MODULE 2

1. Permanent Way: Components and their Functions:

• Rails –Types of Rails,
• Rail Fastenings,
• Concept of Gauges,
• Coning of Wheels,
• Creeps and
• kinks.
• Sleepers – Functions, Materials, Density
• Ballast less Tracks.
2. Geometric design of railway track:
• Horizontal curves
• radius – super elevation -cant deficiency
• transition curves
• gradients - different types -Compensation of gradients

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 1. Permanent Way: Components and their Functions:
Rails –Types of Rails

Formerly the wooden rails were used and in order to minimize the effect of
friction, thin plates were provided on the top of, these rails. After about a century,
the cast-iron rails were developed. in 1789, William Jessop made a cast-iron rail
which required the flange of the wheel to be put up on the rail. In 1805, john
Birkenshaw made the first rail of malleable iron. The length and width of the rail
were respectively.610 'mm and 38 mm. The length of the rail was increased to 366
cm in 1811. The wrought iron rails then came into existence and in 1829, double
headed rails, made of steel, were first used on British Railways.
At present, the steel rails can be broadly divided into three categories as follows
a. Double headed rails
b. Bull headed rails
c. Flat footed rails

1. Double headed rails

These rails indicate the first stage of development.
Essentially this type of rail consists of three parts:
upper table
web and
lower table.
Both the upper and lower tables were identical and
they were introduced with the hope of doubling the
life of rails. When the upper table was worn out, the
rails can be reversed in the chair and thus the lower
table can be brought into use.
However, this idea soon turned out to be wrong because It was observed that
long contact with chairs made the surface of lower table very rough and smooth
running of trains was then impossible. Thus, these rails are now-a-days practically
out of use. The double headed rails were made of wrought iron with length varying
from 610 cm to 732 cm. Fig. shows a 49.60 kg double headed rail.

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2. Bull headed rails
These rails consist of head, web and foot and are made of steel. The head is larger
than the foot and the foot is designed only to properly hold the wooden keys with
which the rails are secured to chairs. Thus, the foot is designed only to furnish the
necessary strength to the rail. The two cast-iron
chairs are required per each sleeper when these
rails are adopted.
The Bull-headed rails are extensively used in
England and in some parts of Europe. The weight
of standard rail of this type on British Railways
on main lines is 47 kg per meter of length and it
is 42 kg per metre of length on branch lines. The
length of the rail is generally 18.29 metres. Fig. 5-
2 shows a 43.90 kg bull headed rail.
3. Flat footed rails

In this type of rail, the foot is spread out to form a base. This form of rail was
invented by Charles Vignoles in 1836 and hence these rails are sometimes known as
the Vignoles rails. This form of rail has become so much so popular that at present
about 90% of the railway track in the world is laid with this form of rails
Fig. 5-3 shows the standard rail of 45
R.B.S. on the Indian Railways.
Advantages
Chairs: No chairs are required. Foot of
rails is directly spiked to the sleepers.
Hence making it economical
Stiffness: This rail is stiffer both
vertically and laterally
Kinks: this is less liable to kinks
Cost: found to be cheaper than bull
headed

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 Load distribution: It distributes the train over a great number of sleepers. It results
in greater stability, longer life of rails and sleepers, reduced maintenance costs,
less rail failures, and few interruptions to traffic.

Coning of Wheels
Wheels are shaped like a cone or made as a conical segment. This provides an
outward slope of
l in 20 to treads of wheels. This shaping is known as coning of wheels.
Coning of wheels has following purposes:
 It helps outer wheels to travel longer distance than inner wheels and helps to
negotiate curves smoothly. Wheels generally remain central on a straight
track. However, when vehicles move on a curved track, the outer wheels move
outward due to centrifugal force
 It reduces slipping and skidding of wheels.
 It reduces wear and tear of wheel flanges and rails due to rubbing action of
flanges.
 It gives smooth riding.
Fig.6.l4 shows coning of wheels on level and curved tracks respectively It is seen
from figures, that both wheels remain in central position in a straight alignment and
outer wheel moves outwards in a curved alignment.
Coning of wheels has certain disadvantages.
 Pressure of horizontal component near the inner edge of rails has a tendency
to accelerate wearing of rails.
 Pressure of horizontal component tends to turn rails outwardly and
consequently; the gauge is widened. Cause damages to outer edge of rails, if
no base plates are provided.
In order to minimize the above-mentioned disadvantages, the tilting of rails is done
which means rails are not laid flat. But they are tilted inwards.
Advantages of tilting:
Maintains the gauge properly
Wear of then head of the rail is uniform

