Introduction properties of materials and their alloys.

. Mechanical properties Stress strain (and pressure) When solid materials are subject to an external force, they set up internal forces which oppose those applied from outside. A material subject to external forces which tend to stretch that material is said to be in tension (intindere) A material subject to forces that tend to squeeze it is said to be in compression (compresiune) In general, mechanical components are subject to rather complex external loads, which have various magnitudes (valori) and directions. As a result, the internal forces which appear are also ok a complex nature. However, a simple case exists when, elongated (bodies which have a dimension which is one order of magnitude or more larger than the other two dimensions) by this, are subject to external loads which act along this larger dimension. In such a case, which its called uniaxial loading, the internal forces are also acting along this main direction of the body. <drawing,check notebook> If these elongated bodies are cylindrical in nature or they have other shapes where the transverse surface is constant, the internal stresses are strictly along the main dimension along which the load axe, the internal load being constant as any place along this line, an internal stress is calculated, as = = external load / closed section of area <drawing, check notebook> Strain A solid material put under uniaxial tension or compression changes in length. The changing length divided by the original length is called strain and its noted = L / L0. When a body is subject to uniaxial loading, all the dimensions change, as shown above, the main direction can increase / decrease and the cross sectioned area decreases/increases. Strains are calculated for any of the directions.

x = x/x0. y =y/y0. z = z/z0. The ratio between strains in longitudinal and transverse direction is called the Poissons ratio: = - x / z = - y / z. Stress strain diagrams (Hookes law) = tensiuni de stress = deformatii specific when a solid material is subject to a small stress, in uniaxial loading, the resulting strain is proportional to the applied stress and the proportional factor is called elastic modulus (youngs modulus). Drawing, check notebook. =E* Most materials have a young modulus with values in the range of Giga Pa -> 10^9 Pa. One of the most important E: ESteel=210 Giga Pa. If the uniaxial loading test is continued from 0 load to the point where the material is destroyed, several domains can be identified on the stress-strain diagram and several reference values are identified as follows: For moderate loads (the term moderate load depends upon the material being tested) , strain and stress are proportional, so the curve is linear described by Hookes Law. <drawing, check notebook> A certain value of the stress exists, ys, which is called yield strength above which the stress strain diagram is no longer linear and the slope of the diagram decreases and the deformation of the materials above the yield strength are much higher than in the linear domain for the same increase in stress. This second domain for bigger than ys represents the plastic deformation. In a plastic domain the transverse area also reduces until the point where NECKING (gatuire) appears, where the transverse area reduces significantly and after which rupture occurs. The highest value of strength for which the material can still withstand loading without breaking is called the ultimate strength and is noted us.

This type of behavior and this shape of the stress strain curve is common for most metals used for mechanical parts and components. What varies from material to material is the extent of the linear side governed by: Hookes Law, the value of the ys, the value of us, the young modulus value and the way in which transition takes place from the elastic domain to the plastic domain. The behavior of the material in the elastic domain differs significantly from the behavior in the plastic domain. In the elastic domain, where = * E, when the law is removed all the deformations disappear. In the plastic domain, remnant deformation persists even after the external load is removed. <check notebook for drawing> For some materials, it is difficult to identify the limit between the elastic domain and the plastic domain, as a change of the slope between the elastic and plastic domain happens graduant. Therefore, the ys is defined based upon plastic deformations and it is conventionally chosen as the limit stress for which at the unloading the remnant deformation is 0.2%. This value is noted as 0.2 or R0.2 and it represents the for which remnant = 0.002. Hookes law Uniaxial loading (loading along the main dimension of an elongated body) Standard shaped elongated bodies (EPRUVETE) are subject to tension (and/or compression) tests to determine the limits of the mechanical strength of the material, as well as the type of the behavior of the material when subject to loading. <check drawing from notebook> The ends do not play any role in the calculation of the mechanical properties of the material. The mechanical properties (stress and strain) are only calculated using measurements on the central smaller diameter cylindrical part. PHISICS PROPERTIES 1) Mass density =M/V

Variation with respect to temperature

 = 0 ( 1 T), []S.I. = 1/K

cubical thermal expansion coefficient, usually > 0 ,

However, materials exist which have thermal contriction behavior (thermoconstrictive) which becomes smaller when they are heated.

2) Specific gravity -> the ratio between the density of a substance at temperature t1 and the density of a reference substance at a standart temperature t2. S.G = d = material (t1) / ref (t2)

Usually, for many substances ref = H20h at t=4 C

H20h (4) = 999.97 kg/m3.

For this class H20h = 1000 kg/m3. S.G. is usually indicated at = .

For gases dgas = M gas / M air = Molar mass of gas / 28.969 .

The compressive strength (crushing strength) = the maximum stress which a material can withstand without being crushed.

creep = the slow float of a substance (the slow plastic deformation) when subject to a load over extended periods of time, even if the load does not exceed the yield strength of the material. Tcreep ~ 0.5 Tmelt (metals, alloys) Tcreep ~ 0.8 Tmelt (ceramics)

T> Tcreep then the creep phenomena is significant and it should be considered in the design.

Hardness Hardness expresses the resistance of the material to indentation. It is measured by applying a known load to a tool of a defined shape. The material of the tool has to be much harder than the material being tested. Hardness is expressed using empirical hardness numbers which are calculated from measurements of the indentation dimensions. Various hardness scales exist, some of which are presented below:

<check notebook for table>

Hardness scale Vickers hardness

Indenter type 136 pyramid indenter

Test loads Macro Vickers 1 to 120 kgf Micro Vickers 15-500 gf

VHN = 2P sin(/2) * 1/d2 Vickers hardness no# d- diagonal of indentation = 136 P- loading

Rockwell Rockwell A (Extremely hard materials) Rockwell B (medium) Rockwell C (hardened steels and tempered alloys)

Incremental depth of penetration is measured between the indentations caused by diamond cones or steel balls.

