1.

Railway
a) Introduction
• Railway engineering: It is a branch of Civil Engineering which deals with construction and maintenance
of railway tracks for the safe and efficient movement of trains on it.
• Railway tracks are broadly classified into two parts
¨ Temporary railways tracks are provided for the transportation of earth and construction materials.
¨ Permanent railway tracks
are provided for the
movement of passenger
trains and goods trains.
• Gauge distance
¨ It is the distance between
inner faces of rails or
distance between running
faces of rails. BG 1.676 m
• Conning of wheels MG 1.000 m
¨ Train wheels are made in cone shaped. Diameter near the flange is more NG 0.762 m
than diameter at outer end. FG 0.610 m
¨ Flanges helps in fixed and confined movement.
• Adzing of sleepers
¨ Sleepers are slightly curved inwards. This is done to increase the contact area between rail surface
and wheel surface.
b) Rails:
• Rail sections are considered as continuous steel girder, they are made up of cast iron or high carbon
steel. They convert rolling load into point loads.
• Buckling of rails: due to thermal expansion, if sufficient space is not available then rails can buckle and
cause derailment.
• Rail joints are necessary to hold the rails in correct position and also provide required expansion
contraction space between them.
• Minimum four fish bolts are provided to connect two fish plates at rail joints and they are also made of
cast iron and high carbon steel.
c) Creep of rails
• It is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers. Rails have a tendency
to gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic. The main factors responsible for the development
of creep are as follows.
¨ Ironing effect of the wheel on the waves formed in the rail tends to cause the rail to move in the
direction of traffic, resulting in creep.
¨ Starting and stopping operations When a train starts or accelerates, the backward thrust of its
wheels tends to push the rail backwards. Similarly, when the train slows down or comes to a halt,
the effect of the applied brakes tends to push the rail forward. This in turn causes creep in one
direction or the other.
¨ Changes in temperature Creep can also develop due to variations in temperature resulting in the
expansion and contraction of the rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot weather conditions.
¨ Unbalanced traffic In a double-line section, trains move only in one direction, i.e., each track is
unidirectional. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of traffic. In a single-line section, even
though traffic moves in both directions, the volume of the traffic in each direction is normally
variable. Creep, therefore, develops in the direction of predominant traffic.
¨ Poor maintenance of track Some minor factors, mostly relating to the poor maintenance of the
track, also contribute to the development of creep.

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 d) Sleeper
• These are continuously placed below the rail section to avoid differential settlement; they are provided
to generate elasticity on railway tracks.
• They convert point load from rails to uniformly distributed load to ballasts. They are placed transverse to
the rails.
• Ballasts are provided to generate some amount of elasticity on the tracks and to distribute the load on
bigger area.
𝐦𝐢𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 (1.9cm) drainage condition
Ballast =
𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐬𝐢𝐳𝐞 (5.1cm) shear strength
¨ Most economical and effective depth of ballast is calculated by assuming force distribution at 45º.
Depth of ballast
𝑆𝑆 − 𝑊𝑆
𝐷A =
2
§ SS–Spacing between sleeper, WS–width of sleeper
¨ Due to free movement of wheels, lateral thrust is generated, ballast shoulder is provided to absorb
that impact force, width of ballast shoulder should be increased by 15cm on outer curved railway
track portion.
¨ Due to absence of ballast on bridges, raking force is generated.
• Sleeper density: it is number of sleepers used for one rail length and are denoted by
𝑀(length of rail) + 𝑥
¨ Length – 13m
¨ Sleeper density for broad gauge should lie between M+4 to M+7
• Composite Sleeper Index
¨ It is used to check the suitability of a particular timber to be used as a sleeper at 12% moisture.
𝑆 + 10𝐻
𝐶𝑆𝐼 =
20
¨ 𝑆- strength 𝐻- hardness
¨ Dog spikes were used to make the connection between rails and wooden sleepers.
¨ Maintenance is easy in case of wooden sleepers.
• Steel sleepers:
¨ Shape of steel sleepers is inverted channel section called as trough shape, CST-9 (central standard
trial 9) is most successful arrangement for steel sleepers with cotter arrangement. They were
rejected due to high rigidity between rail and sleepers.
• Prestressed concrete sleepers:
¨ Rail sections are connected with pandrol clips, they are fit and forget type connection. They are
elastic rail fastening. It has a point contact and cause indentation on the rail due to the heavy load
and small contact area.
e) Temperature variations in rails
• The long welded rail (LWR) is a welded rail in which the central portion does not undergo any
longitudinal contraction or expansion due to temperature variations.
• Normally, a free rail would undergo alterations in its length corresponding to the variations in rail
temperature, but as rails are fastened to sleepers, which in turn are embedded in the ballast, their
expansion and contraction due to temperature changes are restricted. The restraint put on the thermal
expansion of rail gives rise to locked up internal stresses in the rail metal.
• At a particular length of the rail from its ends when the resistance offered by the track structure doesn’t
equal to the thermal forces created as a result of temperature variations. This portion at the end of the
long welded rail undergoes thermal expansion, is called the breathing length.
• Calculation of number of sleepers
¨ Force generated due to thermal stresses
𝑃 = 𝐴𝐸𝛼𝑇
2
 ¨ Let the resistance offered by a single sleeper be 𝑅T
¨ Number of sleepers required
𝑃
𝑛=
𝑅T
¨ Length of rail in one direction
𝑙 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑆
o 𝑆 is spacing between sleepers
f) Geometric design
• Safe speed: It is the maximum speed, keeping in mind the danger of overturning and derailment. It
depends on gauge distance, radius of curve, super elevation, length of transition curve.
• Maximum speed on a railway track is minimum of
¨ Speed decided by railway board.
¨ Speed calculated by Martin’s formula.
¨ Speed calculated by super elevation formula.
¨ Speed calculated by length of transition curve formula.
g) Maximum speed on railway track
• By Martin’s formula
Transitioned curve Non-transitioned curve High speed track
𝑉 ≥ 100 km/h
4.35 b𝑅(𝑚) − 67 for BG/MG 80% of transition curve 4.58b𝑅(𝑚)
𝑉YZ[ (𝑘𝑚/ℎ) value
3.6 √𝑅 − 60 for NG
• Radius of a curve
1720 for 30 m chain length
𝑅= h
𝐷
1750 for 30.5 m chain length
𝑅= h
𝐷
h) Super elevation or cant
• In the curved tracks outer rails are placed at a higher elevation than inner rail, that is called super
elevation. tan 𝜃 = 𝑒/𝐺
m
𝐺𝑉lY
𝑒=
127𝑅Y
• A lot of speed variations occurs on track (different trains have different speed), so the actual cant is
provided for Average speed (it is assumed to be equal to 0.75Vmax), also called as equilibrium cant.
m
𝐺𝑉lY
𝑒Zno/pq/Zrs =
127𝑅Y
• Maximum permissible value for actual cant (~ 0.1 of gauge distance)
Speed < 120 km/hr >120 km/hr
BG 16.5 cm 18.5 cm
MG 10 cm X
NG 7.6 cm X
i) Cant deficiency (𝐶t )
• It occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual cant provided.
𝐶t = 𝑒ou − 𝑒Zno
m
𝐺𝑉YZ[
= − 𝐶Z
127𝑅
• Maximum cant deficiency allowed (half of maximum cant)
Speed < 100 km/hr >100 km/hr

