RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Lecture Number 31
LWR & CWR

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Precautions against wear on rails

• Permissible limits of wear
• LWR / CWR
– Locations
– Track structure

2
Today’s Discussion

• LWR / CWR
– On bridges
– Thermal Forces
– Breathing length
– Consolidation of track
– Ballast resistance
– Hysteresis phenomenon

3
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Bridges

• Continued over bridges with ballasted deck

without bearings like slabs, box culverts and
arches
• Detailed calculations are required if LWR is
provided on bridges with ballasted deck with
bearings
• Continued on bridges with un-ballasted decks
provided with rail-free fastenings and PRC
sleepers on approaches up to 50 m on both sides

4
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Maximum Overall Length Bridges
Temperature Rail section Without box- Part box-
zone anchored anchored
I 60 kg/m 30m 77m
52 kg/m 45m 90m
II 60 kg/m 11m 42m
52 kg/m 27m 58m IRPWM2020

III 60 kg/m 11m 23m

52 kg/m 27m 43m
IV 60 kg/m 11m 23m
52 kg/m 27m 43m

5
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Maximum Overall Length Bridges
Temperature Maximum Overall length Initial gap to Girder bridge with SEJ at
zone movement of of bridge, m be provided the far end approach of
SEJ (mm) at td, (mm) the bridge (15 m away)
IV 55 7.0 using rail-free fastenings
With PRC sleepers
III 70 7.0
190
II 110 6.5
IRPWM2020

I 160 6.5
II 20 4.0
120*
I 50 4.0
* Improved SEJ with 2 gaps of 65mm each (max) can be used in lieu of
IRS design SEJ with 120 mm gap (max)
6
Long Welded Rails

• Welded rails may be provided from pier to pier with

rail-free fastenings and with SEJ on each pier
• Welded rails may be provided over a single span
bridge with rail free fastenings and SEJs with 190 mm
gap at 30 m away from both abutments
• The rail shall be box-anchored on four sleepers at the
fixed end of the girder if the girder is supported on
rollers on one side and rockers on other side

7
Long Welded Rails

• In case of girder supported on sliding bearings on both

sides, the central portion of the welded rails over each
span shall be box-anchored on four sleepers
• Bridges on which LWR/CWR is not permitted/provided
as per above shall be isolated by a minimum length of 30
m of well anchored PSC sleeper track on either side
• The approach track up to 50 m on both sides shall be
well anchored by PRC sleepers with elastic rail clips with
minimum toe load

8
Long Welded Rails

IRPWM2020

9
Long Welded Rails
Temperature zone Maximum length of single span bridge, m
IV 75
III 87
II 110
I 146
IRPWM2020 Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey

• Measurement of Rail Temperature

– Embedded type Thermometer, inserted in a cavity
filled with mercury and sealed, takes 25-30 minutes for
attaining temperature of rail

10
Long Welded Rails: Measurement of Rail Temperature

• Continuous Recording Type Thermometer,

consists of a graduated chart mounted on a
disc, which gets rotated by a winding
mechanism at a constant speed to complete
one revolution in 24 hours or 7 days Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey

– The sensing element is attached to the web of the

rail and connected to the recording pen, through
a capillary tube, which is filled with mercury

11
Long Welded Rails: Measurement of Rail Temperature

• Dial Type Thermometer, bimetallic type

provided with a magnet to attach it to rail on
shady side, takes 8 minutes for attaining
temperature of rail
• The maximum and minimum rail temperature for Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey

a continuous period of at least 5 years shall be

ascertained and the mean rail temperature (tm)
for the region arrived at

12
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces

• Definitions:
• Anchor Length (la): This is the length of track required
to resist the pull exerted on rails by the rail tensor at
temperature tp
– la = 2.5 m per degree centigrade of (ta – tp) for BG 52kg
IRPWM2020
rail section
• Breathing length: It is the length at each end of
LWR/CWR which is subjected to expansion and
contraction on account of temperature variations

13
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces

• Buffer rail: A set of rails provided at the ends of

LWR/CWR to allow for expansion / contraction of the
breathing lengths due to temperature variation
• Rail temperature: This is temperature of rail at site
Zone Range of Rail Temperature Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

I 40 to 50oC
II 51 to 60oC
III 61 to 70oC
IV 71 to 76oC
14
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces

• Mean temperature (tm): Average of the

maximum and minimum rail temperature over a
period of 5 years
• Installation temperature (ti): Average rail
temperature during the process of fastenings the
rails to sleepers Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

• Destressing temperature (td): Average rail

temperature during the process of fastenings the
rails to the sleeper after making LWR stress free
without the use of rail tensor

15
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces
Temperature zone Rail section Range for td
I, II, III All sections tm to tm + 5oC
IV 52 kg/m and heavier tm + 5oC to tm + 10oC
IV Other rail sections tm to tm + 5oC

• If rail tensor is used, then td – to

Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023
• Prevailing Rail temperature (tp): The rail
temperature prevailing at the time of operation
related to track maintenance, usually reported as
td ± x oC, where ‘x’ is difference of td and tp

16
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces

• Stress-Free Temperature (to): The rail

temperature at which the rail is free of thermal
stresses
• With variation in temperature the ends of the
LWR/CWR moves but the central portion remain
Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023
as such. The movement is:
• Movement = L*α*(to – tp)
• This causes building up of the thermal forces in
the central portion

17
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Forces

• Thermal force is calculated as: For 52 kg/m rail section P

= 1.608 tonnes per oC
– P = E A α t, kg change in temperature
– Where, E = modulus of elasticity of rail steel = 2.15 ×
106 kg/cm2 For 60 kg/m rail section P
= 1.868 tonnes per oC
– A = Area of cross-section of the rail, cm2 change in temperature
• For 60 kg rail section: 76.86 cm2 Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

• For 52 kg rail section: 66.15 cm2

– α = coefficient of linear expansion of rail steel =
1.152 × 10-5 per oC
– t = variation in rail temperature from td/to ,oC

