Sensitivity Training Doesn't Work Magic

If coTforations are to put money into sensitivity training

for their up-coming executives, they had better determine
John Drotning
what they are expecting to get. It may he a lot less than
they hope. Dr. Drotning asks: if the benefits of
sensitivity training are less than the cost, why train?

T HERE is an impressive list oF husiness

firms using sensitivity training to devel-
op and improve managerial perFormance. But
at the ceiling, his neighbor shuffles his Feet,
another stares at the table. We cast quick
glances at one another looking For cues, any-
why? What is a T-group? How does it work? thing to break the silence. Fingers drum the
table, there is a cough while still another
Laboratory training uses the Forces inherent member giggles nervously. Won't someone
in a small group to increase a person's aware- talk?
ness oF his own behavior and its effect on
others. Its aim is to break barriers hampering But the silence and the structurelessness are
effective communications, to alter power rela- their own saviors; they force someone to say
tions, to develop new behavioral norms, and something. And no matter how simple it is,
to establish egalitarian relationships. we grasp and hang on to it to avoid more
silence. The ice breaks and relief floods the
Sensitivity training doesn't work magic, hut it room. Faces relax, the smiles are more genu-
does make some things very clear: primarily, ine now. Why not introduce ourselves? "A
that there is a considerable difference be- good idea," says my neighbor and we go
tween the knowledge and the skill inherent around the room like small children at school.
in a man. A manager's ability to operate eF- But the respite is brief. We know each other's
fectively in an organization may depend more names, but so what. More silence, but not as
on personal style than on knowledge (this is bad this time. The man at the end of the
especially true in technical fields). The open- table (I've forgotten his name already) sug-
ness oF sensitivity training environments can gests we order the meeting, elect officers and
"free up" men so much that they perForm set up an agenda. We reluctantly agree.
better than they would in the "real world."
The sense ot discomtort is intriguing and
The Following example of a typical T-group mysterious. Something about the silence,
illustrates the dynamics oF sensitivity train- something ambiguous, vague, unexpected
ing. It describes some oF the experiences in generates tremendous tension in the group-
which a businessman is supposed to leam or tension so strong it forces us to do something.
get new and Fresh insights about himselF and The stage is set for an exploration of the here
his impact on others. and now.

The first session opens in silence. The busi- During the remaining sessions we explore the
nessmen around the round table, usually behavior of the group and of each member bit
strangers to one another, look to the leader by bit. The emotionality of the conversation
who introduces himself and says no more.
What should we do, what should we say? We An executive must lead his sub-
feel a bit panicky and perhaps a bit annoyed. ordinates, he must be a boss.
What the devil is going on? And the silence How can a t-group's concern
gets louder and louder. It is all around us and with feeling enhance decision-
it overwhelms and frustrates us. We're tight making?
as bowstrings. The man across from me stares
 15