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 Increase life of sleepers and rails

Fig :Coning of wheels

• Sleepers – Functions, Materials, Density

Functions: See module 1
Materials
Sleepers may be made up of timber, steel, cast iron, reinforced cement concrete and
pre-stressed concrete.
Traditionally sleepers are wooden. Sleepers are normally impregnated with
preservative. They last upto 25 years under good conditions. Wooden sleeper is easy
to cut and drill. They are also cheaper.

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 Heavier and longer rails (LWR/CWR) couped with economic considerations
resulted in adoption of concrete sleepers.
Fig.6.16 and Fig.6.l7 show RCC and pre-stressed concrete sleepers respectively.
 RCC sleeper contains two blocks of RCC. A metal tie bar in the form of an
inverted T-section joins blocks.
 Pre-stressed concrete sleepers may be pre-tensioned or post-tensioned.
o In the pre-tensioned type, steel is tensioned before placing concrete.
o In post-tensioned concrete sleepers, the steel is tensioned after concrete
has hardened. In both cases, very high tensile strength is developed.
Pre-stressed concrete sleeper industries in India has very good expertise and
technical know-how in design, fabrication, laying and maintenance of PSC
sleepers. Therefore, PSC sleepers are generally favoured in India.
 Mono-Block prestressed concrete sleeper.
 Mono-Block post tension type of concrete sleepers
 Reinforced cement concrete two block sleeper.

Merits and de-merits of concrete sleeper over others

Merits
 Service life is about 50-60 years.
 Manufacturing and maintenance cost is cheaper.
 Track circuiting is easy.
 No damage by white ants or corrosion.
 More suitable for high speed routes.
 Track elasticity is very high.
 Resist movement better due to heaviness.
De-Merits
 Get damaged during manual handling
 Mechanical maintenance alone is possible.
 Crack easily under heavy loads with stiff ballast.
 Only elastic fastening is possible.
 Concrete sleepers do not have scrap value.
 Spacing 29% greater than wooden sleepers.

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Sleeper Density
Sleeper density is the number of sleepers per rail length. It is specified as (M +
x) or (N + x), where M or N is the length of the rail in metres and x is a number that
varies according to factors such as (a) axle load and speed, (b) type and section of
rails, (c) type and strength of the sleepers, (d) type of ballast and depth of ballast
cushion, and (e) nature of formation. If the sleeper density is M+ 7 on a broad gauge
route and the length of the rail is 13 m, it implies that 13 + 7 = 20 sleepers will be
used per rail length of the track on that route. The number of sleepers in a track can
also be specified by indicating the number of sleepers per kilometre of the track, for
example, 1540 sleepers/km. This specification becomes more relevant particularly
in cases where rails are welded and the length of the rail does not have much bearing
on the number of sleepers required. This system of specifying the number of sleepers
per kilometre exists in many foreign countries and is now being adopted on Indian
Railways as well. The spacing of sleepers is fixed depending upon the sleeper
density. Spacing is not kept uniform throughout the rail length. It is closer near the
joints because of the weakness of the joints and impact of moving loads on them.
There is, however, a limitation to the close spacing of the sleepers, as enough space
is required for working the beaters that are used to pack the joint sleepers. The
standard spacing specifications adopted for a fish-plated-track on Indian Railways
are given in Table below. The notations used in this table are explained in Fig. below.

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 The packing space in India varies from 30.5 cm to 35.5 cm except at joints.