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 BG 7.6 cm 10 cm
MG 5.1 cm X
NG 5.8 cm X
j) Negative super elevation:
• If the outer track of a curve is provided at a lower elevation than inner track, then it is called negative
super elevation. This happens when a curved branch track diverts form main track in opposite direction,
the actual positive super elevation provided for main track will become actual negative super elevation
for branch track.
• DESIGN of Branch and main track with negative cant
¨ Find 𝑅YZvw ,𝑅AxZwnu
€
y.z{z |}~•
¨ With given maximum speed find 𝑒ou = ym{•
}~‚ƒ „… †…~ƒ‡ˆ

¨ 𝑒ou‰Š = 𝑒Zno + 𝐶t main track

¨ 𝑒ou‹Š = −𝑒Zno + 𝐶t branch track
k) Horizontal curves
• Transition curves: transition curves are required for introducing the super elevation in a gradual manner
and gradual change in acceleration could occur.
• Spiral curve is an ideal transition curve.
• Indian Railways mostly uses the cubic parabola for transition curves. The equation of the cubic parabola
is
𝑥•
𝑦=
6𝑅𝐿o
• Lt is the length of the transition curve, x is the horizontal coordinate on the transition curve, y is the
vertical coordinate on the transition curve, and R is the radius of the circular curve.
¨ Length of transition Curve is maximum of the three values (cant in cm, Velocity maximum in
km/h, length in m)
7.2 𝐶Z
𝐿o = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 •0.073 𝐶Z 𝑉YZ[
0.073 𝐶t 𝑉YZ[
o 𝑉YZ[ = 𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎, 𝑒ou 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 )
• Shift
𝐿m
𝑆=
24𝑅
l) Vertical curves
• Ruling gradient: It is maximum gradient, that can be provided in most general condition and that
determines the maximum load a locomotive can carry on the particular section.
• Momentum gradient: for a particular situation, gradient may be increased more than the ruling gradient
with no stoppage, if the loco is having a momentum from previous downslope.
• Pulling/pusher/helper gradient: in extra ordinary situations, when gradient is greater than ruling
gradient, then extra locomotive is provided for that particular section.
• Gradients provided in station yards are
¨ 1:1000 – minimum gradient provided for drainage condition
¨ 1:400 – maximum gradient in station yard to prevent the movement of locomotives on the railway
track due to effect of gravity.
• Grade compensation
¨ If a gradient is provided on a curved location then gradient value is reduced to compensate curve
resistance. Reduction in gradient for broad gauge is
o 𝐺𝐶 = 0.04% × 𝐷h for BG
• Vertical curves in railway tracks are set out as parabolas. A level stretch equal to the maximum train
length is to be provided in order to avoid jerks at a peak.
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m) Points and crossing
• It is arrangement on railway track to divert the trains from one track to other, turnout is one of the
weakest locations of the railway tracks which need frequent maintenance and strong material like
manganese steel is used at these points.
• Facing direction represents movement of train from points of switch to crossing side, trailing direction is
opposite to facing direction.
• Tongue rail are supported on side plates and each pair of tongue rail is connected by stretcher bar so that
they move together.
• Flares are provided to guide the wheels so that flange of wheels enter and leave the turnout smoothly.
• Wing rails are provided on opposite direction of check rails.
• Heel divergence or heel clearance is the distance between running faces of stock rail and tongue rails at
heel block.
• Flange way clearance, is the distance between adjacent faces of stock rail and tongue rail.
• Flange way depth is the vertical distance measured from top of rail to top of the heel block.

n) Turnouts
Number of crossing 𝑁 Crossing angle 𝛼 tan 𝛼 = 1/𝑁
• Curve Lead
𝐶𝐿 ≃ 2𝐺𝑁
• Switch lead
𝑆𝐿 = b2𝑅h 𝑑 − 𝑑m
¨ Where 𝑑- heel divergence
¨ 𝑅h - radius of outer rail
𝐺
𝑅h = 𝑅nxhTTvws +
2

