PHONETICS: THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE

Phonetics is study how speech sound, consonants and

vowels, stress and intonation
- Writing down each sound by using the phonetic
alphabet is called phonetic transcription
- The English consonant: follow 3 aspects (voicing,
place of articulations, manner of articulations)
+ voicing: are the vocal folds vibrate or not? -> voiced
(vibrate) & voiceless (not vibrate)
+ place of articulation (vị trí phát âm): where in the
mouth is the airstream most obstructed?
Bilabial (âm 2 môi): p,b,m,w
Labiodental (âm răng môi): f,v
Interdental (lưỡi đặt giữa 2 răng): ð, θ
Alveolar (âm nướu răng): t,d,s,z,n,l,r
Palatal (âm ngạc cứng): ʃ, tʃ, j, dʒ, ʒ
Velar (âm ngạc mềm): k, g, ŋ
Glottal (âm thanh hầu): ?, h
+ manner of articulations (cách thức phát âm):
How or which way is the airstream obstructed?
Stop (âm chặn): p,b,t,d,k,g,?
 Fricative (âm xát): f,v, ð, θ, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h
Affricative (âm tắc xát): tʃ, dʒ
Nasals (âm mũi): m, n, ng
Liquid (âm chảy): l (lateral liquid), r
(retroflex liquid)
Glide (âm lướt): w, y

bilabial labiodental interdental alveola palatal velar glottal

r
Stops
Voiceless p t
voiced d K ?
b
g
Fricative
Voiceless f θ
Voiced v ð
S
Z
ʃ h
ʒ
Affricate tʃ
Voiceless dʒ
voiced
Nasals
Voiceless
voiced m n ng
Liquid
Lateral l
retroflex r
Glide
Voiceless
voiced w y
- The English vowels
+ tongue heigh: high, mid, low
+ tongue advancement: front, central, back
+ lip rounding: spread, rounded
+ tenseness: tense (great tension: sử dụng nhiều sức
hơn), lax (less tension: ít sức hơn)
- Diphthongs = a vowels + a glide (w,y)
- Rule of stress in English:
+ the morphological structure of a word (e.g: simple:
contain root/ complex (containing a root “plex” and
affixes “com-“)
+ The grammatical category (loại từ)
+ the number of syllables of a word (số phiên âm)
+ the phonological structure (cấu trúc âm vị)