2. Geometric design of railway track:

Introduction: Necessity
Most of the train derailments are due to the following reasons
 Track defects
 Vehicular defects
 Operational defects.
The Civil Engineer is mainly concerned with track defects. He should be aware of
the track defects and how to remove these defects so that no derailment takes place.
Railway track should be designed, suiting to load and speed of the train, and meeting
the safety and economy requirements.
A train may derail on the straight track due to the following defects in the track
 Defective cross-levels
 Defective alignment,
 Defective Gauge, and,
 Low Joints
In addition to this, on curved tracks the derailment may occur due to additional
following causes
 Improper super elevation,
 Improper speed, and
 Unequal distribution of loads on two rails.
 Improper radius of the curve,

• Radius or Degree of curve

Curves on a railway are generally circular, i.e each curve should have the same
radius on every portion

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• Gradients and grade compensation
Gradient
Any departure of the track from the level is known as grade or gradient,
 An up or rising gradient is one when the track rises in the direction of
movement, and
 Down or falling gradient is one when the track falls in the direction of
movement.
Gradient is measured either
(a) by the extent of rise/fall in 100 units horizontal distance or
(b) the horizontal distance travelled for a rise/fall in 1 unit. An alignment
which rises 2 m in a horizontal distance of 50 m would be shown either
as 4 1n 100 1.e., 4% or 1 in 25.
Gradients are provided on the tracks due to the following reasons.

 To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible.

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  To reach the various stations located at different elevations, and
 To reduce the cost of earth work.

Various gradients used on railway tracks can be classified under the following
heads:
 Ruling gradient.
 Momentum gradient.
 Pusher or Helper gradient.
 Gradients at station yards.

Ruling gradient
The ruling gradient on a section may be defined as the gradient which
determines the maximum load that the engine can haul on the section. In other words,
it is the maximum gradient allowed on the track section.
It is remarkable that steep gradients necessitate more powerful locomotives,
smaller train loads, lower speed and costly haulage. It is, therefore, desirable to climb
a slope at as a gentle rate as possible. As a rule, rising gradients must be followed by
falling gradients. With this, the amount of energy which was used up in climbing, is
saved in descending. A train is able to climb a rising gradient more easily if this
rising gradient follows a falling gradient as the train has an opportunity of attaining
high speed over the falling gradient before reaching the rising gradient.
In determining the ruling gradient of the section, it will not only be the severity
of the gradient that will come into play but also the length of the gradients and its
position, such as other grades on the track.
Considering these factors, the ruling gradient depends upon the additional power of
the locomotive which shall be able to pull up its train load along the gradient. The
extra pull required = W x sin ɵ = x tan ɵ = W x gradient.
For example, if a train weighing 500 tonnes travels over a rising slope of 1 m in 100
m, the additional force required = (1/100) x 500 = 5 tonnes.
If the same height 1 m is to be attained in 200 meters, the additional force required
would be (1/200) x500 = 2.5 tonnes (i.e additional force gets halved)
Generally, with one locomotive train, the following gradients are adopted

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In plain terrain: 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
In hilly regions: 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
As a rule, once the ruling gradient is specified for a section there should be no grade
steeper than this ruling gradient. Therefore, all the gradients provided after
compensation for the curvature, should be either equal or flatter but in no case greater
than the ruling gradient specified

Momentum gradient
Those gradients on a section which though, more severe than the ruling
gradient, do not determine the maximum load of the train but on account of their
favorable position on track, the train before approaching them acquire sufficient
momentum to negotiate them are known as momentum gradients
For example, in valleys, a falling gradient is usually followed by a rising
gradient. A train while coming down a falling gradient acquire sufficient
momentum. This momentum gives additional kinetic energy to the moving train
which would enable the train to overcome a steeper rising gradient than the ruling
gradient for a certain length of the track. This rising gradient is called momentum
gradient and in such cases a steer grade than the ruling gradient can be adopted
A necessary qualification for a momentum grade is that the train should not
be stopped in the territory where it acquires the sufficient momentum to negotiate it.
Due to this qualification, the obstacles like signals should not be provided at
momentum gradients. By an introduction of a halt at a critical point on momentum
grade, the grade may be converted into a ruling grade.