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 ≈ 1.5𝐺 + 2𝐺𝑁 m
• Lead of crossing
𝐿 = 𝐶𝐿 − 𝑆𝐿
o) Cross over between two parallel tracks
• Two parallel tracks at a distance D from each
other are connected by a crossover with a
small length of the straight portion of the track
laying between the two theoretical noses of the
crossing.
• It is combination of two turnouts with straight,
or curved intermediate portion to divert the
train from one track to another track.
• Turnout with intermediate straight portion
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 4𝐺𝑁 + (𝐷 − 𝐺)𝑁 − 𝐺 b1 + 𝑁 m
¨ 𝐷- is center to center distance between tracks.
• Second part of the equation is called Intermediate sight distance
= (𝐷 − 𝐺)𝑁 − 𝐺 b1 + 𝑁 m
p) Turnout of reverse curve
• Outer radius of first curve 𝑅yh ≈ 1.5𝐺 + 2𝐺𝑁ym
¢
¨ Radius of centre line 𝑅y = 𝑅yh − m
• Outer radius of second curve 𝑅mh ≈ 1.5𝐺 + 2𝐺𝑁ym
¢
¨ Second radius of centre line 𝑅m = 𝑅mh −
m
• Distance between tangent points, measured parallel to the rail,
𝐴𝐵 = b𝐴𝐶 m − 𝐵𝐶 m
¨ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑅m + (𝑅y − 𝐷)
¨ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑅y + 𝑅m
• If maximum adaptable distance between tangent point are given = 𝑇y 𝑇m , with both radii are of equal
length then.
𝑇y 𝑇mm
𝑅=
4𝐷
q) Diamond crossing
• A diamond crossing is provided when two tracks of either the same gauge or of different gauge cross
each other. It consists of two acute crossings (A and C) and
other obtuse crossings (B and D).
All sides are = 𝐺 cosec 𝛼
Diagonal#1 𝛼
= 𝐺 cosec
2
Diagonal#2 𝛼
= 𝐺 sec
2
• Slip arrangement is provided for movement of trains from
one track to another track in diamond crossing.
• Diamond crossing can be laid on straight as well as curves.
• Scissor crossing has two obtuse angles crossing and six acute angle crossing.
r) Traction
• A steam locomotive is normally identified by the arrangement of its wheels. This locomotive generally
has two types of wheels.
¨ Driving wheels These wheels are coupled with each other and are directly connected with the
pistons.
¨ Idle wheels These wheels distribute the load of the locomotive on the track.
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 • A locomotive is normally designated by a three-digit code.
¨ A locomotive with a nomenclature of 4-6-2 indicates four idle wheels in the front, six driving
wheels, and two idle wheels after the driving wheels
¨ Driving wheels is the most important of all. The hauling capacity of the locomotive is decided by
the number of driving wheels.
• Tractive Effort of a Locomotive
¨ The tractive effort of a locomotive is the force that the locomotive can generate for hauling the
load.
¨ Tractive effort is generally equal to or a little greater than the hauling capacity of the locomotive.
If the tractive effort is much greater than what is required to haul the train, the wheels of the
locomotive may slip.
• Hauling Power of a locomotive
¨ The hauling power of a locomotive depends upon the weight exerted on the driving wheels and
the friction between the friction between the driving wheel and the rail.
𝐻𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
× 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑙𝑠
× 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑇 =𝜇×𝑛×𝑊
• Train Resistance
¨ Various forces offer resistance to the movement of a train on the track. These resistances may be a
result of the movement of the various parts of the locomotives as well as the friction between
them, the irregularities in the track profile, or the atmospheric resistance to a train moving at great
speed.
¨ The tractive power of a locomotive should be adequate enough to overcome these resistances and
haul the train at a specific speed.
It is the resistance offered by the friction between the internal parts
of locomotives and wagons at a constant speed. This resistance is
Resistance due to
independent of speed.
friction
𝑅y = 0.00 16 𝑊
𝑊 = weight of the train in tonnes.
When a train moves with speed, a certain resistance develops due to
the wave action of the train. Similarly, track irregularities such as
Resistance due to
longitudinal unevenness and differences in cross levels also offer
wave action, track
resistance to a moving train. Such resistances are different for
irregularities, and
different speeds.
speed
𝑅m = 0.00 00 8 𝑊𝑉
𝑉 = speed of the train in km/h
When a vehicle moves with speed, a certain resistance develops, as
Resistance due to
the vehicle has to move forward against the wind.
wind
𝑅• = 0.00 00 00 6 𝑊𝑉 m
When a train moves on a raising gradient, it requires extra effort in
order to move against gravity.
Resistance due to
𝑅¨ = 𝑊 sin 𝜃
gradient
𝑊 × % slope
=
100
When a train negotiates a horizontal curve, extra effort is required to
Curve resistance for overcome the resistance offered by the curvature of the track.
BG Curve resistance for BG tracks.
𝑅ª = 0.0004 𝑊 𝐷
s) Miscellaneous
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 • Marshalling yard: these are provided at all important junctions, the main functions of these are
¨ Reception space to receive all trains
¨ Sorting for formation of new trains
¨ Departure space for the movement of trains to the destinations
• Turntables are provided to change the direction of coal locomotives.
« «
• Versine of curve 𝑣(2𝑟 − 𝑣) = m × m
• Cotters – they are used for fixing the tie bars with Cast iron sleepers.
• Viseur’s mire – measurement of unevenness of rail top and rectification of alignment.
• Densometer – it is used in measurement of packing voids under the sleeper ends.
• Gauntlet track – it is an arrangement in which two tracks of the same or different gauges are run together
for a certain length. The arrangement is useful when BG and MG track is to be run on same bridge.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Airport Design
a) Introduction and terms
• Airports are classified by two organisations
¨ ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organisation)
¨ FAA (Federal Aviation Agency).
¨ ICAO classifies airport into two categories
o Based on basic runway length
o Based on equivalent single wheel load of the aircraft.
• Clearway :
¨ It is an area extending beyond the runway end available for completion of the take-off operation
of turbine-powered aircraft.
¨ A clearway increases the allowable aircraft operating take-off weight without increasing runway
length.
¨ No object or terrain may protrude through the clearway plane except for threshold lights no higher
than 26 inches (66 cm) and located off the runway sides.
¨ The area over which the clearway lies need not be suitable for stopping aircraft in the event of an
aborted take-off.
¨ A clearway must be under the airport owner’s control, although not necessarily by direct
ownership. The purpose of such control is to ensure that no fixed or movable object penetrates the
clearway plane during a take-off operation.
• Stop way:
¨ It is an area beyond the take-off runway centred on the extended runway centreline and designated
by the airport owner for use in decelerating an aircraft during an aborted take-off.
¨ It must be at least as wide as the runway and able to support an aircraft during an aborted take-off
without causing structural damage to the aircraft.
• Metrological conditions
¨ Air traffic rules are traditionally applied based on prevailing meteorological conditions. Visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) are applied when there is sufficient visibility for pilots of
aircraft to be able to navigate by referencing locations on the ground, as well as to be able to see
and avoid other aircraft in the area.
¨ Around airports, VMC is defined as at least 3 statute miles visibility and cloud “ceilings” (defined
as at least 5/8 of the sky covered by clouds) of at least 1000 ft above the ground (AGL).
¨ Conversely, instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) exist when visibilities are less than 3
statute miles and cloud ceilings are less than 1000 ft above the ground.
• Flight rules