18
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Thermal Force Numerical 1

• Consider the data: E = 2.15 × 106 kg/cm2; A =

76.86 cm2; α = 1.152 × 10-5 per oC; t = 30oC above td,
calculate the thermal force exerted.
• Solution:
• P = E A α t, kg
• P = 2.15 × 106 × 76.86 × 1.152 × 10-5 × 30 = 57110 kg
• P = 57.11 tonnes

19
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length

• The rail end moves longitudinally due to

temperature variation because of inadequate
resisting forces offered by rail and the ballast.
• This expansion continues from the end of the rail
towards the center. [= L*α*(to – tp) for free rail]
• A stage is reached when:
– Resistance offered by the track structure = thermal
force created due to change in temperature

20
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length

• Resistance offered by the track structure is due The maximum movement

to ballast, sleepers and fastenings at the end of the LWR = m
= LαT/2
• As per investigations, the sleeper-ballast m = AE(αT)2/2R
R = ballast longitudinal
combination can resist the longitudinal force of 1 resistance
tonnes.
• Accordingly, per rail seat it would be 0.5 tonnes
• This will define the number of sleepers that
would be required to balance the thermal force

21
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length

SEJ LWR SEJ When tp = td, P = 0, (or Rail

is in a stress-free
condition)
P=EAαt
When tp>td, P is a
compressive force
When tp<td, P is a tensile
Breathing length Central portion Breathing length force

• The end sleepers will resist the thermal force. The

length over which the thermal force will get balanced
is the breathing length.
• The gap in SEJ is adjusted with the above reason.
22
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length Numerical 2

• Consider the data: E = 2.15 × 106 kg/cm2; A = 66.15

cm2; α = 1.152 × 10-5 per oC; t = 30oC above td, sleeper
spacing 65cm and average restraining force per
sleeper per rail 300kg. Calculate the minimum
theoretical length of LWR beyond which central
portion remains free of thermal expansion.
• Solution
• Thermal force P = EAαT = 2.15x106*66.15*1.152 × 10-
5 *30 = 49152 kg = 49.152 tonnes

23
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length Numerical 2

• Solution
• Number of sleepers required to resist thermal force =
P/sleeper resistance = 49.152/0.300 = 163.84 ~ 164
• Approximate breathing length at each end for sleeper
spacing of 65cm = 164*0.65 = 106.6 m
• Total breathing length = 106.6*2 = 213.2 m

24
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length Numerical 3

• Consider data: α = 1.152 × 10-5 per oC; temperature

variation above td 25oC; elongation of rail end due to
increase in temperature 16.7mm. Calculate the
breathing length at rail end
• Solution: Movement = L*α*T
• 0.0167 = L* 1.152 × 10-5 *25
• L = breathing length at rail end = 57.98 m = 58 m

25
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length Numerical 4

• Consider data: α = 1.152 × 10-5 per oC; temperature

variation above td 30oC; elongation of rail due to
increase in temperature 33.4mm. Calculate the
breathing length of rail.
• Solution: Movement = L*α*T
• 0.0334 = L* 1.152 × 10-5 *30
• L = breathing length of rail = 96.6 m
• Breathing length at rail end = 48.3 m

26
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Breathing Length

S L S
E W E
J R J

P=E
Aαt

Breathing Central Breathing

length portion length

Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

27
Today we have discussed the LWR/CWR provision
on bridges, measurement of rail temperature,
definitions needed for understanding thermal
force, breathing length, consolidation of
track, ballast resistance, and hysteresis
phenomenon.
Thank You

28
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 32
Fastenings – Rail to Rail

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• LWR/CWR
– On bridges
– Thermal Forces
– Breathing length

2
Today’s Discussion

• LWR/CWR
– Consolidation of track
– Ballast resistance
– Hysteresis phenomenon
• Fastenings
• Rail to Rail fastenings
– Standard Fish Plates
– Joggled Fish Plates
– Combined Fish Plates
– Bolts and Nuts
– Tolerances

3
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Track Consolidation

• It is the process of building up of ballast

resistance against the tendency of movement of
sleeper immediately after initial laying of LWR or
getting the track ready for LWR laying
• It can be done by traffic passage or by using https://youtu.be/qs59-FHi-Gs
Dynamic Track Stabiliser or by track tamping m/c
• For BG, PRC sleepers the traffic passage is at
least 50000 GT or 2 days whichever is later for
proper consolidation

4
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Track Consolidation
Traffic density on the line Consolidation period in days
10 GMT and above 2 days
10 GMT – 5 GMT 4 days
Less than 5 GMT 7 days
Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

https://youtu.be/-01QVb_Sjx0
• Minimum one round of DTS is required
• Track Temping Machine: Three rounds of packing,
with last two rounds by on-track tamping machine

5
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Ballast Resistance

• Longitudinal Ballast resistance, caused due to thermal

changes and movement of rail-sleeper assembly in
the ballast, depends up on:
– Type of sleeper and sleeper density
– Condition of packing and ballast profile
– Passage of traffic
– Works like through packing, machine temping, deep
screening, etc.
• BG track: R = 12.98 kg/cm/rail for SD 1660 per km and
11.76 kg/cm/rail for SD 1540 per km

6
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Numerical 5

• Consider data: E = 2.11 x 106; α = 1.152 × 10-5 per oC;

A = 66.15 cm2; SD = 1540 /km; Zone IV temperature
range = 76oC; R = 13.28 kg/cm/rail; tmax 28oC, tmin 48oC
Calculate the maximum movement near SEJ.
• Solution: Movement = AE(αT)2/2R
• For temperature rise of 28oC = 5.46mm expansion
• For temperature fall of 48oC = 16.07mm contraction
• Total movement at SEJ joint = 2 x(5.46 + 16.07) =
43.06mm
7
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Hysteresis Phenomenon

• Behaviour of LWR with respect to the movement at

SEJ is irrational with change in temperature.
• As the temperature uniformly rises above ‘O’ (after
the destressing), the movement or expansion at the
SEJ follows the movement – temperature rise curve
Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023
OF
• At any given temperature t4 if the temperature starts
falling, then the movement at the SEJ does not follow
the original path but traces out a new curve A2DB2.