increases. Feelings are expressed openly. We eral questions arise concerning the benefits
begin to talk about ourselves, our Fears, our and value of this type oF training to a business
hopes, our desires and even our sorrows. Re- man and his firm. Do the participants learn
pressed or long Forgotten events may surface "how their own motives. Feelings and strate-
and cathartic displays can tear us apart and gies are seen by others?" ^ In what way is sen-
leave us in tears. A freely associating man may sitivity training supposed to aFFect the work
literally leave the group. I remember one in life behavior ormanagers? To what extent are
particular. His Face radiated love and he these effects realized in the laboratory? And
talked, with eyes closed, oF an outing with his how much, oF whatever is learned, is trans-
wiFe and Family. This kindly, balding, benign Ferred and used in the home plant three
man leFt us; he literally was fishing with h^is months, six months and a year aFter the
Family on the banks oF that Texas stream. training? In short, what is the real impact oF
laboratory training on an organization's eF-
But unhappy events also take place. We, the Fectiveness? ^
group, can be brutal. We Focus on the appar-
ent managerial inadequacies oF one member. It is surprising that the eFFect oF sensitivity
What was his relationship with his Former training on executive perFormance and or-
ganization efficiency is still not clear. There
The job of the leader is to lib- are Few, iF any, definitive studies showing a
erate himself from group psy- valid statistically significant relationship be-
chology and to achieve individ- tween T-group experience and perFormance
ual identity with responsibility. in terms oF reduced costs, more effective plan-
Why then should he be trained ning and decision making and higher profits.
to be "sensitive" to others and And reporting that T-group/control group diF-
to "achieve effective human in- Ferences just made or Failed at a .05 signifi-
cance level adds insult to injury. AFter all, iF
teraction"?
T-groups really affect participant behavior it
ought to contrast with a control group at say
boss, now his subordinate? Why did he let the .0001 level. IF there is any situation which
the old guy get away with so much? Why cries For a less rigid approach to statistical in-
didn't he lay down the law? We exhort our Ference it is in the area oF T-group/control
Fellow member to listen to us, we make him group differences. T-group students entertain
listen to us! "Go ahead, get mad," we say, enough difficulties building operational defi-
"Loosen up, react, do something, but just nitions oF beFore and aFter behavior without
don't sit there." But he can't let go oF himselF, compounding the trouble by using rigid sta-
he had always kept a tight lid on his emotions tistical rules.*
and he won't or can't change now. And rath-
er than healthy anger, we get nothing. Our
intense personal criticism creates tremendous ' Business Week, "Where Executives Tear OfF The
Masks," September 3, 1966. pp. 76-83. Also, Robert J.
internal stress. His hands shake, his lips are House, "T-Group Education and Leadership EfFectiveness:
dry, he can't get his cigarette lit, he seems A Review of the Empiric Literature and a Critical Evalua-
near shock. Finally, we quit. I think we are tion."
" National Training Laboratory pamphlet advertising the
all a bit scared. 19th Annual Summer Laboratories.
'Business Week, Sept. 3, 1966, p. 83; Dorothy Stock, "A
Ah, but does it work? Survey of Research on T-Groups," in T-Group Theory and
Laboratory Method edited by L. Bradford; Jack R. Gibb
There is little doubt that sensitivity training and Kenneth D. Benne, New York, John Wiley & Sons,
1965, p. 395-442; Martin Lakin & Robert C. Carson, "A
is an emotionally tense experience. It induces Therapeutic Vehicle in Search of a Theory of Therapy,"
anxieties, stimulates interpersonal Feedback, Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, Vol. 2, No. 1, p.
35; and John E. Drotning, "Sensitivity Training; Some
introspection and evaluation.' However, sev- Critical Comments," Personnel Journal, November 1965.

Management of Personnel Quarterly, Summer 1968

 16

Moreover, there are some aspects of contem- universities as non-authoritarian institutions.