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 ¨ VFR Visual flight rules depend on aircraft operators to visually maintain adequate separation
from terrain, clouds, and other aircraft.
o Under VFR, aircraft navigation is based on visual reference to locations on the ground,
including visual identification and approaches to airports.
o While flying under VFR conditions, pilots may request from air traffic control to be
under flight following.
o Under flight following, air traffic control operators provide assistance to pilots by
supervising course and altitude changes, as well as actively notifying pilots of nearby
aircraft.
o Pilots flying under VFR conditions are required to fly under flight following in the
busiest of airspace.
¨ Aircraft flying in IMC (instrument metrological condition) or at altitudes over 18,000 ft above sea
level fly under instrument flight rules (IFR).
o Aircraft flying under IFR navigate using ground-based and satellite-based navigation
aids and are fully controlled along planned routes by air traffic control personnel.
o Often times, flights operating under IFR will fly defined departure and approach
procedures to and from airports which depend on flying precise courses and altitudes
to and from waypoints as defined by ground- and satellite-based navigation systems.
o These published instrument procedures provide for aircraft to safely and efficiently
depart from and arrive to airport runways while avoiding collisions with terrain and
other aircraft during poor visibility conditions.
b) Runway Analysis and design
• Runway length requirement will be more if landing and takeoff operations are performed along the wind
direction. Wind parameters (direction, duration, intensity) are graphically represented by wind rose
diagram.
• Wind parameters should be collected for a period of at least 5 years.
• The normal component of the wind is called as cross wind component and it may interrupt safe landing
and takeoff of the aircraft.
¨ The maximum permissible value for smaller size of aircraft is 15 km/hr and for bigger aircraft it
is 25 km/hr.
¨ The percentage of time during which in a year the crosswind component remains within the
permissible limit is called wind coverage.
¨ According to FAA, runway landing mixed air traffic, should be planned so that the wind coverage
is 95% and permissible crosswind component should not exceed 25km/hr.1
• Basic runway length Assumptions
¨ No wind is blowing.
¨ Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
¨ The airport is situated at sea level.
¨ There is no wind blowing on the way to destination
¨ Zero effective gradient (level in longitudinal direction)
¨ The standard temperature 15oC exist at the airport
¨ Standard temperature is maintained along the way
c) Corrections applied to BRL
• Corrections are applied sequentially
Correction for BRL is increased 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL
Elevation
Standard Temperature at required altitude is calculated as
Correction for
6.5h
Temperature = 15h 𝐶 − ¬ × 𝑅𝐿-
1000

9
 ART- (Airport Reference Temperature): It is temperature where airport is
located, It is defined for hottest month of the year.
𝑇Y − 𝑇Z
𝐴𝑅𝑇 = 𝑇Z +
3
𝑇Z - average daily temperature
𝑇Y - monthly mean of maximum daily temperature
BRL is increased 1% per 1oC rise of ART above standard
Correction for 20% increase per 1% gradient
Gradient
• Check by ICAO:
¨ Total correction after temperature and elevation should not be more than 35% of BRL.
• In case of landing only elevation correction is necessary.
• Length of Runway is decided on the basis of
¨ Normal landing
¨ Normal takeoff
¨ Engine failure case
d) Turning Radius at Taxiway
Minimum
Friction criteria Horonjeff’s equation
requirement
𝑉m 0.388 𝑊 m
𝑅= 𝑅=
125𝑓 0.5𝑇 − 𝑆 Supersonic 180m
𝑉- km/hr W- wheel base Subsonic 120m
𝑓- friction coefficient T- taxi way width (22.5m)
(0.13) S- half of tread of main landing gear + 6m
• Castor angle: it is the angle formed between the tangent to the center line of the way and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
• Design of taxiway is governed by the volume of aircraft movements, the runway configuration, and the
location of the terminal building and other ground facilities like hanger location. Exit taxiways are
provided at suitable locations along the length of runway to clear the runway of the landed aircraft.
e) Elements in the geometric design of a Taxiway
• Length of a taxiway: it should be short as practicable for fuel saving.
• Width of a taxiway is much lower than a runway, since the speed at taxiway is lower, so pilot can
comfortably maneuver the over the small width. (22.5-7.5)
• Longitudinal gradient: if the gradient is steep, there will be greater consumption of fuel. ICAO
recommend that longitudinal gradient should not exceed 1.5% for A and B airport and 3% for other type.
• Transverse gradient: It is provided for quick drainage. Transverse gradient should not exceed 1.5% for
A, B and C types and 2% for D and E types of airport.
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient: ICAO recommends, maximum limit of rate of change
¨ For A, B, C type airport at 1% in 30 m length.
¨ For D, E type airport at 1.2% in 30 m length.
• Sight distance: since speed at taxiway is slower, so less sight distance is required.
¨ ICAO recommends for A, B, C type airport, surface of taxiway should be visible from 3m height
at 300 m distance.
¨ For D, E type airport, surface of taxiway should be visible from 2.1 m height at 250 m distance.
• Turning radius
¨ Whenever there is a change in the direction of a taxiway, a horizontal curve is required.
¨ The curve should be so designed that the aircraft can negotiate it without significant reduction in
speed, so radius should be large. Large circular curve is preferred.
f) Imaginary surfaces