Pusher or Helper gradient

The important effect of a ruling grade is its limit on locomotive capacity. If
the ruling grade is severe, it may mean that during larger portion of its journey, the
locomotive would have its unused capacity for carrying higher loads. But if the grade
is concentrated in a specific section such as mountainous section, instead of limiting
the train load, it may be operationally easy or even be economical to run the train on
the basis of load that the engine can carry on the remaining portion of track and
arrange for an assisting engine (or pusher engine or a banking engine) for the portion

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where the gradient is severe. Such gradients are known as "Pusher" or "Helper"
gradients.
Pusher gradients are very important in mountainous terrain where steeper
gradients are necessary to reduce the length of the track. In such cases one
locomotive being incapable, extra engine or engines are provided. Before deciding
the pusher gradients, the capacity of the engine and maximum load should be
compared and Optimum conditions should be attained so that no carrying capacity
is wasted.
Gradients in station yards
The gradients at station yards have to be sufficiently low due to the following
reasons:
 To prevent the movement of standing vehicles on the track due to the effect
of gravity combined with a strong wind and/or a gentle push.
 To prevent additional resistance due to grade on the starting vehicles,
which is about twice at the start than vehicle in motion.
However, a certain minimum gradient is required to be provided for drainage. On
Indian Railways, for all the gauges, the maximum gradient permitted in station yards
is 1 in 400 while a minimum gradient of 1 in 1000 1s recommended from drainage
point of view.

Grade compensation on curves

The ruling gradient is the maximum gradient on a particular section, but if a
curve lies on a ruling gradient, the resistance due to gradient is increased by that due
to curvature and this further increases the resistance beyond the ruling g gradient. In
order to avoid resistances beyond the allowable limits, the gradients are reduced on
curves and this reduction in gradients is known as grade compensation for curves.
The curve resistance is expressed as a percentage per degree of the curve. The curve
resistance is greater at lower speeds.
Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result,
gradients are compensated to the following extent on curves

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 (a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is
minimum
(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
(c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum
Where R is the radius of the curve in meters. The gradient of a curved portion
of the Section should be flatter than the ruling gradient because of the extra
resistance Offered by the curve

Superelevation ,
Need for super elevation:

When a train moves along a curved track, centrifugal force is set in. The
centrifugal force acts horizontally at the centre of gravity of each vehicle. The
centrifugal force has a tendency to overthrow trains outwards; This increases weight
on the outer rail. Level of the outer rail is raised with reference to inner rail to counter
the centrifugal force. Raised elevation of outer rail above inner rail at a horizontal
curve is termed as superelevation. Raise of outer edge introduces centripetal force
for counteracting the effect of centrifugal force. This enable trains to move faster on
curves, and prevents derailments.
Definitions of terms
Cant or super elevation: Cant or superelevation is the amount by which one rail is
raised above the other rail. It is positive when the outer rail on a curved track is raised
above inner rail and is negative when the inner rail on a curved track is raised above
the outer rail.
Equilibrium speed: Equilibrium speed is "the speed at which, centrifugal force
developed during movement of the vehicle on a curved track is exactly balanced by
the cant provided.
Cant deficiency: Cant deficiency occurs when a train travels on a curve at a speed
higher than equilibrium speed. It is the difference between theoretical cant required
for such higher speed and actual cant provided.
Cant excess: Cant excess occurs when a train travels on a curve at a speed lower
than equilibrium speed. It is the difference between actual cant and theoretical cant
required for. such a lower speed.