porary sensitivity training which limit its util- Moreover, many business firms pay only lip
ity to businessmen and their organizations. service to the principles of democratic man-
And these limitations ought to be made ex- agement. In subtle and unsubtle ways man-
plicit. Perhaps the most significant one is agement can operate in a relatively authori-
that the basic, underlying premise of labora- tarian manner. And while the opposite also
tory training is not compatible with the exi- may be true, an impressionistic view is that it
gencies of organizational life. Sensitivity occurs infrequently. And so the question:
training's stress on egalitarianism conflicts why are many business organizations relative-
with the highly competitive, autocratically ly autocratic instead of democratic?
administered environment of most business
firms. It can be argued that a hierarchial structure
and a significant degree of authoritarianism
Can laboratory training—a technique which are business necessities which foster respon-
attempts to change the power relations in or- sibility, rationality and coordination." Organ-
ganizations by introducing new norms of be- izations strive to achieve specific goals. And
havior and egalitarian ideology—affect the to achieve these goals, specific paths are
hierarchial and authoritarian management in chosen by leaders of the organization. And a
most business firms? ' An affirmative answer
implies that a flat organization structure The payoffs^ in our society, go
would replace a vertical one and that supe- to successful people in a com-
rior-subordinate relationships would be min- petitive environment. There is
imized. It presumes that democratic manage- not room at the top for every-
ment assures maximum organizational effi- one, and competitors are not
ciency, however defined.
likely to "level" with one an-
other. Why train people to level
Do we, really, want democracy?
then?
There are degrees of democratic management.
All members of an organization may partici- member's contribution to progress along this
pate equally in decision making as in the path probably depends on: 1) the style of
case of an Israeli kibbutz. (See pages ) leadership, 2) peer associations, 3) the task
Or in other cases, members may elect leaders itself, and 4) pay. But individual workers are
to carry out decision making for them. Or motivated to produce at unequal rates, and
leaders may be selected arbitrarily by a small management rewards and punishes these dif-
number of people who then make decisions ferential performances accordingly. Some suc-
for the majority without the explicit consent ceed, some fail, and some are asked to leave
of the numbers. And in each there may be the organization. Excellence is rewarded, fail-
various mixtures of authoritarianism and de- ure is not. Certain individuals are singled out
mocracy. For example, a kibbutz could be for special treatment and an informal hier-
formally democratic and informally authori- archy develops. There is an obvious power
tarian. And a faculty-governed university is inequality which isn't compatible with an
apparently democratic yet it would be a egalitarian ideology. Some individuals have
stretch of the imagination to depict such more weight than others in the decisions that
must be made. "All people are not the same
'For example see, C. M. Hampden-Tumer, "An Existen- size, and denial of superior talent and leader-
tial 'Learning Theory' and the Integration of T-Group Re- ship are fatal in a highly competitive soci-
search," ]oumd of Afflied Behavioral Science, Vol. 2, No.
4. pp. 367-385.
• Abraham Zaleznik, Human DUemrrtas of Leadership, New • Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior New York:
York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1965, p. 213. The Free Press, 1957, p. 9, 134-145.

Sensitivity Training Doesn't Work Magic

 17

ety." ' Organizational success requires direc- seems unlikely that business organizations
tion which must emanate from a few rather will nurture and develop totally non-authori-
than many sources. And if some members are tarian management philosophies. Therefore,
able to impose their will on others by means to the extent that sensitivity training attempts
of various sanctions, it would follow that the to substitute egalitarian for relatively authori-
former cannot interact with the latter as
equals. Equalitarianism, by definition, is in-
consistent with an unequal division of power
T-groups hope to break down
within an organization. the barriers to effective commu-
nications between people. But
Moreover, decisions have differential conse- worker response to unpleasant
quences. Some are well received, some are managerial decisions would
not. And the response to unpleasant decisions seem to require the mainte-
would seem to require the maintenance, not nance, not the breakdown, of
the breakdown, of personal defenses. The personal defenses.
utility of completely open, completely frank
interaction may be limited in organization arian norms, it is likely to fail in that it will
life. If a supervisor has to fire or deny a pro- have little or no discernible impact on the
motion or raise to a subordinate he may have participating manager's operating style in the
to disguise the real reasons. A supervisor may home environment. The argument that pow-
defend against possible unpleasant reactions er and aggression are more significant aspects
to his actions. At times it may be more men- of leadership than consideration and sensitiv-
tally healthful to minimize not maximize in- ity severely limits the utility of laboratory
terpersonal contact in potentially explosive training to businessmen!
situations. Moreover, certain aspects of man-
aging may require an executive to use secret Choice: the essence of leadership
diplomacy and to manage news to convey dif-
ferent messages to his subordinates and to his Moreover, sensitivity training may have no
superiors in order to obtain consensus from impact on a critical aspect of executive beha-
his own group. "The manager, like the good vior—the ability to choose in the face of un-
actor, has many 'lines' and many types of certainty and accept the costs of wrong
'exits' and 'entrances' and their pacing varies choices. This significant ability may distin-
tremendously.* guish successful from less successful execu-
tives (where success is defined by rank in the
Business executives live in a competitive en-
organization). "The essence of leadership is
vironment. There isn't room at the top for
choice, a singularly individualistic act in
everyone. Yet this competitive atmosphere ap-
which a man assumes responsibility for a
pears to exhilarate and stimulate many people.
commitment to direct an organization along
And this drive to compete, to perform well or
a particular path.^" The importance of deci-
to self-actualize when channeled in socially
sion making becomes even more apparent in
useful directions may contribute significantly
the following comment by Douglas Mc-
to economic growth." So given this competi-
Gregor:
tive ethic and the imperatives of the market it
I thought I could avoid being a 'boss.'
Unconsciously, I suspect, I hoped to
'Robert Moses "Confessions of a Reformed Reformer,"
Saturday Review, January 7, 1967, p. 20. duck the unpleasant necessity of making
'Leonard Sayles, Managerial Behavior, New York: Mc- difficult business decisions, of taking re-
Graw-Hill Book Company, 1964, p. 39.
'For illustrations of this drive, see the novels of John P.
Marquand, John O'Hara, F. Scott Fitzgerald and Sloan " Abraham Zaleznik, Review of "Leadership and Motiva-
Wilson. Also see David C. McClelland, The Achieving tion" hy Douglas McGregor, in the Boston Sunday Her-
Society. ald, July 10, 1966, p. 22.