65HRC FILE

HRA -> symbol of the scale A

HRB -> symbol of the scale B HRC -> symbol of the scale C Another scale which is used if the Brinell scale BHN (brinell hardness scale) 550 HRB ~ 650 VHN ~55 HRC 550 BHN

Multiples and submultiples 1 pico = 10-12 1 nano = 10-9 1 micro = 10-6 1 mili = 10-3 1 centi = 10-2 1 deci = 10-1 unit 1 deca = 10 1 hecto = 102 1 kilo = 103 1 mega = 106 1 giga = 109 1 terra = 1012 Conversion factors for some English units 1 inch = 1=25.4 mm 1 ft = 12 inch = 0.3058 m 1 yd = 0.9 m = 3 ft 1 land mile = 1609 m

1 lb (pound)= 0.45 kg 1 oz (ounce) = 1/16 lb ( F 32 ) * 5/9= C

Thermal properties 1) The heat capacity the thermal energy required to change the temperature of a body by 1K Q = C * T, [C] = j/K

2) The specific heat capacity (specific heat) = the heat required to change the temperature of 1 kg of substance within certain conditions by 1K. Q = m * cv * Tat constant volume Q = m* cp * T at constant pressure [c] = j / (kg*K) 3) Coefficient of thermo-expansion ( coeficientul de dilatare termica) When a body is subject to heating (or cooling), the dimensions change. The coefficient of thermal expansion expresses the change in size as a result of a temperature change. Various coefficients are defined which express the change in length, the area change, or the change in volume of a body. However, most handbooks (books with materials properties and other basic information) contain the coefficient of thermal expansion which expresses the change in length of an elongated body, subject to heating or cooling. However, even these coefficients are provided in various forms. For this class, the coefficient of thermal expansion of an elongated body will be expressed as L = 1/L0 * dL/dT , [L]S.I. = 1/K. L-L0= L * L0 (T T0) 4) Thermal conductivity When a material is subject to a temperature difference, a heat transfer rate occurs( = heat flux = flow of heat which values in time). Energy in form of heat flows from the high temperature area to the low temperature regions, as imposed by the second law of thermodynamics.

The heat flux is a vector quantity which expresses the way in which the heating flows in time per unit of area. J = Q / (t * A) => [J]s.i.=j/s*m2 = w/ m2 A dependency exists between the heat flux and the variation of temperature in the body, which is expressed by the thermal conductivity coefficient <drawing, check notebook> J = - K * dT/dX, k = thermal conductivity, [k]s.i. = w / (m * K) The thermal conduction is a way of heat transfer in which heat flows through a body substance due to the motion of the atoms. The convection is a way of heat transfer in which heat is exchanged between a solid and a stream of flowing liquid. Radiation is a way of heat transfer due to the electromagnetic waves (ex. the heat from sun to earth)

Material

Melting point C 3500 2400

Thermal conductivity w / (m * K) 900 43

Specific Heat j/(kg*k) 500 690

Diamond Silicone Carbide (carbura de siliciu) Stainless Steel (steel 304) Steel 1010 (otel carbon) Aluminum

Linear thermal expansion /10-6 [1/k] 2.2(l/106 =2.2 => l =2.2*10-6) 4.5

1400 1200 660

15 64 237

480 430 903

17 19 23

Crystallography some basic info A crystal or a crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (atoms, molecules or ions) are arranged in an orderly repeating pattern which expands in all three directions.

From a mathematical perspective, a crystalline structure is described as a lattice which is an infinite set of points generated by a set of discrete translation operations. Consequently, a crystal is made of atoms which repeat at any latice points. The crystal, ideally looks the same when viewed from any of the latice points. A material which has no long range order is called amorphous or vitreous or glassy. The lattices of the cubic system. 1) simple cubic - one atom at any corner of a cube 2) Body centered cubic (BCC) has an additional atom in the centre 3) Face central cubic (FCC): atoms at all of the corners and in the middle of any of the sides. 4) hexagonal latice etc.

Crystallography science which describes crystals and crystal formations. Crystallization process of forming a crystalline structure from a fluid or from materials dissolved into a fluid. Most methods that we use have a crystalline structure and usually the crystalline materials may exist arranged in various latices. It is possible to find several latices for the same substance. The polymorphism is the ability of a solid to exist in more than one crystalline form. Steel, for example, can have various latices in the cubic system; ice is usually found in hexagonal form. For pure chemical substances, the polymorphism is called allotropy. Amorphous substances (amorphous arrangements) can also appear for the same substances, in which case the phenomenon is called poly-amorphism.

During crystallization, the substance undergoes (experiences) a phase change from liquid to solid, beginning with small crystals which grow (expand) until they fuse and begin to form the crystalline structure.

Which crystalline structure will appear depends upon the chemistry of the fluid, the conditions of solidification (especially the rate of heat removal) and pressure. In general, for crystalline structures, the cooling process usually results in generation of the crystalline material.

However, under certain conditions, the fluid may be formed in a non-crystalline state. In most cases, this involves cooling the fluid so rapidly that the atoms cannot travel to their latice sides before they lose mobility. Otherwise, when the liquid is removed at high rates, small crystals appear. When the heat is removed slower, these small crystals can fuse into larger crystalline structures.

This methodology of changing crystalline structures via heating and cooling is widely used in industry for tuning mechanical properties of various materials. The processes are generally referred to as heat treatments. Most industrial-used methods are crystalline and homogenous. The homogeneity expresses the fact that the material has the same properties (mechanical, thermal, electrical and so on) at any point and in any direction. The homogeneity is largely due to the latice structure. Some non-homogeneities appear as irregularities in the latice which are also called crystal defects and they are due, in many cases, to the presence of foreign atoms (residues) or irregularities in cooling. However, the defects are usually uniform distributed in the material, so, overall, the defects caused by residues do not change the homogeneous nature of the material. Other types of non-homogeneities can also appear due to manufacturing processes which use extreme pressure to change the shape of the materials. Such processes (e.g. forging = forjare (ro) or other metal forming) can also produce changes in the shapes of the crystals.