PHONOLOGY: THE SOUND OF PATTERN OF

LANGUAGE
- Phonology is study of pattern (mẫu) of sound in a
language
+ to discover the sound pattern
 + to find out the general principles (nguồn gốc) that
underlie (làm nền tảng) the pattern of sound across
the languages
- Phonemes : đơn vị nhỏ nhất của âm thanh (phiên
âm)
- Allophones: 1 âm nhưng có những phát âm khác
nhau
Three allophones of english /t/:
+ t^h (kí hiệu bật hơi ‘aspirate’) : in word initial (ban
đầu) position e.g: trap, tea,..
+ t : afer “s” e.g: still, strong, stamp
+ r (còn gọi là flap d) -> between a stressed vowel
and an unstressed vowel e.g: bitter, little, water,..
- Distribution of phonemes: tick – pick -> nếu thay đổi
“t” và “p” thì nghĩa sẽ thay đổi
 Minimal pair : cặp âm tối thiểu
- Distribution of allophones: ko thể tạo ra từ mới
- Phonological rule = phonological representation
+ phonemic representation : phonemes
Assimilation: a sound more similar to a
neighborhood sound
. regressive: a sound influences its preceding sounds
. pregressive: ngược lại
 Dissimilation: a sound more different to a
neighborhood sound
Insertion: a sound is inserted -> in past sentence
Deletion: a sound is deleted
Metathesis: the other sound is reversed (đảo ngược)
-> đổi trật tự âm thanh trong 1 từ e.g: spaghetti /spə
ˈɡet.i/ ->/ pəsˈɡet.i/ ->đổi trật tự của âm thanh
trong 1 từ
Strengthening(fortition): a sound becomes stronger
-> only for voiceless stop
Weakening(lenition): a sound become weaker
+ phonetic representation: allophones
- The internal (nội bộ) structure of syllables
+ a syllable consists of a single vowel, which acts as
the nucleus -> called minimum syllable
+ onset + nucleus
+ nucleus + coda
+ onset + rime (nucleus + coda)
- Remember: consonant (phụ âm) viết tắt : C
Vowel (nguyên âm) viết tắt: V
e.g: a (V), an (VC), hand (CVCC),…
- derivation: create a new word by change word class
- inflection : create a new form of word without changing
word class
- content morphemes (nghĩa)
+ free content: can stand alone e.g: cat, house,..
+ bound content: can not stand alone, need affixes ->
derivational affixes -> change word class, meaning
- Function morphemes (chức năng ngữ pháp)
+ free function: can stand alone e.g: this, that, the,
and,at..
+ bound function: can not stand alone -> inflectional
affixes -> not change word class, reflect grammar e.g: -
ed, -s, ..
- Morphological progress:
+ affixation: adding a base and an affix
+ compounding: combining 2 or more existing word
+ alternation: substituting (thay thế) one segment (bộ
phận) for another e.g: plural noun, past tense (change
in vowels)/ change in spelling: teeth -> teethe
+ suppletion: creating a new word completely different
from its base -> all most in past tense
+ reduplication: doubling
 + convertion (functional shift): create a new word by
converting (biến đổi) the grammatical category with
out changing its form, not add any affixes -> zero
derivation
+clipping: shortening a word
+ blending: combine first part of 1 word + final part of
another word
+ backformation: removing an affix from a word
+ acronyms (đọc từ viết tắt thành 1 từ) & initialism
(đọc từ chữ cái): e.g NASA, UNESCO, RAM (arconyms)
GPA, UFO (initialism)
+stress and toneplacement
+onomatopoeia (từ tượng thanh)
+ coinage: đọc tên thương hiệu bt nói về product gì
+ borrowing (từ mượn)