10
 •
Airports have set of imaginary surfaces, any object protruding into these surfaces are considered an
obstacle to air navigation. Principle imaginary surfaces are:
¨ Primary surface: a surface longitudinally centered on the
runway.
¨ Approach surface: a surface longitudinally centered on the
extended runway centerline and extending outward and upward
from each end of the primary surface.
¨ Conical surface: an inclined surface at a slope of 20:1 extending
upward and outward from the periphery of horizontal surface.
¨ Transitional surface: an inclined plane with a slope of 7:1
extending upward and outward from primary and approach surface, terminating at horizontal
surface.
¨ Outer horizontal surface: it is circular in plane with centre located at ARP (airport reference
level). The height of outer horizontal surface is 150 m above the airport reference point.
¨ Inner horizontal surface: it is a surface located in a horizontal plane above an aerodrome and its
surrounding.
g) Miscellaneous
• Cockpit cutoff angle is the angle between the longitudinal axis of the aircraft fuselage and an inclined
plane below which the pilot’s view are blocked.
• Runway capacity is more in airport operating under VFR than IFR.
• Overland flow drainage is a kind of spatially varied flow.
• Hanger provides an enclosure for servicing and doing repairs of aircrafts
• Apron is the paved area for parking of aircrafts and loading and unloading of passangers and cargo.
®¯°¯®±²³ ´µ ¶·¸¹¯³
• Number of gates = × avg gate occupancy time
zº×m
• The lowest height above the runway where the pilot makes the decision to continue the landing
maneuver or to cut it short is called decision height.
• Wind direction is measured from true North, and runway orientation is based on the magnetic azimuth.
The true azimuth obtained from wind analysis is adjusted to magnetic azimuth by taking into account the
magnetic variation for airport location.
• Maximum takeoff weight is determined by structural limits and performance requirements and is made
up of the empty operating weight and flexible combination of payload and fuel. Also, maximum landing
weight is less than maximum take off weight by an amount dependent on weight of fuel burned during
the flight.
• PNB: perceived noise level intensity; LCN: load classification number (airport); STOL: short takeoff
and landing (aircraft)
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3. Tunnel engineering
a) Tunnel alignment and gradient
• A precise and detailed survey is necessary before setting the alignment of a tunnel on the ground. A
small error in setting the alignment would result in two ends never meeting at all.
• The following points require special attention when deciding the alignment and gradient of a tunnel.
¨ The alignment should be straight as far as possible since normally such a route would be the
shortest and most economical.
¨ The minimum possible gradient should be provided for a tunnel and its approaches.
¨ Proper ventilation and adequate lighting should be provided inside the tunnel
¨ The side drains in a tunnel should be given a minimum gradient of 1 in 500 for effective
drainage. In longer tunnels, the gradient should be provided from the centre towards the ends for
effective and efficient drainage.
b) Introduction and terms
11
 • Shaft:
¨ Shafts are vertical walls and passage sunk along the line of a tunnel at one or more points,
between the entrances, to permit the tunnel excavation to be attacked at several points at the same
time.
¨ Size of shaft depends on hoisting equipment and construction methods (including size of muck
car) and eventual use of shaft.
¨ Adits and shafts are constructed for the purpose of ventilation, removal of muck and passenger
escape.
• Open cut methods are used up to 20 m depth of excavation.
• Shield tunneling:
¨ A shield is a movable frame which supports the face of a tunnel and the ground immediately
behind the face and provides protection under which the tunnelers carry out both the excavation of
face and erection of lining.
• Weisbach triangle is a method of connecting the surface and underground surveys and avoid direct
alignment.
• Planning of alignment may be accomplished through surface survey using triangulation.
c) Size and Shape of tunnel
• The shape of tunnel cross-section is governed by the nature and type of ground, while size is largely
controlled by the use to which the tunnel is put.
• If the ground is made up of solid rock, then the tunnel can be given any shape. Tunnels in rocky terrains
are generally designed with a semicircular arch with vertical sidewalls.
• In case of soft ground such as that consisting of soft clay or sand, the pressure from the sides and top
must be resisted. A circular tunnel is generally best suited for resisting both internal and external forces
regardless of the purpose for which the tunnel is used.
¨ Theoretically, a circular section provides the largest cross-sectional area for the smallest diameter,
which provides greater resistance to external pressure.
¨ But this type of cross section is more useful for drains carrying sewage and fluids and for
aqueducts built for irrigation purposes.
¨ For railway track, the circular portion at the bottom of the tunnel has to be levelled in order to lay
the track and facilitate the easy removal of muck and placing of concrete.

For pedestrian traffic

in hard rock strata

D shaped or Tunnels in soft soils are Good for carrying

segmented roof usually horse-shoe sewage, as in dry
tunnel shaped as they can weather, self-
handle horizontal loads. cleansing velocity
It minimizes the is achieved.
inconvenience of lining
the invert, also.

12
d) Tunneling methods in Rock Strata
• Drift method:
¨ It consists in driving a small sized heading, centrally at top or bottom of the face, which is later
enlarged, by widening and benching.
¨ A drift sufficient to accommodate the tunnelling machinery, labour,
and mucking equipment is first driven end to end of the tunnel.
¨ As the heading work proceeds, the centre line is checked and accurately
marked on iron dogs fixed to the roof.
¨ Once the drift is accurately tunnelled out, the widening operation is
commenced by blasting the sides of the drift to the required section.
¨ The benching is carried out in stages and lowered down to grade in a
series of sloping and horizontal cuts.
¨ Advantage of this method is elaborate supporting platforms are not necessary for drilling
operation, and during heading work, mucking work goes undisturbed.
¨ The main feature of this method is that a small preliminary section for the full length has been
accurately driven, which will considerably economise the excavation work.
• Heading and benching method
¨ This method involves, the driving of the top portion in advance of the bottom portion.
¨ If the rock is hard and self-supporting the top heading advances ahead, by one round over the
bottom, so that heading and benching follow each
other.
¨ But in case the rock is badly broken, the top
heading will need support, and the bench will
afford the platform for this.
• Full face method:
¨ This method is conveniently adopted for tunnels of
small cross sectional area.
¨ The full face is opened out once for all and driven. Tunnels up to 10ft. dia. could be conveniently
handled by this method.
¨ As the full section has to be tackled, extra units of tunnelling equipment will become necessary,
but the method has the advantage of expeditious completion.
¨ Also mucking tracks could be laid once for all on the tunnel floor and progressively extended.
• Cantilever car dump method
e) The soft soils are classified as:
• Running ground, needing instant support all round. Water bearing sands and similar cohesionless soils
come under this classification.
• Soft ground needing instant support for roof, like soft clay soil.
• Firm ground wherein the roof will stand for a few minutes and the sides for a much longer period. Firm
clay, dry earth and ground are good examples of this class of soil.
• Self-supporting ground, when the soil stands supported for a short period and for short lengths of 4 feet
to 16 feet.
f) Methods of tunnelling in soft soils
• Fore poling method :
¨ This is probably the only system which
could be advocated for running ground
and similar soils.
¨ In this method, a frame is prepared in the
shape of the letter A, placed near the face