Ferrous materials and their alloys (Iron and STEEL)

The melting temperature

TmeltFe = 1500C

Fe=7800 kg/m3

Pure iron is a soft metal and, in general, it cannot be used for manufacturing mechanical components. Pure iron is only used in applications where its chemical (or electricalo, electromagnetic) properties are important. However, most of the parts used in todays industry are made from iron alloys, especially from Steel. An alloy is a substance composed of two or more materials of a metal and a non-metal, united together by being fused together and dissolved in each other when melted. The most important iron alloys are Steel (otel) and Cast iron (fonta). Steel is by far the most used category of materials nowadays. 1st definition of steel: steel is an alloy of iron, carbon and other elements with less then 2.1% carbon. Above 2.1% C, iron alloys are called cast iron, which contains carbon up to a practical limit of 3.75% Carbon. 2nd definition of steel (modern): today, the older definition of steel is no longer applicable, since in some very important steels such as interstitial free steels (i. f. steels), carbon is considered an impurity and its acceptable on quantities of only a few parts/million. So, in the recent period, steel is defined as an alloy with at least 50% iron which also contains alloying elements which include Carbon, Mn, Ni, Cr, Mo, Vn, Ti, N, O, and A. [I hope its right sadlol] Each of these components place a role in the final properties in the alloy.

Some definitions: 1) Machinability (prelucrabilitate prin aschiere) is a capability of a material to be used in manufacturing processes where the shape of the materials is changed by chip removal. The two main machining processes are turning (strunjire) and milling (frezare). <check drawings on notebook> 2) Workability: capability of a material to be used in manufacturing processes where the shape is changed through plastic deformation. a) Rolling (roluire) b) Forging (forjare): the material stays on something and from the top, something else applies pressure.

3) Hardenability is the capability to achieve a better hardness (duritate) of a material by changing the structure, usually through processes based upon adding and removing heat in special ways. (miscellaneous to-be-remembered stuff) If you go and sell steel scrap, or buy it, youll have an approximate price of 1 ron. if you do the same thing to special steel, the price will be 50-60 times larger. Role of alloying elements in steel 1) Carbon is the most common alloy in steel. The old definition of steel mentioned that steel was an alloy of iron and up to 2.1% carbon. Carbon is an essential alloy element for all plain carbon steel (= ro. otel carbon = steels with very low amounts of alloying elements other than carbon) Low alloy steels = ro. oteluri slab aliate = steels with small amounts of alloying elements (beside Carbon) tool steels (= ro. oteluri de scule) = steels with special mechanic strength and hardenability used for making tools.

Percent carbon added % 0 0.005 0.6 0.8 0.8

Yield strength ys (MPa) 28 190 450 750 1000

Observations

Cooled in the air Cooled in the air With special cooling/heating treatment

Carbon atoms are much smaller than Iron atoms and they usually occupy the space between Iron atoms in the FCC (face-centered-cubic) or the BCC (bodycentered-cubic) crystals, because steel can exist either as BCC or as FCC latices.

2) Manganese The main role of manganese is chemical stabilization of the steel; more specifically, manganese is used to remove the sulphur from the steel. It increases strength but by much less than carbon. However, a special class of steel exists, called AUSTENITIC MANGANESE, when manganese is also used as a chemical and structural stabilizer. This class is used in wear intensive devices

(like rock crushers) becauseit has very good wear rezistance (rezistenta la uzura).

3) Silicon (=ro. siliciu) Its a chemical stabilizer used for elimination of oxygen. The name for it is deoxidizer.

4) Phosphorus is considered a residual element and it is carefully restricted below certarin values which vary according with a type of steel.

5) Sulphur is also a residual element and it is restricted below certain values which vary with the steel type.

6) Copper is another residual element and it is also restricted.

N.B. Special types of steels exist where the desired properties are achieved by adding controlled amounts of residual elements.

7) Nickel is good for hardenability and corrosion resistance. 8) Chromium is good for hardenability and corrosion resistance. 9) Molybdenum is very good for hardenability 10) Vanadium is very good for hardenability. Both Molybdenum and Vanadium are important alloying elements in tool steels. Molybdenum increases creep resistance so it is used for parts which work at high temperature. 11) Tungsten very important in tool steels, as it forms hard components in the steel alloy (tungsten carbide) 12) 13) Aluminum deoxidizer (chemical stabilizer or oxygen removal) Titanium mainly as deoxidizer

14) Nitrogen (= ro. Azot) is used in conjunction with Vanadium to generate high strength in tool steels (it is added to form the vanadium nitrate which gives high strength properties to steels) Some other elements are also used for improving properties of steel, however, their use is beyond the purpose of this class. Here we just mentioned some elements which are most used in industry.

A few elements regarding steelmaking. In nature, iron is essentially combined with various other chemical elements. Out of these chemical combinations, only the iron oxides are commercially used as iron ores (minereu) for commercially obtaining iron. 1) Mining (extraction of ores) 2) Ore concentration through crushing gravitational and electromagnetic processes. (beneficiation to remove gangue, i.e. unwanted substances extracted with the ore) 3) Palletizing: after beneficiation, the materials are in powder form. Substances in powder form generate extremely fast chemical reactions. This powder is agglomerated into bigger pieces of substance called Pallets( ~1 cm in diameter) In industry, the most efficient steel making or iron making process is the blast furnace process which consists in the carbothermic reduction of oxide from the pallets. the most carbothermic reduction means chemical combination of oxygen and carbon in presence of heat. From a mechanical engineering point of view the blast furnace is a counter-current heat and oxygen exchanger in which rising combusting gases lose most of the heat. On their way up while descending metallic ores descend and the iron oxide is reduced to metallic iron. The blast furnace chemically reduces the iron with carbon which is present in the form of coke (=ro. cocs). Coke is a sponge-like organic matter that is reduced from coal by heating the coal to eliminate the organic matter and gases which exist in the coal.

