inches (1 millimeter) to
more than 62 miles (100 kilometers).
• They also have the lowest frequencies, from about 3,000 cycles per
second, or 3 kilohertz, up to about 300 billion hertz, or 300 gigahertz.
• The radio spectrum is a limited resource – it must be split among users in
the most efficient way
Applications:
• Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation best-known for their use in
communication technologies, such as television, mobile phones and radios.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
4. Microwave
How it works:

• Microwave is a line-of-sight wireless communication technology that uses high frequency beams of radio waves to
provide high speed wireless connections that can send and receive voice, video, and data information.
• Microwave links are are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving antenna. This
allows nearby microwave equipment to use the same frequencies without interfering with each other, as lower frequency
radio waves do. Another advantage is that the high frequency of microwaves gives the microwave band a very large
information-carrying capacity; the microwave band has a bandwidth 30 times that of all the rest of the radio spectrum
below it.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
4. Microwave…Continued/End
• Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-to-point communication systems on the
surface of the Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space radio communications. Other parts
of the microwave radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems, sensor systems, and radio
astronomy.
• The higher part of the radio electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies are above 30 GHz and below 100 GHz, are called
“millimeter waves” because their wavelengths are conveniently measured in millimeters, and their wavelengths range
from 10 mm down to 3.0 mm. Radio waves in this band are usually strongly attenuated by the Earthly atmosphere and
particles contained in it, especially during wet weather. Also, in wide band of frequencies around 60 GHz, the radio waves
are strongly attenuated by molecular oxygen in the atmosphere. The electronic technologies needed in the millimeter
wave band are also much more complex and harder to manufacture than those of the microwave band, hence cost of
Millimeter Wave Radios are generally higher.
Characteristics:

• Uses high frequency beams of radio waves to provide high speed wireless connections
• Small wavelength, hence Point-to-point communication only

Applications:

• voice, video, and data information.

 Wireless Waves…Continued
5. WiFi

• Wi-Fi stands for “wireless fidelity”.

• Wi-Fi is a popular wireless networking technology.
• Wi-Fi was invented by NCR Corporation/AT&T in the Netherlands in 1991.
• By using this technology we can exchange information between two or more devices.
• Wi-Fi has been developed for mobile computing devices, such as laptops, but it is now extensively using for mobile
applications and consumer electronics like televisions, DVD players, and digital cameras.
• It is commonly called a wireless LAN (local area network) – this technology allows local area networks to operate without
cable and wiring.
• It is making a popular choice for home and business networks.
• A computer’s wireless adaptor transfers the data into a radio signal and transfers the data into an antenna for users.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
5. WiFi…Continued
How it works:

• The wireless network operates three essential elements: radio signals, antenna, and router.
• The radio waves are keys that make Wi-Fi networking possible.
• The computers and cell phones are ready with Wi-Fi cards that work as their antenna.
• The router is the transmitter-receiver to connect the local network with other foreign networks
• The radio signals are transmitted from antennas and routers that signals are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers, such as
computers and cell phones that are ready with Wi-Fi cards. Whenever the computer receives the signals within the
range of 100-150 feet for the router, it connects the device immediately.
• The range of the Wi-Fi is depended upon the environment, indoor or outdoor ranges.
• The Wi-Fi cards will read the signals and create an internet connection between the user and the network. The speed of
the device using Wi-Fi connection increases as the computer gets closer to the main source and the speed is decreased
the computer gets further away.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
5. WiFi…End
 Wireless Waves…Continued
6. Bluetooth
How it works:

• Bluetooth technology is a short-range wireless communications technology to replace the cables connecting electronic
devices, allowing a person to have a phone conversation via a headset, use a wireless mouse and synchronize
information from a mobile phone to a PC, all using the same core system.

• Uses short wave RF waves.

• The Bluetooth RF transceiver (or physical layer) operates in the unlicensed ISM band centered at 2.4 gigahertz (the same
range of frequencies used by microwaves and Wi-Fi).

• The core system employs a frequency-hopping transceiver to combat interference and fading.

• Bluetooth devices are managed using an RF topology known as a "star topology." A group of devices synchronized in this
fashion forms a piconet (piconet discussed in detail under chapter GSM), which may contain one master and up to
seven active slaves, with additional slaves that are not actively participating in the network. (A given device may also be
part of one or more piconets, either as a master or as a slave.)

• In a piconet, the physical radio channel is shared by a group of devices that are synchronized to a common clock and
frequency-hopping pattern, with the master device providing the synchronization references.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
6. Bluetooth…Continued
How it works…Continued:

• Let's say the master device is your mobile phone. All of the other devices in your piconet are known as slaves. This could
include your headset, GPS receiver, MP3 player, car stereo, and so on.

• Devices in a piconet use a specific frequency-hopping pattern, which is algorithmically determined by the master device.

• The physical channel (or the wireless link) is subdivided into time units known as slots. Data is transmitted between
Bluetooth-enabled devices in packets that are positioned in these slots. Frequency hopping takes place between the
transmission or reception of packets, so the packets that make up one transmission may be sent over different
frequencies within the ISM band.

• The physical channel is also used as a transport for one or more logical links that support synchronous and asynchronous
traffic as well as broadcast traffic. Each type of link has a specific use. For instance, synchronous traffic is used to carry
hands-free audio data, while asynchronous traffic may carry other forms of data that can withstand more variability in the
timing for delivery, such as printing a file or synchronizing your calendar between your phone and computer.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
6. Bluetooth…Continued
How it works…Continued:

• Bluetooth technology uses the principles of device "inquiry" and "inquiry scan." Scanning devices listen in on known
frequencies for devices that are actively inquiring. When an inquiry is received, the scanning device sends a response
with the information needed for the inquiring device to determine and display the nature of the device that has
recognized its signal.

• Let's say you want to wirelessly print a picture from your mobile phone to a nearby printer. In this case, you go to the
picture on your phone and select print as an option for sending that picture. The phone would begin searching for
devices in the area. The printer (the scanning device) would respond to the inquiry and, as a result, would appear on the
phone as an available printing device. By responding, the printer is ready to accept the connection. When you select the
Bluetooth wireless printer, the printing process kicks off by establishing connections at successively higher layers of the
Bluetooth protocol stack that, in this case, control the printing function.

• Like any successful technology, all of this complexity goes on without the user being aware of anything more than the
task he or she is trying to complete, like connecting devices and talking hands-free or listening to high-quality stereo
music on wireless headphones.
 Wireless Waves…Continued
6. Bluetooth…Continued
 Wireless Waves…Continued
6. Bluetooth…End