13
 of the tunnel, and covered with suitable planks.
¨ Poles are then inserted at the top of the frame up to a viable depth. The excavation is carried out
below these poles, which are supported by vertical posts.
¨ The excavation is carried out on the sides and the excavated portion is suitably supported by
timber. The entire section of the tunnel is covered thus. The process is repeated as the work
progresses.
¨ The process is slow and tedious requiring skilled miners. Tunnels of small dimensions, for laying
sewers, gas pipes etc., at ordinary depths, could be constructed by this method.
¨ It is very important that the sequence of operations has to be strictly adhered to, in the correct
order.
• Needle beam method
¨ This method is adopted in terrains
where the soil permits the roof of
the tunnel section to stand without
support for a few minutes. In this
method, a small drift is prepared
for inserting a needle beam
consisting of two rail steel joists
or I sections and is bolted together with a wooden block in the centre.
¨ The roof is supported on lagging carried on the wooden beam.
¨ The needle beam is placed horizontally with its front end supported on the drift and the rear end
supported on a vertical post resting on the lining of the tunnel.
¨ Jacks are fixed on the needle beam and the tunnel section is excavated by suitably incorporating
timber. This method of tunnelling is more economical compared to other methods.
• Linear plate method
¨ In the linear plate method, timber is replaced by standard
size pressed steel plates. The use of pressed steel plates is a
recent development.
¨ The linear plates are light and can be handled easily. The
number of joints is less, as the linear plates are bigger in
size, and as such the maintenance cost is low.
• American method: this method is suitable for large sized tunnels.
In this, top drift is driven and then sides of drift are widened.
• English method.
• Belgian method.
g) Tunneling through water bearing strata
• Tunnelling through subaqueous or water-bearing strata is quite a different job. Shield tunnelling is
generally preferred in such cases.
• A shield is a movable frame that is used to support the face of a tunnel. The tunnel is excavated and
lined under the protection of the shield.
• A shield is a device meant for excavation that is to be carried out beneath water-bearing strata. It
basically consists of a cutting edge, a skin plate in the form of a shell structure, and a hood of jacks, ring
girders, stiffening steel plates, ports as well as port doors, and a tail.
h) Ventilation of tunnels
• A tunnel should be properly ventilated during as well as after the construction so as to
¨ Provide fresh air to the workers during construction.
¨ To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting and other tunneling operations.
¨ To removes dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by the explosives.
• Natural method of ventilation

14
 ¨ This is achieved by drilling a drift through the tunnel from portal to portal. In most cases natural
ventilation is not sufficient and artificial ventilation is still required.
• Mechanical ventilation by blow-in method
¨ In the blow-in method, fresh air is forced through a pipe or fabric duct by the means of a fan and
supplied near the washing face (or the drilling face).
¨ This method has the advantage that a fresh air supply is guaranteed where it is required the most.
¨ The disadvantage is that the foul air and fumes have to travel a long distance before they can exit
the tunnel and in the process it is possible that the incoming fresh air will absorb some dust and
smoke particles.
• Mechanical ventilation by exhaust method
¨ In the exhaust or blow-out method, foul air and fumes are pulled through a pipe and is expelled by
a fan. This sets up an air current that facilitates the entrance of fresh air into the tunnel.
¨ This method has the advantage that foul air is kept out of the washing face.
¨ The disadvantage, however, is that fresh air has to travel a long distance before it can reach the
washing face during which period it may absorb some heat and moisture.
• Combination of blow-in and blow-out methods
¨ By combining the blow-in and blow-out methods using a blower and an exhaust system,
respectively, a tunnel can be provided with the best ventilation.
¨ After blasting the ground, the exhaust system is used to remove the smoke and dust. After some
time, fresh air is blown in through the ducts and the rotation of the fans is reversed to reverse the
flow of air.
i) Lighting of tunnels
• It is very important to ensure that the tunnels are well lit so that the various activities and operations
involved in tunnelling can be carried out effectively and safely.
• The common types of lighting equipment normally used in tunnels are electric lights, coal gas or
acetylene gas lights, or lanterns.
• Electric lights are considered the best option, as these radiate bright light of the required intensity, are
free from smoke, are easily manoeuvrable from the point of view of extension, etc.
• Places where plenty of light should normally be provided are operation points, equipment stations,
bottom of shafts, storage points, tempering stations, underground repair shops, etc.
j) Shaft of tunnels
• Shafts are vertical wells or passages constructed along the alignment of a tunnel at one or more points
between the two entrances.
• Working shafts: These are provided for the expeditious construction of tunnels by tackling the same at a
number of points. These are generally vertical and of a minimum size of 3.7m or of a diameter of 4.30m.
• Ventilation purposes: In order to ensure better ventilation, these shafts are generally inclined and have a
girder size of about 1.2 m diameter.
k) Mucking process
• It is removal of blasted debris from tunnel interior to outside the tunnel entrance.
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4. Harbour Doc
a) Harbours
• A harbour can be defined as a sheltered area of the sea in which vessels could be launched, built or taken
for repair; or could seek refuse in times of storm; or provide for loading and unloading of cargo and
passengers.
• They are broadly classified as
¨ Natural harbour: natural formations having safe discharge facilities for ships on sea coasts, in the
form of creeks and basins are called natural harbours.