8
Long Welded Rails / CWR: Hysteresis Phenomenon

• If at B2 the temperature again reverses, then

the path traced out is B2EA2 rather than
B2DA2. Loops in the form A2DB2EA2 are
called hysteresis loops \
• These are formed whenever there is a Long Welded rails – IRICE 2023

temperature reversal

9
Fastenings

• These are items which are used for the

joining of rails with each other or to connect
the rails with the sleepers
• These keep the rails in proper position
• These help in maintaining the gauge,
alignment and level of the rails/track
• These are:
– Rail to Rail Fastenings
– Rail to Sleepers Fastenings

10
Fastenings – Types
Connection Fastenings
Rail to Rail Fish plates, bolts, nuts,
Combination fish plates,
Joggled fish plates
Elastic Fastenings Elastic or Pandrol clip, IRN
202 clip, HM fastenings, MCI
inserts, Rubber pads, nylon
liners
Rail to Steel Trough Sleeper Loose jaws, keys, liners
Rail to CI sleeper Tie bars and cotters

11
Fastenings – Types
Connection Fastenings
Rail to Wooden sleeper Dog Spikes, Fang bolts,
Screw spikes, Bearing
plates

• Number of fittings or fastenings required per sleeper

(ordinary or elastic) for different types of sleepers are
fixed

12
Fastenings – Numbers
Sleeper Ordinary Number Elastic Number
fastenings fastenings
Wooden Dog spikes / 8 CI bearing 2
Screw spikes plates
Keys for CI 4 Plate screws 8
bearing plates Pandrol clips 4
Rubber pads 2
Steel Keys 4 Modified 4
trough Loose jaws 4 loose jaws
Pandrol clips 4
Rubber pads 2

13
Fastenings – Numbers
Sleeper Ordinary Number Elastic Number
fastenings fastenings
CST9 Plates 2 Pandrol clips 4
Tie bar 1 Rubber pads 2
Cotters 4
Keys 4
Concrete Pandrol clips 4
Nylon liners 4
Rubber pads 2
MCI inserts 4

14
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Fish Plates
– Fish plates hold the two rails together in both the
horizontal and vertical plane
– It maintain the line and level of rail tabletop and
gauge face at the rail ends
– It helps in transfer of load of the wheels from one
rail to another
– It provides vertical and lateral stiffness to the rail
joint
– It allows for expansion/contraction of rail ends

15
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Fish Plates
– Strength of pair of fish plates is 55% of that of rail
section
– The fishing angles at the top and bottom of the
fish plate shall coincide with those of rail sections
to have perfect contact between the two T-1: 2021

– Permissible variation in weight is 2% above or

below the nominal weight (after holing)
• Weight 60 kg/m: 34.90 kg per pair
• Weight 52 kg/m: 28.72 kg per pair

16
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Fish Plates - Properties

– Ultimate Tensile Strength, Minimum 620 MPa
– Yield Strength, Minimum 320 MPa
– Percentage Elongation, Minimum 15%
– Hardness, Minimum 175 BHN
– Grain Size, 6 or finer T-1: 2021

– For 52 kg and 60 kg rail section

• Total length of fish plate: 610mm
• Center to center of hole: 166mm
• Diameter of fish bolt hole: 27mm

17
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Combination Fish Plates

– Used to connect two different rail sections
– These cover the rail sections adequately and upto
the center where the rail section changes
– The expansion gap is eliminated. It improves the
strength.
– The level of the top table for two rail sections is
kept same
– A marking nomenclature is adopted for these
plates

18
Fastenings: Rail to Rail
• Combination Fish Plates: Nomenclature
– OL Signifying Outside Left
– IL Signifying Inside Left
– IR Signifying Inside Right
– OR Signifying Outside Right
– R.H. and L.H. are defined as follows:- Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey
– With rails of unequal weights – Face the heavier
section.
– With rails of equal weights – Face the deeper type of
rail, or if both rails are of equal depth, the more
modern section

19
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Joggled Fish Plates

– These fish plates are made of old / released
standard fish plates by providing a suitable bulge
in the central part of the plate
– These are used at:
• New Thermit weld with support given by wooden
blocks, which are removed if the weld is
categorized as ‘good’
• Old defective welds categorized as D1 or D2
• Joint with weld fracture, train moved with
restricted speed

20
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Tolerances: Standard Fish Plate

– Diameter of hole: +0.8mm / -0.0mm
– C/C distance of holes: ±0.40mm (±0.60mm for
1.0/0.95 m long fish plate)
– Overall length: ±2.0mm
– Height: ± 0.5mm
– Thickness: +1.5mm / -1.0mm
– Straightness: per 100mm of length
Horizontal: 0.16mm; Vertical: 0.10mm
– End Squareness: ±2mm
21
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Tolerances: Joggled Fish Plate

– Diameter of hole: +2.0mm / -0.0mm
– C/C distance of holes: ±2.0mm
– Overall length: +6.0mm / -2.0mm
– Height: +0.6mm / -0.4mm for fishplate bar and
±0.5mm for fishplate
– Thickness: +2.5mm / -0.5mm for fishplate bar and
+2.0mm / -1.0mm for fishplate
– Straightness: per 100mm of length
Horizontal: 0.16mm; Vertical: 0.10mm

22
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Tolerances: Joggled Fish Plate

– End Squareness: ±2.0mm
– Slot for clamp: ±0.5mm along length; ±0.2mm
along width
– Radius of collar bend: ±1.5mm
– Top notch, machined: +0.50mm
– Bottom notch, machined: +0.50mm

23
Fastenings: Rail to Rail
• Tolerances: Combination Fish Plate
– Diameter of hole: +1.0mm / -0.0mm
– Between surfaces of fishing planes: +0.4mm/-0.0mm
– Overall length: ±2.0mm
– Thickness: +2.0mm / -0.8mm
– Height: ± 0.5mm
– Straightness: per 100mm of length
Horizontal: 0.16mm; Vertical: 0.10mm
– End Squareness: ±2.0mm
– Weight: +5% and -2%

24
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Marking of Fish Plate Bars

– FI-XX-YY-DN-RS-ZZ
– FI Firms initial
– XX Two digits of month of manufacture
– YY Two digits of year of manufacture
– DN Drawing Nos
– RS Rail section
– ZZ Heat No.