Limestone ( = calcium carbonate = ro. calcar) is added for easier melting and slag (cenusa, zgura). In the process, the slag floats above the melting iron. From the constructive standpoint, the blast furnace is a tall hollow made out of steel on the outside and special refractory bricks and graphite bricks on the inside.

The furnace has 5 sections: a) the throat = ro. gatul b) the stack = ro. curva c) the bosh parallel (the barrel) = ro. pantece d) the bosh = ro. etalaj e) the heart = ro. crevuzet <check notebook for drawing>

The liquid metal resulting from the furnace is called pig iron ( = ro. fonta bruta de turnatorie) Pig iron still contains a relatively important amount of C and impurities, which have to be removed to make steel. The second stage of refining is usually done in the basic oxygen furnace where the melted pig iron is clear of undesired elements by a stream of oxygen. At this stage, alloying elements are also added to achieve the final composition. Next, the material which became stream is solidified in a continuous passing machine. A water cooled mold (like a funnel) is utilized in which in liquid steel is put in and solid steel is continually drawn from the bottom and its cut into various shapes (steel billet, steel slabs (= ro. salbe)) <check notebook for drawing>

The direct reduction iron The blast furnace techniques strongly depend upon availability of coke. For this reason, substitute substances have been invented since the 1950s in which iron poured is reduced without the use of coke. These processes utilize natural gas or coal as a

reductant and they are grouped under the name of direct reduction or smelting reduction iron making. The iron carbon equilibrium diagram Since carbon is a key alloying element for most steels, the basic principles of structural development of steel can be explained using the Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram. The Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram is, essentially, a map of the phases that exist in steel and various carbon-contents and temperatures under equilibrium conditions (or under steady-state conditions). The term equilibrium (steady state) refers to a situation where variables describing the state do not vary in time or they vary very slowly. this case when the variation is slow Is also called CVASI STEADY STATE and from a mathematical perspective can be, in many cases treated as steady-state. <check notebook for important drawing>

Between the melting T (1540C) and the room temperature, iron undergoes three phase changes. I. II. III. Room temp -> 912 C 912 C -> 1394 C 1394 C -> 1540 C Fe = Ferrite Fe = AUSTENITE Fe B.C.C. F.C.C. B.C.C.

The maximum solubility of C in steel is 2.11%. Any amount in excess of this value is rejected from the solid solution and it usually combines with iron into a form of ceramic, called CEMENTITE (Fe3C) which has 6.7% C. Cementite (=ro. cementite) is an iron carbide which is extremely hard and brittle. Iron, in nature, is a very soft metal. When small amounts of Carbon are added, it first settles between the iron grains (crystals) which leads to increase the resistance of steel. If more carbon is added, it settles at the boundaries of the grains. <check notebook for important drawings otherwise you wont understand much here> If even increasing amount of C is added, a constituent appears (PEARLITE) which consists of layers of cementite and layers of ferrite.

This arrangement of hard layers of cementite between soft layers of ferrite has very strong, very good mechanical properties. <check notebook for drawing> This kind of arrangement allows the crystal to withstand very hard loads. <check notebook for drawing>

Departure from equilibrium (real world) Industrial processes very rarely occur at equilibrium, and only those that take place at extremely slow heating and cooling rates can be considered near equilibrium, and they are quite rare consequently, under real conditions, the iron-carbon diagram can only be used as a rough guidance. At high cooling rates, the transformations are described by the time-temperature transformation diagrams. At high cooling rates, new constituents appear, such as: 1) BAINITE ( = ro. bainita ), which consists of ferrite with small cementite particles. 2) MARTENSITE (=ro. martensita) which appears in quenched steels (= oteluri calite) and is a form of ferrite supersaturate of C. It is very hard and brittle, so the quenched steels are also very hard and brittle. In the structure, martensite appears as big V-s <check notebook for drawings> The heat treatment in steel One of the most important characteristics of steel is the ability to change the microstructure through heat addition and removal ( = heat treatment). Different microstructural constituents can be produced in this manner and each constituent gives various properties to the steel. For example: permittive microstructures have superior wear properties permittive microstructures have high strength and toughness martensitic structures are very hard and brittle

The main types of heat treatment:

1) quenching ( = ro. calire ) consists of heating the steel into the austenite phase and fast cooling by submerging in oil/water. Rates of heat removal in water are higher than similar rates in oil. 2) Tempering ( = ro. revenire) Quenched steels are heated close to the Utectoid Temperature of 730C and cooled slowly to improve the ductility. 3) Annealing (= ro. recoacere) is used to soften steel and improve ductility. The steel is heated into the lower region of the austenite fied and cooled slowly to the room temperature. 4) Normalizing (= ro. normalizare) The steel is heated into the austenite region and the temperatures which are higher than the Annealing temp. 5) Spheroidizing (nobulizare, globulizare) Requires heating just below temp heating holding that exact temperature for extended time and slow cooling. This treatment generates in the softest possible conditions. This process brakes down lamellar pearlite into spheroids or cementite. 6) Process Annealing (recrystallization annealing) The steel is heated just below the intectoid temperature and is cooled slowly. 7) Stress Relieving (detensionare) The steel is heated to temperatures approaching 730C to relieve residual stresses which might exist due to various manufacturer processes, or stresses which exist following the plastic deformation.