15
 ¨ Artificial harbours: where such natural facilities are not available, countries having a seaboard had
to create or construct such shelters making use of engineering skill and methods. Such harbours
are called artificial or man-made harbours.
• Road stead: A partly-sheltered anchorage outside a harbour.
• Moorings: a mooring is provided for anchoring of ships when anchorage water is limited. It is either
fixed or floating. A fixed mooring is a piled staged generally braced. A floating mooring consists of
buoys of various shapes anchored to the sea bed.
b) Natural phenomena
• The harbour engineer has to study certain natural and metrological phenomena which primarily affect
the location and design of the harbour.
¨ Coastal currents and evidences of silting including lateral drift or coastal erosion.
¨ Tides and tidal range.
¨ Wind, wave and their combined effect on harbour structures.
• Littoral drift:
¨ On exposed coasts – the shore line undergoes gradual and continual change.
¨ Such changes consist of erosion or washing away at certain sections, while in other sections
accretion (deposition) takes place.
¨ This process of carrying away and depositing materials, is caused by current flow created by
waves impinging on the shore line.
¨ These waves are induced by prevailing winds and tend to stir up and move the lighter particles of
sand in suspension.
¨ The general effect of wind tends to carry the drifting sand in Zig-Zag line. The process of
movement and deposition are complex.
• Tides
¨ Tides on the coastal line are caused by the sun and the moon.
¨ The effect of tides is to artificially raise and lower the mean sea level during certain stated
periods. This apparent variation in mean sea level is known as tidal range.
¨ Allowance will have to be made for this variation in design and constructing Maritime structures;
regular tide charts are prepared for consultation in important coastal sections.
¨ Springing tides:
o These are high tides which occur at intervals of half a lunar month, when sun and
moon align. (new moon and full moon)
¨ Neap tides:
o These are the lowest tide of the month. It occurs when the lines corresponding the
earth–sun and earth–moon form right angles. This happens when moon is in its
quarter.
¨ Tidal bores are high crested waves caused by the rush of flood tide up a river.
• Waves and wind
¨ See waves are produced by the joint action of wind and water and has tremendous damaging
power. The formation of storm waves takes place in the open sea, due to the action of wind.
¨ Water waves are of two kinds
o Waves of oscillation (stationary) and waves of translation (forward moving)
¨ But all translatory waves originally start as waves of oscillation and become translatory by further
wind action.
Wave height 𝐻(𝑚) = 0.34b𝐹(𝑘𝑚)
Wave velocity 𝑉(𝑚/𝑠) = 3.2b𝑑(𝑚)
c) Break waters
• The protective barriers constructed to enclose harbours and to keep the harbour water undisturbed by the
effect of heavy and strong seas are called break waters.
16
 • Such construction makes it possible to use the area thus enclosed as a safe anchorage for ships and to
facilitate loading of cargo in comparatively calm waters. Classification of break water
• Heap or mound break water:
¨ It is a heterogeneous assemblage of natural rubble, undressed stone blocks, rip rap, supplemented
in many cases by artificial blocks of huge bulk and weight, the whole being deposited without any
regards to bond or bedding.
¨ This is the simplest type and is constructed by tipping or dumping of rubble stone into the sea till
the heap or the mound emerges out of the water, the mould being consolidated and its side-slow
regulated by the action of the waves.
• Mound with superstructure:
• Upright wall break water:
d) Docks
• Docks are enclosed areas for berthing ships, to keep them afloat at a uniform level, to facilitate loading
and unloading cargo. Harbours are prone to be affected by tides, which may cause change in the water
level.
• Types of dock
¨ Wet docks
o Uniform level of water is maintained which is very convenient for handling cargo. It
prevents the rubbing of the ships’ sides against the quay walls.
¨ Dry docks or repair docks
o These are necessary for the execution of repairs, cleaning and painting of ships’
bottom. Hence these docks and docking arrangements should be such as to expose, the
ship’s exterior fully and keep it out of water during the progress of repairs or
renovation. These are generally of four types.
§ Graving or dry dock
§ Floating dock
§ Marine railway
§ Lift dock
o Keel and bilge blocks are used for supporting ships in dry docks.
e) Quays
• Platform or landing places are necessary for ships to come close enough to the shore, for purposes of
embarkation or disembarkation etc., at the same time. These platform locations should have sufficient
depth of water for the ships to float. Such platforms are called wharves. They are built out into or on to
the water.
• Thus, a wharf affords a working platform alongside the ship in continuity of the shore.
• A wharf is quay but the term wharf is generally used for an open structure of pile or posts with bracings,
jutting from the shore towards the sea.
• Wharves along and parallel to the shore are generally called quays.
¨ Solid fill wharves offer stability and bearing strength.
• Fender cushion’s,
¨ Dog wall receives large amount of impact and to avoid this, cushions are provided permanently
with dog wall and these are called as fenders.
¨ In design of fender system, the critical factor to be considered include the mass of the ship to be
berthed, the speed of berthing and the environmental conditions at the port.
• Dolphin piles are provided to tie up the ships (mooring).
f) Dredging:
• It is defined as excavation under water. The excavation is carried out to increase the depth of waterway
to provide sufficient draft for ships, in harbours, entrances to docks etc.
• Dredging work can be classified as
¨ Maintenance dredging
17
 ¨ Improvement dredging
¨ Sundry dredging
• Fixed intersecting angle method for locating sounding to estimate dredging material is best method.
• The use of station pointer is plotting of soundings in harbour area.
g) Miscellaneous terms
• Groynes: It is constructed across the beach, perpendicular to the shore line and is designed to trap sand
moving in the longshore transport system.
• Jetties:
¨ These are the structures in the form of piled projections and they are built out from the shore to
deep water and they may be constructed either for a navigable river or in the sea.
¨ In rivers, the jetties divert the current away from the river bank and thus, the scouring action is
prevented. As the current is diverted to deep waters, the navigation is also controlled.
¨ In the sea, the jetties are placed, where harbour entrance is affected by littoral drift or the sea is
shallow for a long distance. Thus, they extend from the shore to the deep sea to receive the ships.
In a limiting sense, a jetty is defined as a narrow structure projecting from the shore into water
with berths on one or both sides and sometimes at the end also.
• Sea walls: constructed along shoreline to protect areas of human habitation conservation from tides and
waves.
• Deep water waves: when a wave is in deep water (depth of water more than half the wavelength) the
motion of individual particles at the surface follows a circular orbital pattern about a horizontal axis.
• The mean sea level at Indian ports and harbours has generally been established based on analysis of tidal
sea level fluctuations over 19 years.
• Buoys are floating structures of small size employed for demarcation like entrances, approaches, channel
boundaries and so on.
• Capstones and bolards are used for anchoring ships.
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5. Previous year Questions
a) Terms
• Beaufort scale:
¨ This is an empirical measure that relates wind speed to observed conditions at sea or on land. It is
given in terms of number between 1 to 12.
¨ It is a scale of wind speed on a visual estimation of the wind’s effect.
b) Effects of geological structures in Tunneling
• For tunnelling purposes, folded rocks are in general unsuitable because the affected rocks are under
great strain and the subsurface removal of material may cause the release of the contained strain which