Management of Personnel Quarterly, Summer 1968

 18
sponsibility for one course of action tion and futility of the displaced Brooklyn
among many uncertain alternatives, of Navy Yard worker have helped his decision?
making mistakes and taking the conse- And would the worker's knowledge of Mc-
quences. I thought that maybe I could Namara's sympathy have made him less un-
operate so that everyone would like me— happy? McNamara developed alternatives
that 'good human relations' would elimi- and then selected one according to some de-
nate all discord and disappointment. I cision rule. His uniqueness is his ability to
could not have been more wrong." choose—in that case in the face of consider-
able opposition from the Senate, the military
The effective leader acts; he chooses an alter- and even Harvard students.
native and accepts the responsibility for its
success or failure. Moreover, the ability to tol- The personality of individual risk takers and
erate ambiguity, to break rules when neces- T-group decision makers differs. The former is
sary, to function without support and even in relatively aggressive, can accept some isola-
the face of opposition also seems to be neces- tion and is not unduly concerned about oth-
sary ingredients of successful executive beha- ers' criticisms. He may enjoy competition and
vior.^^ A superior who cannot accept the re- be a fairly assertive person. In contrast, the
sponsibility for controlling others will gener- desirable T-group decision maker is less ego
ate political activity among his subordinates. oriented, more concerned with satisfying so-
And such activity doesn't help the organiza- cial needs, somewhat passive and oriented
tion achieve its goals. Moreover, the absence toward collective decisions.
of leadership may create anxieties among sub-
While the latter type may seem more appro-
ordinates who find that they have not devel-
priate in a democratic society, the former are
oped professionally because of political activ-
probably more effective. The relatively au-
ity and are wedded to the relatively structure-
thoritarian leader can generate tremendous
less situation they initially rebelled against.
enthusiasm and cooperation from subordi-
nates. Such a leader who operates without
And Even Harvard Students