Mechanical treatments The properties of the steel depend upon the crystalline structure; changing this structure by mechanical means can also improve properties of steel. The mechanical treatments consist of applying high pressure on the steel which give a preferred orientation to the crystals and helps reducing eventual crystalline defects in the material. Various constituents which improve the properties of steel can also be arranged better in the structure with mechanical treatments.

<check notebook for drawing> Thermo-mechanical treatments The thermo-mechanical treatments consist of combining plastic deformation occurred in mechanical treatments with heat treatment cycles to improve the properties of values higher that values obtainable through thermal treatment or mechanical treatment alone.

Thermo-chemical treatments Applications exist where it is not desirable that the part has the same composition everywhere. For some applications it is desired to have a relatively soft and ductile core surrounded by a very hard boundary. This can be obtained by changing the structure just at the surface of the material through various chemical reactions at high temperatures. Examples: 1) Carburizing (carburare) 2) Nitrurizing (nitrurare) 3) Carbo nitrurizing (carbonitrurare) cyaniding In all of these processes the steel is heated at elevated temperatures, which is specific to every process and the surface is brought in contact with various chemical regions. This treatment usually creates a roughly 1 mm thick layer of hard material at the surface of the parts which are subject to the treatment.

Elements regarding classifications and specifications of steels.

1000 of different steels are commercially available sp a complete classification is very difficult to make. An elementary classification -> based upon SAE/AISI i. carbon steel (=ro. oteluri carbon)

iron - carbon manganese, cheapest and the most used, typically maximum value of Yield strength ys ~ 1 GPA.

ii.

Special low carbon steels Carbon is considered an impurity. The amount of Carbon is strictly controlled and kept as small as possible. Example: interstitial free (FF) steel, very high capability to be deformed plastically, used for parts which require important plastic deformation.

iii.

Alloy steel ( = ro. oteluri aliate) 1. Low alloy steels - Yield strength ys up to 1.8 GPA. 2. Higher alloy steels a. Stainless steels ( corrosion resistance steels with more than 10% Cr) Most used stainless steel is 18-8: 18% Cr, 8% Ni. b. Tool steels steels with Cr, Ma, V, W, Ca used to make tools. They have high mechanical properties: mechanical strength and good hardenability.

IV.

Heat Resistance Steels Note: for the common C steel, the temperature limit for usual longtime operation is ~ 350C, after which the oxidation of the steel becomes semnificant and the mechanical properties diminish as well. High resistance steels exist which can be used up to 500 - 600C.

V.

Wear resistance steels (Austenitic Manganese Steels) Ultra high strength steel ( maroging steels ) : Yield strength ys up to 2.5 GPA, used for missiles and aircraft components Music wire: the steel with the highest Yield strength ys available ~ 5 GPA.

(to keep in mind) Music wire is regular carbonated ( SI 10 x 10) which is subject to a mechanical treatment to change it into a wire whose internal structure offers no defects and optimal orientation on the structure. The process is called patenting + cold drawning.

Aluminum alloys Aluminum is the most unbounded metal and the 13th element in the earth crust (I think). It is obtained of (blank space) using electrolytic reduction.

Advantages and disadvantages of Al: 1) low density 2700 kg/m3 2) melting temperature 500C 3) high strength/weight ratio ( high strength alloys have Yield strength ys comparable to carbonsteel). 4) Good fatigue strength (good capability to withstand cyclic loading)

Note: for any material, the behavior under cyclic conditions is different than the behavior under static loading conditions. In static conditions, parts behave well if internal stresses are below the Yield strength ys. In the case of cyclic loading, all the materials fail after a certain number of loading/unloading cycles, even if the maximum values of the internal stresses which appear is much lower than the Yield strength ys of the material. The failure mechanism in the cyclic loading is called fatigue. In cyclic loading, the ratio between the Loading and ys plays an significant role in the fatigue strength of the parts. A high Loading / ys ratio would generate a part which can withstand less cycles than a part which is similar but has a low Loading / ys value.

5) Low modulus of elasticity, which grants a higher capability to absorb mechanical energy upon deformation.

6) Good workability Aluminum alloys have good capability related to manufacturing via plastic deformation. 7) Good machinability. 8) Ease of joining (usurinta in asamblare ) through various processes: welding ( sudura), brazing (lipire cu material metalice), bolting (asamblare cu suruburi), glueing (lipire cu adezivi plastici), riveting (nituire). 9) Ease of casting (for certain alloys) 10) Good corrosion resistance.

Note: Aluminum and Aluminum alloys which are subject to axidating conditions produce a very thin and very adherent layer of Aluminum oxide which is impenetrable to air and prevents further oxidation of the material. Consequently, the Aluminum parts have a very good resistance to corrosion.

11) 12) 13)

Wide array of surface finishes available Good reflectivity Good behavior (property improvements) after heat treatments.

Limits of Aluminum alloys: 1) Low modulus of elasticity which causes higher deformation under load (than the materials with high E) l = N * l0 / (E * A)

2) Melting temperature ~1000 F (~537 C) 500 F temperatura medie de folosinta pt majoritatea materialelor.

Note: Teflon 0 limit of use 500 F. Consequently, the temperature operation for most Aluminum parts is below 200 - 250C.

Certain Aluminum alloys used in aerospace.

Various classes of Aluminum alloys exist which are made for other industries than the aerospace industry. Such Aluminum alloys have, in most cases, properties which do not make them suitable for aerospace applications, even if they are much cheaper than aircraft aluminum. The main classes of high-strength Aluminum alloys: a) Series 2000 which is also designated as 2XXX (Cu-Al alloys). Heat treatable good behavior is achieved after quenching; (name = age hardening imbatranire). Good machinability

Commercial names: DURALUMIN (OBSOLETE), DURAL (OBSOLUTE). uts up to 450 MPa. Note: Duralumin is the trade-name of one of the earliest types of class 2000 Aluminum alloys. In the early 20th century it was discovered that, after quenching, Aluminum with 4% Cupper would slowly harden when left at room temperature. Further improvements of the material led to the introduction of what it was called DURALUMIN. Series 2000 alloys are used for aircraft wing and fuselage structures and skin.