25
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Marking of Fish Plate

– FI-XX-YY
– FI Firms initial
– XX Two digits of month of manufacture
– YY Two digits of year of manufacture

26
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Track Bolts and Nuts

– Steel for bolts: Property Class 5.6
– Steel for nuts: Property Class 5
– Ultimate Tensile Strength: Minimum 500 MPa
– Yield strength: Minimum 300 MPa
– Percent elongation: Minimum 20
– Impact strength: Minimum 27 J

27
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Property Tests of Finished Track Bolts

– Ultimate Tensile Strength: Minimum 500 MPa
– Yield strength: Minimum 300 MPa
– Stress under Proof Load: 280 MPa
– Brinell Hardness: Minimum 147 HBW; Maximum
238 HBW (Hardness Brinell Wolfram Carbide)
– Surface integrity

28
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Property Tests of Finished Track Nuts

– Proof Load: For Dia.
• 18mm: 121 KN
• 22mm: 190.9 KN
• 25mm: 243.5 KN
– Brinell Hardness: 139 – 287 HBW

29
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Dimensions and Tolerances for ISO Metric Screw

Threads: Bolts
Dia. Pitch Major Pitch Diameter, Minor
Nomi Diameter, mm mm Diameter, mm
mm mm Max Toler Max Toler Max Toler
18 2.5 17.958 0.335 16.334 0.170 15.252 0.319
22 2.5 21.958 0.335 20.334 0.170 19.252 0.319
25 3 24.952 0.375 23.003 0.200 21.704 0.385

30
Fastenings: Rail to Rail

• Dimensions and Tolerances for ISO Metric Screw

Threads: Nuts
Dia. Pitch Major Pitch Diameter, Minor
Nomi Diameter, mm mm Diameter, mm
mm mm Min Max Toler Max Toler
18 2.5 18.000 16.600 0.224 15.744 0.450
22 2.5 22.000 20.600 0.224 19.744 0.450
25 3 25.000 23.316 0.265 22.252 0.500

31
Today we have discussed the fastenings for rail-to-
rail connection. These include standard fish
plates, combined fish plates, joggled fish plates,
the bolts and nuts used with fish plates, their
use, properties and tolerances.
Thank You

32
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 33
Fastenings – Rail to Sleeper (Elastic)

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Fastenings
• Rail to Rail fastenings
– Standard Fish Plates
– Joggled Fish Plates
– Combined Fish Plates
– Bolts and Nuts
– Tolerances

2
Today’s Discussion

• Rail to Sleeper fastenings

– Elastic fastenings – Requirements
– Rubber pads, GRSP, CGRSP, Nylon
chord GRSP

3
Rail to Rail Fastenings

• Elastic fastenings: Requirements, should

– Hold the gauge well
– Have adequate toe load
– Provide sufficient elasticity to absorb vibrations
and shocks
– Maintain the track well
– Adequate resistance to lateral forces thus to
provide stability to the track
– Adequate resistance to longitudinal forces thus to
contain creep

4
Rail to Rail Fastenings

• Elastic fastenings: Requirements

– Fit and Forget type (least maintenance)
– Reusable without loss of properties
– Easy to manufacture, lay and maintain
– Free from sabotage or theft
– Universal type
– Low cost and long service life

5
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads
– Manufactured using natural rubber, Ribbed Smoked
Sheet (RSS) either of grade 1 to 4 or a blend with
Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR) and/or Poly
Butadiene Rubber (PBR)
– Nylon Cord Reinforced GRSP shall consist of two T-55 -2022

layers of same compound of GRSP reinforced in

between with two layers of treated Nylon Cord and
a thin rubber layer between two layers of
reinforcement

6
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Functions

– Absorbs shocks
– Dampens and absorbs vibrations
– Resists longitudinal movement of rails
– Prevents abrasion of the rail on top of the sleeper
– Acts as an insulator between the rail and the T-55 -2022

sleeper
– Size 130mm × 125mm × 6mm with grooves at
11mm center to center and 3mm deep on either
side alternatively at top and bottom

7
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads
– The Composite Grooved Rubber Sole plates
(CGRSP) shall consist of two layers of different
rubber compound A & B
– Thickness of compound for 6.2mm CGRSP: T-55 -2022

• Compound ‘A’: 3.0mm approx.

• Compound ‘B’: 3.5mm approx.
• Tolerance for thickness of CGSRP: +0.5mm/-0.0mm

8
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads
– Thickness of compound for 10mm CGRSP:
• Compound ‘A’: 7±0.5mm
• Compound ‘B’: 3±0.5mm
• Tolerance for thickness of CGRSP: +0.7mm/-0.0mm T-55 -2022

9
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6mm thick GRSP 10mm thick GSRP
Hardness, Min 75 A 70 A
Tensile strength, 120 kg/cm2 before 120 kg/cm2 before
Min and 100 kg/cm2 and 100 kg/cm2 T-55 -2022
after ageing after ageing
Retention 80% Retention 70%
Elongation at 200 before and 150 200 before and 150
break, Min after ageing after ageing
Retention 65% Retention 60%