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Factors influencing superelevation
 Radius of curvature
 Frictional resistance between wheels and rails
 Body of Vehicle: The body of the vehicle is assumed to be rigid in the analysis.
However, in actual practice, it is provided with compressive strings in order to
minimise the effect of impact. Therefore, this value considerably alters the
value of super elevation.
 Velocity of the train
 Gauge of the track
Equilibrium Super elevation/Cant: The cant/super elevation is in equilibrium when
the cant provided exactly balances the centrifugal force.
Equilibrium Super elevation e (in metres) = GV 2/127R
Equilibrium Speed: Equilibrium Speed is average speed under average conditions
on level tracks.
 When maximum permissible speed Vmax of(BG/MG) is more than 50
km/h
 Equilibrium Speed = ¾ Vmax subjected to a minimum Speed of
50km/h.
When Vmax = 50 km/h
Equilibrium speed: Vmax
 Weighted average is calculated to find the equilibrium speed. Super
elevation is calculated for a particular speed.
However, in actual practice, trains with different speeds run on curved sections with
superelevations. Therefore, “superelevation for which the section is designed should
be able to accommodate variations of speed. For this purpose, weighted average
speed of the given section is assessed as indicated below:

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Maximum values of superelevation in Indian railways for different speeds

Cant Deficiency.
The equilibrium cant is provided on the basis of equilibrium speed (or
Average speed, or weighted Average speed) of different trains. But this equilibrium
cant or superelevation falls short of that required for the high speed trains. This
shortage of cant is called "Cant Deficiency".

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 In other words, cant deficiency is the difference between the equilibrium cant
necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant
provided (on the basis of average speed of trains).
This cant deficiency is limited due to two reasons :
 Higher cant deficiency gives rise to higher discomfort to passengers.
 Higher cant deficiency means higher would be the balanced centrifugal forces
and hence extra pressure and lateral forces on outer rails. This will require
strong track and fastenings for stability.
Therefore, maximum value of cant deficiency prescribed for Indian Railways is as
follows :

Maximum permissible speed on a curve. The maximum permissible speed on

a curve is taken as minimum value of the speed calculated by the following methods:
Maximum sanctioned speed of the section. This is the maximum speed
authorized by Additional Commissioner of Railways. This is based on track
conditions, type of traction, standards of signaling and interlocking, etc.
Safe speed over the curve. This is the speed calculated by Martin’s formulae
based on gauge type or equilibrium speed based actual cant and cant deficiency for
different gauges (Ref. Equations A to F of Article 15.3).
Speed based on the consideration of S.E. This is calculated by formula of
equilibrium superelevation, where, the value of superelevation is the sum of full
amount of cant deficiency and the actual superelevation. The above three methods
are used for maximum speed determination when the length of transition curve can
possibly be increased. But in case, length of transition curve cannot be changed, the
following fourth method is also included.

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Negative super elevation
When the main line is on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure leading
to a branch line, the super elevation necessary for the average speeds of trains
running over the main line cannot be provided. Refer Fig. 15.4. AC which is the
outer rail of the main line curve must be higher than inner rail BD or in other words,
the point A should be higher than point B.
For the branch line, however, BF should be higher than AE or the point B should be
higher than points A.
These two contradictory conditions cannot be met at the same time within one
layout. So instead of outer rail BF on branch line being higher, it is kept lower than
the inner rail AE. In such cases, the branch line curve has a negative superelevation
and therefore speeds on both tracks must be restricted, particularly on branch line.
The method of working out the speeds on main line, branch line and negative
superelevation on branch line, will be clear from the following steps:

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  The equilibrium superelevation or cant on branch line is calculated by formula
GV 2/127R cm, after assuming a speed on branch line.
 The permissible cant deficiency is deducted from the equilibrium cant as
obtained in step
 The difference obtained (Equilibrium cant permissible cant deficiency) will
give the negative superelevation to. be used on the branch line.
 This negative superelevation is also equal to the maximum superelevation
permitted on the main curved track.
 The restricted speed on curved track is obtained by adding permissible
deficiency in maximum cant on the main track and applying the formula
GV 2/127R

Negative super elevation

Transitional curves.
Transition curve is defined as a curve of parabolic nature which is introduced
between a straight and a circular curve or between two branches of a compound