Aluminum 4XXX series. Al Si very good for cast parts (good flow properties when melted) used for piston engine (reciprocating engine), components (e.g. cylinders).

Aluminum 7XXX series. Al Zn Cu Mg Commercial names: ZICRAL (or Ergal, Foral, Constructal, Almec)

It has the highest mechanical strength of all Aluminum alloys. It is used for highly stressed components of wings and bodies. Difficult to weld and it is mostly used for riveted structures ( = asamblate prin nituire). Ultimate tensile strength uts ~ 600 MPa. Zicral was invented in Japan in the late 1930s and it was first used on a massive base for the japanesse fighter Zero. The widest applications of the series 7XXX Al alloys is for aircraft industry and for highly stressed wing and fuselage components. Aluminum 8XXX series (other alloys, not included in the previous classes). For aerospace, there is an Aluminum Lithium (Al- Li) alloy which belongs to this class. Some examples of uses of various Al alloys for aircraft components. Mirrors: high purity Aluminum. Wing structures and body parts: series 2XXX or series 7XXX if highly stressed. Tanks of various types: series 2XXX; for highly stressed parts, series 7XXX. Components where high elastic modulus is important: series 8XXX. Piston components: series 4XXX.

Magnesium alloys

Mg = 1700 kg/m3

Tmelt ~ 650 C

Magnesium is a very abundant element in nature (2.7% of the Earths crust). It exists in nature as chemical combinations (Mg carbonates, magnesite, dolomite). A major source of Magnesium is sea water. The common perception is that magnesium is highly flammable. However, Magnesium is only flammable when melted, so it is only dangerous if it exists as powder or thin sheets or small chips which can melt when subject to low amount heat, for example, from a cigarette, and the drops of liquid Magnesium would catch fire and melt more Magnesium powder, which in turn, catches fire, and so on. Solid Magnesium such as in finished parts is harmless.

Magnesium alloys are attractive for aerospace applications due to properties such as: good mechanical strength at several hundred degrees temperature, good fatigue strength, and damping (capability to diminish vibrations). Magnesium parts are easily fabricated by most traditional metal forming process: casting (turnare) forging (forjare) machining (prelucrabilitate prin aschiere). Magnesium is the easiest method machining. It requires less power for removing a given volume of metal by machine than any others commonly available method. Magnesium parts can be joint by most traditional methods: riveting bolting welding in inert gas adhesive bonding. For example, the sixth engine American bomber B036 had around 6 tons of Magnesium sheets attached to the frame of wings and fuselage by adhesives. A limit of mechanical strength for Magnesium alloys uts ~ 300 MPa. Examples of uses of Magnesium alloys for aircraft: Skin of wing and fuselages. Gearboxes. Housings ( a structure which holds something in place) Oil baths Boxes of electronic equipment.

Titanium alloys

=4500 kg/m3 Tmelt = 1660C

E ~ 100 GPa Operational temperature up to 700C

The main advantages for aerospace applications are uts / better than for steel. Its got high mechanical properties comparable to steel and smaller than steel. The main disadvantage is related to the fact that titanium alloys are very hard to machine. This is a very important limitation because at the current stage of technology, high precision parts can only be made via machining. Titanium alloys have metallurgical characteristics that make them more difficult to machine than steels of comparable hardness. In welding or machining of Titanium, the effects of energy input (heat or deformation energy which can also change into heat) on the microstructure and properties of the final Titanium alloy product must be very carefully considered. Many Titanium alloys can burn (combust) if certain temperature coefficients are exceeded. Here is required in machining and in storing scrap. The properties of Titanium alloys, also developed for many years, are not normally well documented in literature. Moreover, even if such data were widely available, the alloy selector must be very careful because even apparently minor changes in chemistry or in processing operations such as forging conditions, heat treatment and so on can significantly affect properties of Titanium alloys. All the property data for Titanium alloys should be verified for the actual manufacturing specifications and processing conditions expected. Standard organizations may publish information regarding Titanium alloys but additional design data must be obtained from the manufacturers of the alloy. The ultimate tensile strength uts for Titanium alloys go up to 1200 MPa. Most published data regarding Titanium alloys refers to an alloy with the chemical composition Ti 6Al 4V (titanium 6 aluminum 4 vanadium). Titanium, same as Iron, has two crystal structures. The first one is BCC (body centered cubic) and is designated as - Titanium. The other one is HPC (hexagonal closed packed) and is designated as - Titanium. Various near , near , or - structures also exist. The values from the Young modulus of Titanium varies with the structure from about 90 GPa to almost 120 GPa. The grain size and grain boundary arrangement have a very significant influence over the mechanical properties.

Single-piece forged gas turbine fan, fan compressors and turbine discs are the main applications for Titanium alloys. Fan blades and compressor blades of Titanium are under continuous development in spite of recent progresses in the area of the composed materials. Titanium is also preferred in some applications related to engine components because it also has a very good resistance to corrosion. Titanium alloys usually behave much better than Stainless Steel when subject to a relatively large class of corrosive agents. By and large, most parts manufactured from Titanium which are used in industry (and most Titanium parts are used in aerospace industry) are wrought(deformate plastic), in particularly forged. Machining of this part is kept to a minimum. Most Titanium alloys which are used for aerospace applications belong to the alloys. Welding of Titanium is possible via processes like plasma welding, laser beam welding or in protective in inert gas atmosphere.