10
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6mm thick GRSP 10mm thick GRSP
Relaxed modulus at 45-60 kg/cm2 before 50-75 kg/cm2 before
100% elongation, Min and +30/-10% change and ±40% change
after ageing after ageing
T-55 -2022
Compression set 30% 30%
subject to 50%
compression, Max
Load compression 0.4-0.6mm 0.7-1.0mm
Tension set subject to 25% 25%
50% stretch, Max
11
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6mm thick GRSP 10mm thick GRSP
Electrical resistance 100 Mega Ohms 100 Mega Ohms
before/after
immersion
T-55 -2022
Ash content ±5, Max 29% ±5, Max 29%
Specific gravity ±0.03, Max 1.27 ±0.03, Max 1.27
Secant stiffness 150-250 KN/mm 100-170 KN/mm
Impact attenuation 30% Min 40% Min

12
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6.2mm thick CGRSP 10mm thick CGRSP
Hardness, Min Compound ‘A’ 75 Compound ‘A’ 75
Compound ‘B’ 60 Compound ‘B’ 60
Tensile strength, 120 kg/cm2 before 125 kg/cm2 before
T-55 -2022
Min and 100 kg/cm2 after and 110 kg/cm2
ageing after ageing
Retention 80% Retention 80%
Elongation at break, 250 before and 180 250 before and 180
Min after ageing after ageing
Retention 60% Retention 60%
13
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6.2mm thick CGRSP 10mm thick CGRSP
Relaxed modulus at 25-45 kg/cm2 before 25-45 kg/cm2 before
100% elongation, Min and +30/-10% change and +30/-10% change
after ageing after ageing
T-55 -2022
Compression set 30% 30%
subject to 50%
compression, Max
Load compression 0.6-0.9mm 0.8-1.1mm
Tension set subject to 25% 25%
50% stretch, Max
14
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6.2mm thick CGRSP 10mm thick CGRSP
Electrical resistance 100 Mega Ohms 100 Mega Ohms
before/after
immersion
T-55 -2022
Ash content ±5, Max 29% for ±5, Max 29% for
Comp-A; 20% for Comp-A; 20% for
Comp-B Comp-B
Specific gravity ±0.03, Max 1.27 for ±0.03, Max 1.27 for
Comp-A; 1.17 for Comp-A; 1.17 for
Comp-B Comp-B

15
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6.2mm thick CGRSP 10mm thick CGRSP
Secant stiffness 100-240 KN/mm 100-170 KN/mm
Impact attenuation 30% Min 40% Min
Adhesion, Min 8 Kgf 8 Kgf T-55 -2022

16
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Dynamic Properties CGRSP

Property Value
Resilience at 20% deformation, Min 80
Static modulus at 20% deformation, kg/cm2 55 – 65
Effective dynamic modulus at 20% 70 – 90 T-55 -2022

deformation, kg/cm2
Oscillating decay, Min 0.35

17
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6mm thick Nylon Chord Reinforced GRSP
Hardness, Min 75 A
Tensile strength, Min 120 kg/cm2 before and 100 kg/cm2 after
ageing; Retention 80%
T-55 -2022
Elongation at break, Min 200 before and 150 after ageing
Retention 65%
Relaxed modulus at 100% 45-60 kg/cm2 before and +30/-10%
elongation, Min change after ageing
Specific gravity ±0.03, Max 1.27

18
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties

Property 6mm thick Nylon Chord
Reinforced GRSP
Compression set subject to 50% 30%
compression, Max
Load compression 0.3-0.5mm T-55 -2022

Tension set subject to 50% stretch, Max 25%

Electrical resistance before/after 100 Mega Ohms
immersion
Ash content ±5, Max 29%

19
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Rubber Pads: Physical Properties of Nylon Chord

Property 6mm thick Nylon Chord
Reinforced GRSP
Denier, g/9000m, Min 2400
Number of ends / inch 24± 2
T-55 -2022
Thickness, mm, Min 0.75
Load at Break, kg, Min 16
Elongation at Break, %, Max 20
Number of twists/m 380 / 400

20
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Adhesion between Chord and Rubber

– H-Pull test 10 kgf, Min
– Peel adhesion 4.0 kgf, Min
– Breaking load 350 kgf, Min (average of 5
specimen), 352 kgf Min for individual specimen T-55 -2022

• Metal Liners
– Metal Liners are used with Elastic Rail Clip on
concrete sleepers

21
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Metal Liners: Mechanical Properties

– Ultimate Tensile Strength, Min: 410 MPa
– Yield Strength, Min: 250 MPa
– Percent elongation, Min: 23
– Hardness, Min: 115 HBW (BHN/HB/HBS) T-56 -2020

– Bend Test: Internal dia. 2t at 180o (U-shape)

– Charpy Impact test, Min: 27 J
– Fine grains Ferrite and Pearlite: 6 or finer

22
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• GFN-66: Glass Filled Nylon-66 Liners

– These are insulating liners, 4mm/6mm thick
– Used on circuited track sections subject to severe
corrosion
– Available in single piece, free of corrosion T-44 -2020 Jaykey.com

– Have longer life

– Used on 52 kg and 60 kg rails sections and PRC
sleeper, coastal regions, area subjected to
industrial fumes, etc.