An executive must lead his subordinates, he We spend our whole lifetime

must be a boss, however unkind the term. He learning about ourselves and if
must exercise choice. He must direct subordi- sensitivity training can speed
nates within their area of acceptance. He may up the process all the better.
even have to be ruthless." How can a T-
group's concern vnth affect and feeling en- continual reassurance from peers and sub-
hance decision making? For example, would ordinates commands a good deal of respect
former Secretary McNamara's empathy with although not love from others. The ability to
the feelings of despair, hopelessness, frustra- choose from alternatives and accept the conse-
quent costs is a scarce commodity, but one
that is vital to any organization. Men seem to
" A. Zaleznik's comment in Boston Sunday Herald as fol-
lows: "McGregor captured this idea in what must have respect this ability in time of stress. In war the
been for him a period of intense stress. He wrote Chapter soldier best able to act becomes the leader.
5, 'On Leadership' as he was about to leave the presidency
of Antioch College, a position he had held for six years." And while the business environment obvious-
" See Melville Dalton, "Managing the Managers," in Some ly is less traumatic than combat, it still con-
Theories of Organizations edited by A. H. Rubenstein & tains an element of stress and the ability to
C. Haberstroh, Homewood, Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Inc.,
1960, p. 135. choose is respected by superiors, subordinates
" Hanson W. Baldwin, in revieviring George C. Marshall: and peers.
Ordeal & Hope 1939-42 by Forrest C. Poeue says, "This
quality of ruthlessness—a necessary ingredient of every Thus, if individuality, independence, and as-
great general . . ." New York Times Book Review, Jan-
uary 1, 1967, p. 1. sertiveness are the significant elements of sue-

Sensitivity Training Doesn't Work Magic

 19

cessful executive style, sensitivity training they normally would." The group oriented
would seem to be inappropriate since these leader asks for group decisions which of ne-
characteristics are acquired long before one is cessity are compromises.^"
likely to participate in a T-group.
How can an organization grow in size and
Can a man, the sum total of 35-50 years of quality without a single individual as the
life, learn enough about himself to alter his guiding spirit, one leader who accepts the
style from a week or two in group therapy? responsibility and costs of correct and in-
Why would a successful executive rely on un- correct choices. The costs of wrong decisions
tested behavioral patterns? There is a tre- in on-going organizations may be much small-
mendous variation in the operating styles of er than the costs of incorrect choices in infant
successful managers (success defined in terms organizations where it may be success or
of rank in the organization). How believable failure. But success for growing organizations
would an autocratic executive be if he re- requires relatively authoritarian, assertive
turned home with a different style. The in- leaders—men who are not easily swayed from
congruity between his traditional self and his their goals. After all, one man built Ford, one
new actions would have a disastrous effect on man built Eastman Kodak, one man built
his ability to manage. General Motors, one man built Xerox, one
man built the New York Central, and one
Moreover, this willingness to accept risks is man built the University of Chicago. Many
evident in a wide range of styles. For example, men have administered and continue to ad-
remember the contrasts in the informal, per- minister these organizations, but it took one
sonal, charismatic leadership of John F. Ken- driving spirit, one risk taker, one man not too
nedy and the formal, military-like, bureau- concerned about the personal impact of wrong
cratic style of General Eisenhower. (Or com- choices, one man not dominated by the search
pare the flamboyant enigmatic manner of the for personal security, one man able to accept
equally well-known British politician, George the personal consequences of risk taking, one
Brown)." man strong enough to stand opposition and
lethargy, to create the organization and lift it
In what way should or could sensitivity train- to a point where it could sustain itself. Thus,
ing alter the styles of successful people to laboratory training would have little impact
make them more effective? The normative on the kinds of behavioral patterns necessary
prescriptions implicit in laboratory training in leaders of developing organizations.
may be totally inappropriate for the business
environment. Are there two sides to this argument?
Wanted: one leader with chorisma Sensitivity training, indeed, has a limited
Furthermore, consider the utility of sensitivity ability to improve executive performance and
training on leaders in growing organizations organizational effectiveness. First, the equali-
as opposed to the kind of leadership necessary tarian norms inherent in the T-group clash
in organizations that have arrived. A growing with the relatively authoritarian behavior pat-
organization needs decision makers. It may terns characteristic of many business firms.
even need charismatic men who can excite Second, laboratory training does not and can-
and motivate others to accomplish more than not direct itself toward another critical aspect
"Abraham Zaleznik, Human Dilemmas of Leadership, pp.
" Mr. Brown upon sitting down to lunch next to the wife 147-170 and 221-230. Arch Patton, What Is An Execu-
of a well known diplomat said, "You look lovely today, tive Worth? New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Madame. Shall we have an affair?" When the lady looked Inc., 1961, p. 22. Herbert A. Simon, p. 126.
a bit surprised he continued, "Surely that has been said to "Although this is subject to some doubt. See Donald G.
you before." "But not before soup," she murmured. An- Marquis, "Individual Responsibility and Group Decisions
thony Lewis, "George Brown Is Too Much," The New Involving Risk," In Industrial Management Review Sprino
York Times Magazine, December 25, 1966, p. 6. 1962, pp. 8-23.