A few things to know about the structure of a gas turbine of a jet engine: <check notebook for drawing>

The main components of a jet engine are the compressor, the burning chamber and the turbine. In the beginning, before the engine is started, an external power source is used to rotate the compressor and the turbine which works together with the compressor. The compressed air which is created enters into the burning chamber and additional energy is provided to the air due to the burning fuel. This creates even a higher pressure and the hot gasses which leave the burners rotate the compressors and the external power source used in the beginning to start the engine is no longer needed. The amount of fuel which is provided is increased and the additional energy provided to the working fluid (air) can accelerate the turbine and they can also provide an axial load pushes the turbine forward. Temperatures in a gas turbine are extremely high, even in the so-called cold area (ex: the compressor) of the engine at the end of which temperatures reach 500C. In the burners, temperatures can reach 1200C and in the turbine, temperatures diminish by a few hundred degrees which finally lead to a temperature of about 900C.

Ball bearings exist which support the shafts. The most steel materials arent suitable for turbine parts because regular steels have limitations due to oxidation and diminishing of mechanical strength at high temperatures. Stainless steels do not have high enough mechanical strength and special steels which have good mechanical properties have limitations due to corrosion at high temperatures. Titanium can be used for certain components (e.g. for compressor discs), but it has limitations because it is very difficult to machine. Consequently, other classes of materials have been produced, which offer good mechanical behavior and good corrosion resistance at high temperatures and they can also be machined such that the high accuracies needed in the jet engine components can be respected. These materials are generically called Super Alloys. Sometimes, theyre called Ni-Super alloys, since Nickel is a major component of some of these classes of super alloys. However, super alloys exist which are based upon other materials than Nickel.

Super alloys For the purpose of this class, super alloys are those iron-nickel, nickel- and cobalt- based corrosion resistant alloys which are generally meant to be used above nominal temperatures of 550C (~1000F). Other definitions exist which do not include the iron-nickel alloys in the super alloys because the iron nickel alloys are essentially an extension of the stainless steels.

A few words regarding the behavior of metals at high temperatures: For short periods of time, the behavior at high temperatures is identical to the behavior at low temperatures, but the values of the ys and uts are small. Over extended periods of time, plastic deformations occur, even if values of stresses which are significantly lower than ys yield strength and in time, the material can fail completely and rupture occurs. Consequently, for the materials which are meant to work at high temperatures, the values of the mechanical properties are indicated together with the time for which the material can withstand the respective stress without rupture. For example, what the ys is for 100 hours, 1000 hours etc. From historical perspective, super alloys have been developed since WW2.

A few classes of Super Alloys

Ni - Cu: sold under commercial name MONEL and used for propeller shafts. Nickel Chromium Iron: sold under commercial name INCONEL.

Various classes of Inconel exist which are used for jet engine components which work at high temperature. Its probably the main class of materials which is used for jet engine components. The main Inconel materials used in aerospace are: Inconel 718 and Inconel X750. Inconel exhibits good fatigue strength at temperatures up to 700C; it has good corrosion resistance and parts of it can be manufactured both via plastic deformation (material has good workability) and via various machining processes. Some of the Inconel alloys have better mechanical strength at low temperatures, while others can preserve better the mechanical properties at high temperatures Material Inconel 600 Inconel 601 Room temperature * uts 112 KSI 102 KSI [MP]=KSI * 6.895

1KSI = 1000lb/inch2

Material 1400C Inconel 600 Inconel 601 14.5 28

1000 hours rupture stress (KSI) 1500C 3.7 6.2 1800C 1.5 2.2

Nickel Iron Chronium super alloys Sold under the commercial name of INCOLOY. Others are sold under the commercial name Pyromet or Refractalloy (replacement for Inconel X750 turbine components).

Nickel Iron super alloys Have lower expansion coefficients, sold as INCOLOY or Ni-Span.

Nickel Chromium- Molybdenum, sold under the commercial name HASTEALLOY (or RENE, WASPALLOY)

Various info regarding super alloys can be found in the open literature, however slight changes in properties and heat treatment can generate significant change of properties. Therefore, super alloys selection can only be properly made after consulting the data from the manufacturers.

Registered Trademarks of super alloys:

Hastelllog Incoloy Rene Rene 41 Waspalloy

Haynes Int. Special Metals Corporation General Electric Company Allwtc Metals Corp (CRED) United Aircraft Corporation

PLASTIC MATERIALS This class of materials includes synthetic polymers which are man-made substances, more and more used as replacement of natural materials such as wood,

glass and metals, which require mining, refining and other processing before they can be used in manufacture. Various classes of polymers exist, which can perform better than natural materials for various applications. Moreover, the use of plastics can also increase significantly the productivity. For example, an item made of several leather that require separate fabrication can be often made of one or two plastic parts.

HW 1) Choose, for each class of materials, the alloy with the highest ys . 2) Calculate ys / for these alloys and show the alloy with the highest ys /.

Thermosetting plastics (=ro. Materiale termo-rigide) are set (cured) (=ro. Polimerizate) or hardened into a permanent shape. The curing which usually occurs under heat or UV (ultraviolet) light leads to an irreversible cross-linking of the polymer. Thermoplastics do not set or cure under heat. When heated, thermoplastics soften to an almost flowing state where they can be shaped into objects. Upon cooling, thermoplastics harden and hold their shape. Thermoplastics can be repeatedly soften by heat and shaped. Thermoplastic materials are usually sold in granular shape. Thermosetting materials are sold in solid form as raw materials of standard shapes. The rows of thermosets are shaped into useful objects by regular machining processes which are used for metals.

Examples of plastic materials used in aerospace field

1) Polymethylmetacrylate

PMMA

Transparent thermoplastic; also generally called acrylic. It has good optical clarity. Commercial names: PLEXIGLAS, Gabrieli, Vitroflex, Perspex etc.

Used for aviation canopies and windows. It was developed in 1928.