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curve. Its radius raises from infinity to a selected minimum in order to attain full
superelevation and curvature gradually. This is also known as spiral or easement
curve. The transition curves are, therefore, necessary to provide an easy change from
a tangent (having infinite radius) to the radius selected for a particular curve.
Necessity of providing Transition Curve.
In a straight track two rails are kept on the same level but in a curved portion,
the outer rail is superelevated to inner one. The object is to lay the inner rail in level
throughout the curve while the outer rail should be gradually raised to full
superelevation and again lowered to the original level at the end of the curve. If the
curvature is suddenly attained, a severe jerk or jolt is felt even in the case of a flat
curve and there is every likelyhood of derailment, particularly in the case of sharp
curves. Therefore, it is essential that the curvature and superelevation in the outer
rail and the curvature in the inner rail are attained gradually, by the use of easement
curve or transition curve.
The various objects of using the transition curves are the following:
Primary objects
 To decrease the radius of curve gradually from infinite at the straight to that
of circular curve of selected radius. This IS applicable to both inner and outer
rails.
 To attain gradual rise for the desired superelevation. This is applicable for
outer rails only.
Secondary objects:
 the gradual increase or decrease of the centrifugal force on the vehicle by use
of this curve provides smooth running of vehicles and comfort to the
passengers.
 No sudden application or releasing of the force is encountered, so he chances
of derailment are greatly reduced.
Requirements of Transition Curve.
An ideal transition curve should satisfy the following requirements:
1. It should be tangential to the straight line of the track, i.e., it should start from the
straight part of the track with a zero curvature.

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2. It should join the circular curve tangentially, i.e., it should finally have the same
curvature as that of the circular curve.
3. Its curvature should increase at the same rate as the superelevation.
4. The length of the transition curve should be adequate to attain the final
superelevation, which increases gradually at a specified rate.

Types of Transition Curves.

The types of transition curves that can be theoretically provided are described here.
The shapes of these curves are illustrated in Fig. below.

 Spiral curve.
 Cubic pambola
 Banoulli's Lemniscate.
Spiral curves: It is an ideal curve and satisfies all the requirements of transition
curve
Radius of curvature ‘a’ = 1/Length of the curve
So the rate of change of acceleration is uniform.
Cubic parabola.: In this, the rate of decrease of radius of curvature is low from 4°
to 9° but beyond 9° there is rapid increase in the radius of curvature.
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Bernoulli’s lemniscate. In this, the radius decreases as the length increases so the
radial acceleration goes on falling but the fall is not uniform beyond 30° deflection
angle.
Transition Curve for Railways.
For deflection upto 4°, all the three curves almost trace the same path. For
deflection upto 9° there ss not much difference between the paths traced by each of
them. In case of railways, a cubic parabola (also known as Fraud’s curve of
adjustment) which is easy to lay by offset method is usually adopted for transition
curves. The Equation of cubic parabola is

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Length of Transition Curve.
The length of the transition curve is length along the centre line of the track from its
meeting point with the straight to that of the circular curve. This length is inserted at
the junction half in the straight and half in the curve (as shown in Fig. 15.6).
Let,
L = Length of transition curve in metres
e = Actual cant or superelevation in cm.
D = Cant deficiency for maximum speed in cm and
V = Maximum speed in km. p.h.
Indian Railways specify that greatest of the following lengths should be taken as the
length of the transition curve.
(1) L= 7.20 x e
where e = actual superelevation in centimetres.
This is based on Arbitrary gradient (1 in 720)
(2) L = 0.073 D x Vmax
where
D is cant deficiency for maximum speed in cm.
Vmax = Maximum speed in km.p.h.
This is based on the rate of change of eant deficiency.
(3) L a 0.073 e x Vmax
This is based on the rate of change of superelevation. By another approach the length
of the transition curve is obtained by the maximum value of the following values. '
(i) As per Railway code .
L = 4.4√𝑅
where R = Radius of curve in metres
L and R are in metres.