SYNTAX: THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

- Syntax is study of the construction of sentences
(organization of words and phrases in sentences)
  There is no limit on the number of word in the
sentence
- Word class= syntactic categories = grammatical
categories
- What is syntax? -> the component (cấu tạo) of the
grammar which is concerned with speakers’s
knowledge of the rules governing (quản lí) the way
sentences are constructed
- Lexical categories: N(noun), V(verb), A(adjective),
Adv(adverb)
- Non-lexical categories:
+ DET (determiners): the, this, some, several
Articles: a, an, the
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those..
Possessive: my, your, his, her..
Quantifiers: every, always,..
Numerals: 1, 2…
+ Aux (auxiliary verbs): will, should, can, must..
Primary auxiliary verbs: to be, to have, to get..
Modal auxiliary verb: may, might,…
+ P (prepositions): near, behind,..
+ Con (conjunctions): and, but, or,…
Coordinating conjunctions: fanboys,..
 Subordinating conjunctions: therefore, after,
because…
+ Deg (degree): very, so, too, quite..
+ Qual (qualifiers): often, sometimes..
+ Pro (pronouns): It, I, himself…
Personal pro (đại từ nhân xưng)
Reflexive pro (đại từ phản thân): myself, itself,..
Reciprocal pro (đại từ chỉ sự tương trợ): each
other, one another
Demonstrative pro (đại từ chỉ định): this, these,
that,..
Indefinite pro (đại từ bất định): one, someone,
anyone..
Relative pro (đại từ quan hệ): who, whom,
which,..
Interrogative pro (đại từ nghi vấn): who, what,..
- Lexical categories= meaning (semantics)+ inflection
(morphological)+ distribution phân bổ (syntactic
properties)
+ meaning (semantics):
N: entities (individuals and objects) thực thể
V: events (actions, sensations cảm xúc, and
states tình trạng)
 A: properties of the entities denoted by noun -
>đặc điểm tính chất
Adv: properties of the entities denoted by verb -
> cách thức xảy ra hoạt động như thế nào
- Inflection (morphological):
- Distribution (syntactic properties)
- Subcategories of N
+ countable N (count Ns)
+ uncountable N (non-count Ns, Mass nouns)
+ abstract Ns (danh từ trừu tượng): những danh từ
ko cảm nhận được bằng mắt, giác quan
- Subcategories of verbs:
+ instrasitive verbs (nội động từ): He slept soundly
+ trasitive verbs (ngoại động từ): I read a newspaper
+ ditransitive verbs (động từ có 2 tân ngữ): she gave
me(indirect object tân ngữ gián tiếp) some money
(direct object tân ngữ trực tiếp)
+Linking verb: they look angry -> V + adj
- Subcategories of adjectives:
+stative adjs: more permanent (lâu dài) -> quantities,
not occur in the progressive aspect e.g: he is being
very tall -> câu này sai nhma là stative adjs
 +non-stative adjs: occur in the progressive aspect,
used in imperative sentence (câu mệnh lệnh) e.g: he
is being very kind
- Subcategories of adverbs:
+manner advs: expressing the manner of an event
(cách thức)
+ time and location advs: expressing place and time
+ sentence advs: expressing the speaker’s judgement
or feeling about an entire (toàn bộ) event
+ epistemic advs: expressing truth, falsity (giả định),
probability(xác suất), or possibility (khả năng)
*(Ph) : prepositional phrase
- Noun phrases: (DET)(A)(N)N(Ph)(Cl)
- Verb prases: (Aux)(Qual)V(Ph)(Cl)
- Adjective phrase: (Deg)/(Adv) A(Ph)(Cl)
- Adverb phrases: P(NP)
- The structure of phrase
+ heads -> nucleus of the phrase
+ specifiers -> make the meaning of the head more
precise(chắc chắn) -> usually non-lexical categories -
> left of the head
+complement: compulsory
Để modifier (bổ nghĩa) -> optional
 SEMANTICS: THE ANALYSIS OF MEANING
- Semantics is the study of meaning (meaning of
words and sentences, relationships, conceptual (khái
niệm) system underlying (cơ bản) meaning)
- 3 types of meaning
+referential (tham chiếu): the real-world object or
concept referred to or described by an expression
+affective: the feeling of the language user about the
content or about the ongoing context (trong bối
cảnh đang diễn ra)
+social: the information about the social nature of
the language user or of the context of utterance(sự
bày tỏ)
- Semantic relations= lexical items= lexemes= lexical
semantic
+ synomymy (đồng nghĩa)
+ antonymy (trái nghĩa)
+ converseness: words have reciprocal semantic
relationships (mối quan hệ ngữ nghĩa tương trợ) e.g:
buy-sell is converseness, husband-wife, grandchild-
grandparent, employer-employee, teacher-student
 +Metonymy (hoán dụ): the name of an associated
attribute (sự kết giao các thuộc tính) of concept is
used to refer to an entity (thực thể)
+Polysemi (từ đa nghĩa): a single form has 2 or more
related meanings
+Homonymy (từ có cách phát âm hoặc cách viết
giống nhau nhưng nghĩa khác nhau): a single form
has 2 or more entirely distinct meanings
+Hyponymy (từ có nghĩa chung nhất cho 1 nhóm từ
nào đó): words have inclusion relationship e.g:
butterfly, bees, mosquito -> insects
+Meronymy : word have part/whole relationships
e.g: computer -> mouse, keybroad, screen, CPU..
- Semantic relations among sentences:
+ paraphrase: sentences have the same meaning,
they have the same truth condition e.g: jane broke
the glass -> the glass was broken by jane
+ Contradiction (sự tương phản): sentences have
contradictory meanings, they have opposite truth
conditions e.g: his father is alive-> his father is not
alive
+ Entailment: the truth of one sentence guarantees
(bảo đảm) the truth of another sentence e.g: the dog
bit the cat -> the cat was hurt