23
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• GFN-66 Liners: Physical Properties

– Melting point: 258 – 268 oC
– Specific gravity: 1.38 – 1.43
– Glass filler: 33±2%
– Hardness Rockwell: 110 R, Min
– Tensile strength: 17.5 kg/mm2 Min T-44 -2020

– Elongation at break: 10% Max

– Cross-breaking strength: 20 kg/mm2 Min
– Dielectric strength: 11 KV/mm Min
– Volume resistivity: 108 Ohm.cm, Min

24
Today we have discussed the fastenings for rail-
to-sleeper connection. These include
requirements of elastic fastenings, rubber
pads, CGRSP, Nylon Chord GRSP, metal and
GFN-6 liners.
Thank You

25
 RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 34
Fastenings – Rail to Sleeper (Others)

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Rail to Sleeper fastenings

– Elastic fastenings – Requirements
– Rubber pads, GRSP, CGRSP, Nylon
chord GRSP

2
Today’s Discussion

• Rail to Sleeper fastenings

– Elastic Rail Clips
– Fastenings for CI sleepers
– Fastenings for Steel sleepers
– Fastenings for Wooden sleepers

3
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips

– ERC round, ERC flat, ERC MK-II, ERC MK-III, ERC
MK-V, ERC-J
– Suitable for modern tracks
– Withstand vibrations induced in a track rail-fastner.com

– Sustain static and dynamic cyclic stresses

– Resist creep and torsion, thus keep rail in position
– Resist lateral forces, maintain gauge
– Longer service life and low maintenance cost

4
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: Properties

– Grain size: 6 or finer
– Hardness: 375-415 HBW / 380-435 HV / 40-44
HRC
– Tolerance of diameter: +1.0% / -0.8% IRST-31 -2021

– Depth of decarburization: Not more than d/100

or 0.25mm whichever is less
– Surface free of distortion, twist, kinks, and shall
be straight

5
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC Round Toe

– Diameter: 20.64mm
– Weight of clip: 1.0 kg approx.
– Toe deflection: 11.4mm
– Toe load: 645 – 800 kg RDSO/T-1892

6
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC Flat Toe

– Diameter: 20.64mm
– Weight of clip: 1.0 kg approx.
– Toe deflection: 11.4mm
– Toe load: 645 – 800 kg RDSO/T-3700

– Contact of surface for flat toe clips:

• Major axis: 28mm Min
• Minor axis: 9.5mm Min

7
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC MK-III Flat Toe

– Suits to both 52 kg and 60 kg rails
– Diameter: 20.64mm
– Weight of clip: 0.91 kg approx.
– Toe deflection: 13.5mm RDSO/T-3701

– Toe load: 850 - 1100 kg

– Contact of surface for flat toe clips:
• Major axis: 28mm Min
• Minor axis: 9.5mm Min

8
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC MK-II Flat Toe

– Diameter: 18.0mm
– Weight of clip: 0.60 kg approx.
– Toe deflection: 11.2mm
– Toe load: 700 - 900 kg RDSO/T-3722

– Contact of surface for flat toe clips:

• Major axis: 20mm Min
• Minor axis: 8mm Min

9
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC MK-V

– Diameter: 23.0mm or 20.64mm for central leg
– Weight of clip: 1.14 kg rod, 1.08 kg clip approx.
– Toe deflection: 13.5mm
– Toe load: 1200 - 1500 kg RDSO/T-5919

– Contact of surface for flat toe clips:

• Major axis: 28mm Min
• Minor axis: 9.5mm Min

10
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: ERC-J

– Diameter: 20.64mm
– Weight of clip: 0.915 kg approx.
– Toe deflection: 8.5mm
– Toe load: 650 kg Min RDSO/T-8258

– Bearing length: 15 – 20mm

11
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Rail Clips: IRN 202

– Used on two-block reinforced concrete sleepers
– Diameter: 18mm
– Toe deflection: 18.5mm
– Toe load: 1000 kg Min
– Hardness: 375 – 415 BHN
– Creep resistance is 50% of total toe load
– Hold in position by bolt and clamp arrangement
– Not a fit and forget type, costlier and heavier
12
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Fastening: Herbert Meir (HM)

– Four coach screws are tightened against the
plastic dowels of the PRC sleeper
– Each clip weight: 0.425 kg
– Toe load: 1100 kg Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Toe deflection: 13.5mm

– Creep resistance per sleeper: 3000 kg
– Creep resistance is higher than the combined
resistance offered by sleeper and ballast

13
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings

• Elastic Fastening: Herbert Meir (HM)

– Grooved rubber pad is used below rail seat
– Thin insulated shim is used between angle plate
and concrete sleeper
– Gauge is maintained using an angled guide plate
– Advantages: Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

• Higher tow load, creep and torsional resistance

• Better vibration damping property and insulation
• Quick tightening and loosening
• More pilfer proof
• Fixed in concrete sleepers before dispatch from plant

14
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: CI Sleeper
Cotters (iricen.gov.in)

• MS Cotters
– Used to fix tie bars with CI sleepers
– Four types of cotters
• Central Split Cotter
• Side Split cotter
• Solid End Split cotter
Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey
• Bent Plate cotter
– Length of the cotter: 152mm
– Weight of each cotter: 0.35 kg
– Splitted length: 112mm

15
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: CI Sleeper

• MS Tie Bars
– Used for holding the two plates of CST-9 sleepers
together
– Length of tie bar: 2720mm for BG
– Section of tie bar: 50mm × 13mm for BG

Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey

16
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Loose Jaws
– Initially pressed-up lugs were used which caused:
• Damage, cracking or deformation to trough
sleepers
– Spring steel loose jaws can be easily replaced
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Weight of each loose jaw: 0.288 kg approx.

17
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Two-way Keys
– Universal application, can be used with
trough sleepers, pot sleepers, CST-9 sleepers
– A two-way taper is provided at both ends
– Key can be driven in both the directions
Two Way Keys (iricen.gov.in)

– Length of the key: 190mm BG 52 kg / 90R

– Taper of the key: 1 in 32
– Gauge adjustment of up to ±3mm can be
done based on extent to which key is driven

18
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Two-way Keys: Driving the keys

– Single line CST-9 sleeper: same direction
– Single line Steel trough sleeper: outer keys in one
direction, inner keys in opposite direction on
alternate sleeper
– Single line Wooden sleeper: with single key in Two Way Keys (iricen.gov.in)

same direction, with double key same as steel

trough sleeper
– Double line CST sleeper: 75% in the direction of
traffic and 25% in opposite direction

19
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Two-way Keys: Driving the keys

– Double line CST sleeper: All in one direction on
one sleeper and opposite direction on next
sleeper in breathing length of LWR track
– Double line ST sleeper: same as double line CST
Two Way Keys (iricen.gov.in)
sleeper. In case of breathing length on LWR track,
two inner keys are in one direction and other keys
are in opposite direction. Direction of keys is
reversed in alternate sleepers.