may appear as collapse of the roof, or as caving or bulging of sides, or floor etc.
• If the tunnelling work should be taken up along the thick beds of limbs, parallel to the axis of the fold, as
the disadvantages associated with crests and troughs do not occur.
¨ Along the crests of folds, the beds contain numerous tensions and other factures and if the tunnel
is made through them, frequent falling of rocks from the roof may occur.
¨ Along the troughs, rocks will be highly compressed. Therefore they will be tough and offer
greater resistance for excavation. This means tunnelling work will be difficult and progress less.
¨ Further, by virtue of dip of limbs, water will be percolated along the bedding planes and
accumulate along troughs.
• Tunnel alignment perpendicular to the axis of the fold, is undesirable because, under such a condition,
different rock formation are encountered from place to place along the length of the tunnel and also the
tunnel has to pass through a series of anticlines and synclines. These two factors bring heterogeneity in
the physical properties of rocks and also in physical conditions in anticlinal parts. In synclinal folds, the
conditions are exactly reversed.
18
 • Active fault zone: These are the places where there is scope for further recurrence of faulting which will
be accompanied by the physical displacement of lithological units. Such faults will lead to dislocation
and discontinuity in the tunnel alignment. So occurrence of any active fault in tunnels is very
undesirable.
• Inactive fault zone: These are the places where there is no scope of further occurrence of faulting, yet
these prone to intense fractures due to earlier faults. This means that these zones are of great physical
weakness. So if such zones occur along the course of a tunnel, it is necessary to provide lining.
• Joints interfere with tunnelling work as follows:
¨ They cause serious ground water problems, unless the water table position is reasonably below the
level of the tunnel floor.
¨ If the joints are too many, they may severely hamper the competence even inherently strong rocks
and render them unsuitable for tunnelling.
¨ The openings of joint planes enable the ground to be saturated with water and thereby decrease
the strength of the rocks considerably. So, joints become responsible indirectly also for reduction
in strength of rocks at the tunnel site.
¨ If joints occur unfavourably, they may cause fall of rocks from the roof of the tunnel. This means
tunnelling will be unsafe and needs lining.
¨ Joints may act as sites for the development of solution cavities and solution channels in lime stone
terrain. This is due to the action of percolating carbon dioxide-bearing waters.
• Joints, (being oriented cracks), their attitude with reference to the tunnel alignment are also very
important. Such of these joints which strike parallel to the tunnel axis naturally persist for long distances
and hence are undesirable for tunnelling. On the other hand, joints which strike oblique or perpendicular
to the tunnel axis will obviously have a limited effect on them.
c) Design of thickness of lining
• Stresses in tunnel lining primarily originate in earth pressure. The empirical formula commonly applied
to obtain a working section is
𝑇=𝐷
¨ 𝑇 = Thickness of lining in inches, 𝐷 = diameter of tunnel in feet.
• But this thickness is restricted to a minimum of 9′′ irrespective of material used for lining.
• In firm soil only a roof arc is provided, resting on benches cut in firm rock at the sides.
• If rock is less solid, sidewalls of masonry are also added.
• In soft or treacherous soil an invert is added in addition, to protect the side walls from moving in as also
to resist the upward pressure of the soil.
d) Floating dry docks
• Floating dock may be defined as a floating vessel which can lift a ship out of water and retain it above
water by means of its buoyancy. It is a hollow structure of steel, or concrete consisting of two side walls
and a floor, with the ends open.
• To receive a ship, the structure is sunk to required depth by filling its interior chambers with water, the
ship is then floated into position and berthed; the dock is raised bodily with the berthed ship by pumping
out the water.
e) Loading Gauge vs Construction gauge
• The loading gauge represents the maximum width and height to which a rolling stock, namely, a
locomotive, coach, or wagon, can be built or loaded.
• Sometimes, a loading gauge is also used for testing loaded and empty vehicles as per the maximum
moving dimensions prescribed for the section.
• In order to ensure that the wagons are not overloaded, a physical barrier is made by constructing a
structure as per the profile of the loading gauge. This structure consists of a vertical post with an arm
from which a steel arc is suspended from the top. The function of this structure is to ensure that the
topmost and the widest portion of the load will clear all structures such as bridges and tunnels, etc. along
the route.
19
 • The construction gauge is decided by adding the necessary clearance to the loading gauge so that
vehicles can move safely at the prescribed speed without any infringement. The various fixed structures
on railway lines such as bridges, tunnels, and platform sheds are built in accordance with the
construction gauge so that the sides and top remain clear of the loading gauge.
f) Concrete sleepers have the following advantages and disadvantages.
• Advantages
¨ Being heavy, lend more strength and stability to the track and are especially suited to LWR due to
their great resistance to buckling of the track.
¨ With elastic fastenings allow a track to maintain better gauge, cross level, and alignment. They
also retain packing very well.
¨ Because of their flat bottom, are best suited for modern methods of track maintenance such as
MSP and mechanical maintenance, which have their own advantages.
¨ They can be used in track-circuited areas, as they are poor conductors of electricity.
¨ They are neither inflammable nor subjected to damage by pests or corrosion under normal
circumstances.
¨ They have a very long lifespan, probably 40–50 years. As such rail and sleeper renewals can be
matched, which is a major economic advantage.
¨ They can generally be mass produced using local resources.
• Disadvantages
¨ Handling and laying concrete sleepers is difficult due to their large weights. Mechanical methods,
which involve considerable initial expenditure, have to be adopted for handling them.
¨ Concrete sleepers are heavily damaged at the time of derailment.
¨ Concrete sleepers have no scrap value.
¨ Concrete sleepers are not suitable for beater packing.
¨ Concrete sleepers should preferably be maintained by heavy ‘on track’ tampers.
g) Gauge
• It is defined as the minimum distance between two rails. Indian Railways follows this standard practice
and the gauge is measured as the clear minimum distance between the running faces of the two rails.
• The choice of gauge is very limited, as each country has a fixed gauge and all new railway lines are
constructed to adhere to the standard gauge. However, the following factors theoretically influence the
choice of the gauge.
¨ Cost consideration: there is a marginal increase in the cost of track if a wider gauge is adopted.
¨ Traffic consideration: a wider gauge can theoretically carry more traffic, as it has larger wagons
and coaches. And can have higher speed.
¨ Physical feature of country: It is possible to adopt steeper gradients and sharper curves for a
narrow gauge as compared to a wider gauge.
• Uniformity of Gauge: The existence of a uniform gauge in a country enables smooth, speedy, and
efficient operation of trains. Therefore a single gauge should be adopted irrespective of the minor
advantages of a wider gauge and the few limitations of a narrower gauge. Benefits of uniformity are:
¨ No transport bottleneck
¨ No trans-shipment hazards
¨ Provision of alternate routes
¨ Better turnaround
¨ Improved track utilization
¨ Balanced economic growth
¨ No multiple tracking work
¨ Better transport infrastructure
¨ Boosting investor’s confidence

20
 • A number of problems have cropped up in the operation of Indian Railways because of the use of three
gauges. The ill effects of change of gauge (more popularly known as break of gauge) are numerous.
h)

21