2) Polyamids (NYLON) Semicrystaline thermoplastics, high chemical resistance, high mechanical strength, high hardness. a) Semiaromatic Polyamides (PA6/61, PA61/6T): high heat applications (radiator ventilators, fuel supply system components) electrical components (sockets, other aerospace components). b) Aromatic Polyamides (PPTA, MPTA): difficult to melt, spun into a fibers used into various woven components, or used to add strength to a matrix of a weaker plastic.

3) Polycarbonates (PC) Thermoplastics Very high clarity (transparency) High impact strength High dimensional stability Used for aircraft interiors, CDs, DVDs, ophthalmic applications (lenses)

HIGH PERFORMANCE PLASTIC MATERIALS High mechanical strength Used as replacements for metals on ceramics

1) Polyphelinylene Sulfide (PPS) Semi crystalline High heat resistance

High abrasion resistance (only small amounts are removed while running another material) Low friction coefficient Stable up to 220C Used for parts which experience rubbing and friction Ex: Bearing bushings (=ro. Cuzineti si lagare)

Note regarding bearings Various machine components exist which execute spinning or rotation motion. These components have to be held on the machines by machine components which must be strong enough to hold the rotating parts, must allow the rotating motion and also must have small friction coefficients (to avoid the waste of energy). The machine components which fulfill this task are called bearings. Two main classes of bearings exist: 1) Rolling elements bearings (=ro. lagare cu rostogolire, rulmenti) The rotating part is called shaft (=ro. Fus, rotor, arbore); it is supported into various circular elements which rotate together with the shaft. <check drawing in notebook> 2) Hydrodynamic bearings (=ro. Lagare hidrodinamice, lagare cu alunecare, lagare hidromecanice) The shaft is held in place in a cylindrical container and it floats, due to hydrodynamic forces which appear in the oil which fills the gap between the shaft and the container (the cylinder, which is called bearing bushing [=ro. cuzineti] )

<check notebook, drawing> As mentioned above, bearing bushings have to provide both mechanical strength to hold the shaft in place and low friction. However, in general, materials which provide high strength cannot provide low friction and viceversa. Consequently, bearing bushings are often made by layers of materials with various properties.

<check notebook, drawing> In the name of the bearing bushings, the name bearing is, in the most times used alone, the word bushing is in many cases omitted. The anti-friction material is often deposited in a very thin layer which can be sometimes just a few tenths of microns thick. For this reason, such thin antifriction layers are called COATINGS. The PPS and similarly, other anti-friction materials can be applied oth as a coating, and as a thicker later with the thickness comparable to that of the high strength material. Due to its high material strength, it is also possible for some applications to have the entire bushing material PPS. Temperature limits for PPS - 220C.

Florinated Thermoplastics

1) PTFE (Commercially TEFLON) Polytetraflorideethilene Good mechanical properties at high temperature Low friction coefficient Low abrasion rates (good abrasion resistance) Used for high temperature pipes Used for bearing coatings Temperature limits for PTFE and most high temp resistance plastics: 500F ~ 250C (for long term)

2) Polyvinyl floride (PVF) Anti-soiling properties UV resistance Used for aircraft interior protective coatings.

3) Polytheremides (PEI) High strength Very tight moldingtolerances (bune proprietati la turnare) Small smoke generation Heat resistant to 200C Used for interiors: trays etc.

Aromatic polyketons (PEK, PEEK) Semicrytalline thermoplastics High mechanical strength Very good high temperature resistance Flame resistance Very good friction and wear behavior Among the highest tensile strength of plastics: PEEK 200 MPa. Used for bearings, fuel valves, ducting; ~ 2ooC

Thermosettings examples of applications Thermosettings resins are used in molten air navigation parts. They are generally usd in composite materials, filled with various reinforcing materials (chips and fibers of various lengths) Once cured, the polymers cannot be reprocessed or reshaped. The process of reinforcing materials and the high cross linking density (the complex interconnections of the plastic molecules) generate high density and high rigidity materials/

1) Epoxy resins exhibit hardness, strength, heat resistance, good electrical properties and broad chemical resistance. In aerospace, epoxy resins are used in high strength composites to build aircraft structure components; 2) Unsaturated polyesters Glass fiber unsaturated polyesters are commonly referred to as sheet molding compound SMC or reinforced plastic. Similarly, bulk molding compound BMC is formulated similar to SMC, except that inch chopped glass is used as a filler. The uses: aircraft parts which require less strength than the high strength using epoxy composites reinforced with woven fibers. 3) Elastoners class of polymeric resins with properties similar to rubber; important to use at high temperatures SILICON RUBER (=ro. Calciu siliconic) which can withstand temperatures up to 500 F. Used for GASKETS (=ro. Garnituri) and sealing elements (=ro. Etansare)

CERAMIC MATERIALS Engineering ceramics include materials with very special combinations of physical chemical, electrical, optical and mechanical properties. Ceramics include materials that have the highest melting points the highest elastic modulus, the highest hardness, the highest erosion resistance known. However, these beneficial factors are counter-balanced by brittleness and vulnerability to thermal and mechanical shocks. Consequently, design of machines and parts which includes ceramics require exceptional experience and expertise. A few ideas regarding the manufacturing of ceramics.

Includes three stages:

1) The powder stage, in which the chemical components that ceramic I made of is produced in form of powder and its refined and it is deposited into shapes which resemble somehow the shape of the final product. 2) The green stage (the green body stage) The powders are pressed, otherwise shaped into an object which is much closer than the final product. However, it still includes an important amount of corosity and it is extremely frail. This objects called the green body and it is built using various pressing techniques and using either dry or wet powder according to the chemical composition. 3) The hot stage (the burning stage) In the final stage, the green body is toughened in a series of processes which utilize various combination of heat and pressure. If only heat is applied, the process is called sintering (=ro. Sinterizare)