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 Fig: Layout of transition curve
i. At the rate of Change Of superelevation of 1 in 360 i.e, 1 cm for every 3. 6 m
ii. Rate of change of cant deficiency, say 2.5 cm, is not exceeded.
iii. Based on rate of change of radial acceleration-With radial acceleration of
0.3048 m/sec2.
V=0.278 V
V is in km.p.h
V= m/sec
Horizontal curves
Need for curved alignment
Often, alignments are caused to bend in the shape of a curve. Curves are
horizontal and vertical. Curves in a railway alignment is provided to enable routes
to pass through obligatory points and to design geometric elements like gradients as
per standards. Horizontal curves are provided whenever there is a change in direction
of alignment. Vertical curves are provided whenever there is a change in gradient of
alignment. Curved alignment is a critical part in any section. The horizontal curves
have super elevation, extra clearance and transition curves. A curve is often

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described by an angle (in degrees) subtended at its centre by a 100 m arc. Types of
Horizontal curves are:
Simple Curve: It is a circular curve with uniform radius. A curve is located between
two tangent points or between two transition curves. Any curve is designated by the
degree of the curve. Fig. depicts a simple curve.

Fig : simple curve

Compound Curve: A series of two or more simple curves of different radii running
in same general direction form compound curves. Fig.6.23(b) shows an example of
a compound curve. Simple curves T1T2 and T2T3 have common tangent O1 and O2 at
T2. Their centres lie on the same side of the curve. These curves avoid heavy filling
or cutting and cutting through rocks.

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 Fig : compound curve
Reverse Curve: A series of two simple curves of same or different radii running in
opposite direction forms a reverse curve. Fig shows a reverse curve. These curves
are applied in station yards and in hilly areas

Fig : Reverse curve

• Concept of Gauge:
Gauge is the clear horizontal distance between inner faces of two rails at their
top. Fig.. shows the gauge. In Britan gauge was earlier defined as outer to outer
distance of pair of rails. During that time, wheel flanges were on outside rails.
However, out of experience it was felt better to keep flanges on inner side, in
order to change trains from one track to another. Therefore, the wheels were

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 coned. East In Company adopted 1.676 m as ‘standard gauge’ and is known as
broad gauge. ‘One metre’ gauge known as ‘Metre Gauge’ (M.G) was adopted in
18 8, to achieve economy. In hilly areas and under-developed areas, Narrow
Gauge (N.G) of 0.762 m and Light Gauge (LG) of 0.6096 m are adopted due to
steep gradients and sharp curves. The selection of different gauges depends upon
factors such as (a) cost of construction of track (b) traffic volume (c) type of
terrain and (d) speed of train.

‘
Fig :Gauge
Creep
Definition and Magnitude: Rail creep is the longitudinal movements of rails in a
track. The creep is common to all railway tracks. Its magnitude widely varies
ranging from several centimetres to negligible length in a month. Creep may be
measured at an interval of two months. Creep in excess of 150 mm should not be
permitted.
Causes of Creep:
 Ironing out effect of moving wheels on waves formed in rails.
 Tendency of wheels to push rails forward and backward during braking,
acceleration, deceleration and running.
 Impact when wheels run on ends of rails.
Effects of Creep:
 Sleepers get out of square and consequently gauge and alignment get
distorted.
 Rail joints get opened out, resulting in failure of fishplates and bolts.
 The Joints are continuously jammed.
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Adjustment of Creep
When creep exceeds 150 mm, it causes maintenance problems. A careful
inventory of creeps is carried out to assess expansion gaps and present position of
rail joints. Total length of creep to be adjusted, required expansion gap and length
of track to be tackled in one operation is decided first. Fishplates at one end are
loosened and those at other ends are removed. The rails are then pulled back
manually or mechanically using creep adjuster. Creeps are corrected by
o Pulling backrails
o Provision of steel sleepers and anchors/anti creepers and
o Efficient and proper maintenance

Fig: creep of rails

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 Fig: Result of creep
Kinks of Rails
Kinks are formed, when ends of adjoining tails move slightly out of position.
Causes for formation of kinks are:
• Loose packing at joints
• Defects in gauge and alignment and
• Uneven wear of rail head.
Effects of Kinks
• Unpleasant jerk when vehicles pass over them.
• Defects in gauge, alignment and camber.

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Fig :Kinks of rails

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