20
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Coated Fish Plates

– Rubber coated:
• Used on insulated joints
• Damages early, low service life
– Epoxy coated
• Now in use

21
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Steel Sleeper

• Mota Singh Liner

– Holes in trough sleeper gets elongated due to
wear and tear caused due to moving loads
– MS liner overcomes this problem of elongated
holes
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

22
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper
• Dog Spikes
– Name is given due to shape of the head
– Lugs are provided on the spike head for extraction
– For fixing dog spikes, holes are bored with augers
– Hole diameter 16mm on hardwood (U) sleeper and
14mm on softwood (T) sleeper are standardized on
Indian Railways Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey

– Spikes may get pull up due to wave action under

traffic loads
– When spikes get loose then they are pulled out and
wooden plug is placed in that hole. Another hole is
bored to place spike again

23
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Dog Spikes
– Number of spikes: On straight track – 2 (one on
either side); on curved track – 3 (2 outer, one inner);
on joint sleeper, bridges – 4 (2 outside and 2 inside)
– Section of dog spike: 16mm2
Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Length of dog spike:

• BG points and crossings: 160mm ± 3mm
• BG with canted bearing plate: 135mm ± 3mm
• BG track without bearing plates: 120mm ± 3mm

24
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Round Spikes
– Used with anti-creep bearing plates
– Also used to fix assemblies of switches on
sleepers
– Section of dog spike: 18mm diameter Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Length of dog spike: depends on the purpose

– Now not in use

25
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Screw Spikes
– Preferred above dog spikes
– Used on high speed, main and trunk routes
– Also used on bridges and platform lines
– Pull out resistance is double of that of dog spikes
– Helps in increasing the life span of sleepers Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

– Length varies to suit the type of sleeper with or

without a bearing plate for different gauges
– It is provided with greater head width and sloping
surface for better hold of rail with sleeper

26
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Screw Spikes
– Diameter: 20mm (Plate screws) and 22mm (Rail screws) Rail screws
– Plate screws replaced round spikes, used with anti-creep
bearing plates
– Rail screws directly fastens the rail-sleepers with or
without bearing plates
Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey
BG A B C D E F G H J K

With 120 20±5 30 22 11 34±2 4 6 35 50±0

out ±3 /1 .5
BP
With 135± 30±5 30 22 11 34±2 4 6 35 50±0
BP 3 /1 .5

27
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Screw Spikes Plate screws

– Diameter: 20mm (Plate screws) and 22mm (Rail screws)
– Plate screws
BG A B C D E F G J K

With 160 30±5 30 20 7 30±2 1 25 35±0.

crossing ±3 /1 5 Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey
timbers
With CI 135± 30±5 30 20 7 30±2 1 25 35±0.
anti- 3 /1 5
creep
BP

28
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Fang Bolts
– Used under the switches for fastening slide chair
– Used at locations where the gauge is to be preserved
• Bearing Plates
– MS Canted Bearing Plate: used on joints and curves;
cant of 1 in 20, Size 260mm × 220mm × 16mm for 52 kg M.S.Canted Bearing Plate (iricen.gov.in)

and 90R rails

A B C D E F G H J K L M N

260 220 49. 160 60 26 21 11 11 62 32 68 16

5

29
Rail to Sleeper Fastenings: Wooden Sleeper

• Bearing Plates
– Flat MS Bearing Plate: used at points and crossings in canted
the lead portion of a turnout; no cant is provided; Size M.S.Canted Bearing Plate (iricen.gov.in)

260mm × 220mm × 20mm for 52 kg and 90R rails,

distance between holes 120mm
– CI Anti-creep Bearing Plate: used at locations where rail Railway Track Engineering by J S Mundrey
is likely to develop creep; cant of 1 in 20; fixed using
round spikes; Size 285mm × 205mm for BG track
BG A B C D E F G H J K L

90R 285 204 60 27.5 157 95 44 48 45 29 13

52/90R 173 59 11 57 55 145 85 - - - -

30
Material Requirement on a Track

• Computed as per km
– Rails (in Nos. and weight)
– Sleepers (Nos., based on sleeper density)
– Fish Plates (@ 2 per rail)
– Fish Bolts / Holes (@ 4 per rail)
– Bearing Plates (@ 2 per sleepers)
– Spikes – Dog spike (@ 4-6 per sleeper on straight
track; 6-8 per sleeper on curved track)

31
Today we have discussed the fastenings for rail-to-
sleeper connection. These include elastic rail
clips, CI sleeper fastenings, Steel sleeper
fastenings and Wooden sleeper fastenings.
Finally, requirements of fastenings on a track are
discussed.
Thank You

32
RAILWAY ENGINEERING
Lecture Number 35
Track Alignment

RAJAT RASTOGI
CIVIL ENGINEERING

1
Discussed in Previous Lecture

• Rail to Sleeper fastenings

– Elastic Rail Clips
– Fastenings for CI sleepers
– Fastenings for Steel sleepers
– Fastenings for Wooden sleepers

2
Today’s Discussion

• Track Alignment
– Need
– Requirements
– Selection of a profile

3
Track Alignment

• Why Alignment need to be fixed?