Management of Personnel Quarterly, Summer 1968

 20

of managing, the ability to operate in the face cused on human relations skills development
of uncertainty and to make and accept the and the translation of laboratory learning to
responsibility for a specific decision. More- the home environment.'* The earlier ap-
over, this ability is inherent in a wide range proach seems more suitable to the business
of personality styles which may or may not be environment than the present therapeutic
amenable to sensitivity training. A third limi- one.
tation of laboratory training is simply that, as
a change model, it doesn't develop initiative Groups should focus on specific occupational
and aggression. And these aspects of execu- problems of some common interest to all par-
tive behavior may be critical to rapidly devel- ticipants. The members' concem with process
oping organizations. And finally, that sensi- would become secondary to the effort to solve
tivity training has a positive impact on job the problem. The skill needs of the various
behavior after training is not at all clear. participants would become obvious to the
trainer even though they may be less evident
Yet laboratory training has value—it is a pow- to the members. This latter difficulty could
erful tool which can be put to good use. The be met by meeting and talking with each par-
T-group presumably enables one to learn ticipant after his skill lacks are defined. The
about himself and his impact on others as well participant could then alter his behavior as he
as their impact on him. This is a laudable saw fit. And this sort of an educational T-
goal. We spend our whole lifetime learning group may be just as likely (if not more like-
about ourselves and if sensitivity training can ly) to initiate lasting behavioral changes as a
speed up the process all the better. But most therapeutic one. Moreover, such an approach
businessmen come to the laboratory for "an would facilitate in-house training which
educational experience in human relations, might be the most effective way to increase
not for psychotherapy."'" The training on-going executive interaction.
ought to "objectively" help them identify
their personal skill needs by shifting from a This approach would minimize the danger of
therapeutic emphasis to a sociological one. psychological damage as a consequence of
training. While bad results may be less fre-
An important personnel function is to sharp- quent than is sometimes implied, it is a po-
en and hone the human relations skills of tential danger to guard against. But there is a
executives and it cannot be neglected. And a word of caution even with this approach.
sociological T-group may be more compatible There is no point in prescribing a remedy
and more useful to business than group ther- for a healthy patient. There ought to be evi-
apy training. Contemporary T-groups have dence of a reasonably strong need for such
converted the Basic Skills Training approach traing before it is undertaken. If the bene-
into a "safe trip." Present T-groups are de- fits of sensitivity training are less than the
signed to improve human behavior by: in- costs, why train? This extremely powerful
creasing one's self-awareness, understanding training technique ought to be used more
one's desire to control and be controlled, man- judiciously than it currently is, especially if
aging anger, understanding loneliness, and the T-group maintains its therapeutic orien-
expressing one's affection. These goals repre- tation.
sent a significant departure from the goals of
the founders of sensitivity training who fo-
John E. Drotning
is associate professor of Industrial Relations and Organiza-
" Kenneth D. Benne, p. 92. tion at the State University of New York at Buffalo. He
" Kenneth D. Benne. While Professor Benne makes no has published extensively in the areas of labor relations in
explicit value judgments, it's my impression that he prefers such journals as Labor Law Journal, Monthly Labor Re-
the Basic Skill Training approach to thepsychotherapeutfc view, and the American Behavioral Scientist. He is a
orientation of present day laboratories. Especially see pg. consultant for Moog Inc., manufacturer of guidance systems
92. for missiles.

Sensitivity Training Doesn't Work Magic