Railway Engineering

1. Introduction
Introduction

The first trip in Indian railway was made in 1853 between Bombay and Thana. The Indian
railways is administrated by the Railway Board. The Indian railway system in India is into
nine zones – Central Railway, Eastern Railway, Northern Railway, Southern Railway, North
Eastern Railway, South Central Railway, South Eastern Railway Western Railway and North
East Frontier Railway.

Gauge:

The perpendicular distance between the inner faces of heads of the two rails forming a track is
known as gauge. The three different gauges in India are

1 Broad gauge 1.676 m ( it is the Indian standard gauge)

2 Meter gauge 1.0 m

3 Narrow gauge 0.762 m or 0.610 m

The world standard gauge is 1.483 m

Permanentway: The two rails on which the train move together with sleepers , ballast and
fitting is known as permanent way.

Rails are the two continuous girders laid along two parallel lines over sleepers to carry axle
load. They transmit the axle load of trains to the sleepers. They provide smooth and hard
surface for the wheels of a train to roll on. In India, the standard length of rails for meter
gauge is 11.89 m and for broad gauge is 12.8 m. The size of the rails are specified by its
weight in kg per meter length.

2. RAILS
Three different rails used on Indian Railways are double headed rails, bull headed rails and
flat footed rails.

Double headed rails: This type of rail consist of head and foot of the same section. These
type of rails requires chair. The purpose of this type of rail was to invert and reuse them when
the top table got worn out. They are obsolete now as the idea of reusing the rail was not
practical.

Bull headed rails: This type of rail consist of thicker head than the foot. They require chair to
fix them.
Flat footed rails: These are the most commonly used rails. These rails are also known as
Vignole‟s rails as it was invented by Charles Vignole in 1886. In flat footed rails the foot of
the rail is made thinner and wider than the head. They do not require chair.

Coning of wheels: The art of providing an outward slope of 1 in 20 to the treads of the wheel
is known as coning of wheels. The main purpose of coning of wheels is to maintain the
vehicle in central position of the track.

Tilting of rails: The placing of rails of the track at an inward slope of 1 in 20 is known as
tilting of rails.

Adzing of sleepers: The sleepers are cut at the rail seat to provide a slope of 1 in 20 to the
rails. The method of cutting the wooden sleepers or casting of concrete sleepers accordingly is
known as adzing of sleepers.

Track modulus: Track modulus is an index of measurement of resistance to deformation. It

is defined as the load in pounds per inch or kg per cm of the rail length required to produce
one inch or one cm depression of the rail table.

Rail corrugations: Due to defective lay out, defective maintenance, sudden application of
breaks etc, a wavery surface is developed at the head of the rails and gets corrugated. The
passage of trains over corrugated rails produces a roaring sound. Such rails are known as
roaring rails.

Hogging of rails: The loose package under the rails and loose fish plates cause the rail ends
to bent down and deflect. This is known as hogging of rails.

Buckling of rails: If proper expansion joint is provided, the movement of rails due to
temperature change will be prevented and the rails will get buckled.

Wheel burns: When the driving wheel of locomotives slipping on the rail surface, extra heat
is generated and the surface of the rail may be torn resulting in a depression on the rail table.

Kinks in Rails: These are formed at the joints of rails, when the adjoining rails move slightly
out of position.

Creep: The longitudinal movement of rails in track is termed as creep.

RAIL FAILURES:

Split head: In this type of defect cracks are developed in the middle of the rail head or splits
occur from the side to the end of the head.

Split web: Rail head gets cracked.

Square or Angular Break: It is complete break of rail. In vertical plane it is called square
break while in the inclined plane is called Angular break.

Horizontal break: It occurs at rail ends between its head and the web due to insufficient
packing of ballast.
Horizontal fissure: Due to improper packing or use of worn fish-plate horizontal cracks are
formed between the rail head and the web.

Rail Joints: Rail joints are classified according to the position of joints and according to the
position of sleepers. According to the position of joints rail joints classified as square joint
and staggered joints. According to the position of sleepers rail joints are classified as
suspended joint, supported joint, and bridge joint.

Square joint: These are commonly used in straight track. In this type a joint in one rail is
exactly opposite to the joint in the parallel rail.

Staggered joints: In this type of joint a joint in one rail is exactly opposite to the centre of the
parallel rail.

Suspended joints: A rail joint placed at the centre of two consecutive sleepers is known as
suspended joint. It is commonly adopted.

Supported joint: In this type of joint, rail joint is placed exactly above a sleeper.

Bridge joint: The rail joint supported by a bridge of metal which rests on two sleepers is
known as „bridge joint‟.

3. SLEEPER
SLEEPER

Sleepers are the transverse members laid below the rails to support them and keep them at a
required distance apart. They transfer the load from the rails to ballast and distribute it over a
large area of ballast.

Types of sleepers:- The different types of sleepers can be classified as wooden sleepers, steel
sleepers, cast iron sleepers, and Concrete sleepers.

(1) Wooden or Timber sleeper: These sleepers satisfy all the requirements and are only
suitable for track circuiting. Teak is the best wood for sleepering purposes, but due to its
heavy cost it is used only in girder bridge for sleepering. In India sal wood is commonly used
as sleeper. Normally the life of timber sleeper may be taken as about 12 years. Their scrap
value is almost nil except for firewood. Standard sizes of wooden sleepers in India are : B.G. -
2.74m x 25cm x 13cm M.G. - 1.83m x 20cm x 11cm N.G. - 1.52m x 18cm x 11cm

(2) Steel sleepers: Steel sleepers consist of steel troughs made out of about 6mm thick steel
sheets. Its both ends are bend down to check the running out of ballast. The top of the sleeper
has a slope of 1 in 20 towards the centre to give the necessary tilt to the rails. The main
disadvantage of steel sleepers is that they get rusted very quickly and it cannot be used where
track circuiting exists. Their life is normally 25 to 30 years.