– Connectivity across locations
• Strategic, industrial, Consumption centres, big habitations
– Development of an area
– Movement of persons and goods

4
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Purpose of a new rail line

– Strategic or political
• Rail line network in Kashmir, Bhalukpong – Tenga –
Tawang rail line in Arunachal Pradesh; Silapathar,
Assam to Along via Bame, Arunachal Pradesh;
Rupai, Assam to Pasighat, Arunachal Pradesh
– Connecting employment centres with adjoining
workforce centres
• High Speed Rail development between
Ahmedabad and Mumbai; Bangaluru – Mysore
link; RRTS line between Delhi - Meerut

5
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Purpose of a new rail line

– Connecting trade and consumption centres
• Jaipur – Sawai Madhopur; Luni – Samdari – Bhildi;
Agthori – Kamakhiya; Motumari – Vishnupuram
line
– Development of a backward area or remote
location
• Kashmir Rail line, Rail line to North-East India;
Extension of rail line beyond Rishikesh in
Uttarakhand

6
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Purpose of a new rail line

– Connecting a tourist location
• Nilgiris railways Ootacamund, Kalka-Shimla rail line,
Darjeeling Railways, Rishikesh – Karnprayag rail line
– Shortening of existing commuting times
• Konkan rail link on West Coast; Speed upgradation
• Integrated development
– Rail and road transportation shall complement
each other for overall development of an area

7
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Economic considerations
– Shortest route
• It can be a direct route also between two places.
• Being shortest, it reduces construction cost and
operation cost, and travel time between locations.
– Mumbai – Delhi by train via Kota, Vadodara 1400
km, average 14-15 hours
– Mumbai – Delhi by train via Jhansi, Gwalior, Bhopal,
Nasik 1537 km, average 18 hours
• It may also result in low maintenance cost

8
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Economic considerations
– Construction and Maintenance cost
• Construction cost can be reduced by selecting an
alignment with:
– Fairly balanced cut and fill of earthwork
– Minimal cutting in rock strata
– Avoiding drainage requirements
• Maintenance cost can be controlled by:
– Alignment on a steep gradient
– Avoiding sharp curves
– Avoiding locations which may cause deterioration

9
Track Alignment – Basic Requirements

• Economic considerations
– Operational expenditures
• Can be achieved by providing easy curves and
gradients, direct connectivity, etc.
• Maximum safety and comfort
– Properly profiled and designed alignment
• Transitions, vertical curves, removal of kinks in profile
– Selection of unyielding formation
– Safety with respect to terrain features
• Aesthetics – Pleasing route

10
Track Alignment – Selection

• Choice of Gauge
– Primarily BG according to Uniform Gauge Policy
• Obligatory or Control Points
– Important cities along the route having political,
strategic and commercial importance
– Locations to cross a river, bridge length and cost
– Passes and saddles in hilly area, use of these will
reduce need for cutting and banking
– Tunnel locations, length of circuitous route vs
through tunnel, travel time, overall cost

11
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Plain and flat alignment, easy for construction
and operation
– Valley alignment, as good as plain alignment if the
connecting points lie in the same valley
– Cross-country alignment, moves across different
levels, streams of varied widths, watersheds,
which increases cost and traction requirements
– Mountain alignment, requires use of steep
gradients, needs use of developmental processes

12
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Mountain alignment

13
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Length developmental processes: Zig-zag line
method
• It is a horseshoe pattern
• Alignment follows a convenient side slope, which
may be at right angles to the direction of normal Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

alignment
• It then turns around by 180o

14
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Length developmental processes: Switch-back
method
• Used when alignment passes through steep side
slopes
• Reversal in the direction of movement is achieved Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

through a switch, located in a station yard

• Buffer stops (A1, B1) are provided at the end of
switch (A, B)

15
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Length developmental processes: Spiral or
Complete Loop method
• Used in a narrow valley where a small bridge or a
viaduct is constructed at a considerable height to
span the valley Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

• Line crosses the same point at a height through a

railway bridge or a tunnel

16
Track Alignment – Selection

• Topography of an area
– Length developmental processes: Spiral or
Complete Loop method

Railway Engineering by Chandra and Agarwal

17
Track Alignment – Selection

• Geological Formations
– Good soil and stable formation
– Avoid marshy lands and weak soils
– Free of drainage problem
– Rocky is stable but costly from construction point
– Free of slips and slides
• Effect of Flood and Climate
– Area shall have less likelihood of flooding
– In sandy and hot areas, alignment shall pass of
leeward side of sand dunes

18
Track Alignment – Selection

• Effect of Flood and Climate

– Sunny side is preferable
– In colder regions, the alignment should pass on
side of the hill facing away from the direction of
wind
– Snow affected areas need critical consideration
• Position of roads and rail-road crossings
– Alignment of the track shall cross the road at right
angles to have perpendicular level crossing

19
Track Alignment – Selection

• Geometric Standards – Most economical

combination
– Straight portion near stations, bridges
– Rise and fall balancing
– Hauling distance – Locomotive performance
– Transition curves, vertical curves, etc.
– Geometric elements within permissible limits
– Gradient (Ruling) and Radius (Max.)
• Affect weight to be hauled / length of train
– Min. 36 m long chord between two reverse curves

20
Track Alignment – Selection

• Traffic
– Catchments area
• 15 km on either side; later expands to 25 km
– Nature of traffic
• Freight / Passenger
– Volume of traffic
• Increases with around square of population
– Growth rates or factors
• Population, area development, etc.

21
Track Alignment – Selection

• Cost consideration
– Construction cost
• Quarry location, height, labour availability
– Operating cost
• Terrain considerations
• Connectivity with equitable reverse flows
• Location of railway stations and yards
– These need to be located on a level stretch of
land, outside towns, free of traffic flows

22
Track Alignment – Selection
• Religious and historical monuments
– These should be avoided on the alignment
– Vibrations may cause deterioration in the historical
monuments
– Such locations may be connected from tourism point of
view
• Economic considerations
– Cost effectiveness can be ascertained from:
– Maximum annual returns = (Revenue – Expenses) /
investments
– Revenue is related to the traffic on route
– Optimized operations and maintenance can reduce the
expenses

23
Today we have discussed the requirements of an
ideal alignment in terms of purpose,
economic aspects, comfort and safety. The
factors which need to be considered in the
selection of the alignment are also discussed.
Thank You

24