(3) Cast Iron sleepers: Cast iron sleepers are extensively used in India. They have got good
scarp value as the broken pots can be melted and remoulded. The main disadvantage of vast
iron sleeper is that they are liable to crack and break. The different types of cast iron sleepers
are pot sleepers, plate sleepers, box sleepers, C.S.T.-9 sleepers, and duplex sleepers. Pot
sleepers are in the form of two bowls paced under each rail and connected together by a tie-
bar. Plate sleepers consist of a plate of 851mm x 254 mm in dimensions, with 254 mm side
parallel to the rails. Box sleeper is similar to plate sleeper, except that a „box‟ is provided on
the top of each plate for holding the rails .

(3) C.S.T -9 sleeper: is a combination of plate, pot and box sleeper. This is most commonly
used sleeper (CI) and has been standardized by Standard Committee. Duplex sleeper contain
two plates each of size 859 x 750 mm under each joint, connected by a tie bar.

(4) Concrete sleepers: The concrete sleepers are not affected by natural decay or insects etc.
They have long life of 40-60 years under normal conditions. They may be of R.C.C. or
prestressed concrete.

SLEEPER DENSITY:

The number of sleepers per unit rail is called sleeper density. In India the number of sleepers
per rail varies from N + 3 to N+6 for main tracks where N is the length of the rail in meters.
In India, generally the sleeper density of 18 sleepers per rail length is provided whereas in
U.S.A. 23 to 25 sleepers per rail are provided.

4. BALLAST
BALLAST

Layer broken stone or any other suitable material which is spread over the top of railway
formation and around the sleepers is known as Ballast. They transfer the load from the sleeper
and spread the same over comparatively large area. They provide elasticity to the track.
Packing: The portion of the ballast which is tightly rammed under the sleeper to transmit the
load of train from the sleeper is known as packing. Boxing: The portion of ballast which is
loosely filled on the slopes and around the sleepers to prevent the lateral and longitudinal
movement of sleepers. Ballast materials: The materials which are generally used a as ballast
are broken stone, gravel, sand, ashes, moorum, kankar, brick-bats, blast furnance slag,
selected earth. Depth of ballast section: Depth of the ballast section in straight tracks may be
calculated by the following formula:

5. RAIL FASTENINGS
RAIL FASTENINGS: Rail fastenings and fixtures are used to connect the rails and sleepers
together in their proper positions. The various fastenings and fixtures used in the track fittings
are fish plates, fish – bolts, rail –chairs, Bearing-plates, spikes, Anchors or Anticreepers,
blocks, and keys.

(1) Fish plates: These are used to connect rails at their ends.
(2) Fish –bolts: At every rail-joints fish – plates are connected to the rails with the help of
fish- bolts. With each pair of the fish-plates four or six fish-bolts are used. But on Indian
Railways four number of fish bolts are used.

(3) Rail –chairs: These are used for holding DH and BH rails in the required position. They
distribute the load over a large area of the sleeper. The chairs are generally made of cast iron.

(4) Bearing –plates: They are used to distribute the load from flat footed rails over wider
area of wooden sleepers.

(5) Spikes: Spikes are used to fix rails to wooden sleepers. They are of different types. i.
Dog spikes: These are square spikes, lugs are provided at the top for extraction. The lower
end of the spike may be pointed, blunt or chisel pointed. They are used for holding flat footed
rails to wooden sleepers. ii. Screw spikes: These are tapered screws with V-ends. The holding
power of these spikes is more than dog spikes. The length of these spikes depends on gauge.
For BG track, 165 mm long spikes are used. iii. Round spikes: These are used for fixing chairs
of B.H rails to the wooden sleepers and also for fixing slide chairs. iv. Elastic spikes: Elastic
spikes are provided with a steel spring

(6) Anchors or Anticreepers: These are provided to prevent the creep of rails.

(7) Blocks: These are used to provide flange way clearance between the check rails and
stock rails.

(8) Keys: These are used to fix the rails to the chairs. They may be metal keys or wooden
keys.

6. TRACK DESIGN
TRACK DESIGN

Track should be designed in such a way that trains with heavy loads can run over it at
maximum possible speed. While designing a track safety, comfort and speed have to be
considered.

Formation: The top width of a track in embankment or bottom width in cutting is known as
formation width. The formation width depends upon the gauge of track, number of track and
the space between the tracks. Indian railway board have recommended the following
dimensions for Broad gauge.

Minimum centre to centre distance of track :4.725 m

Minimum formation width in embankment for single line : 6.100 m

Minimum formation width in cutting for single line ( excluding side drains) : 5.490 m

Minimum formation width in embankment for double line : 10.82 m

Minimum formation width in cutting for double line ( excluding side drains) : 10.058m

Side slopes: The slope given to the sides of earth work in embankment or cutting for its
stability is known as side slope. The usual slope provided in cutting is 1½ : 1 and 2:1 in
embankment.

7. GRADIENT
GRADIENT

The rate of rise or fall of the track is known as the gradient. The gradients in railway are
classified as; 1. Ruling gradient 2. Momentum gradient 3. Pusher gradient 4. Station yard
gradient.

Ruling gradient: The maximum gradient to which a railway track may be laid in a particular
section is known as ruling gradient. On curves the gradients are reduced to avoid the extra
resistance. This reduction in gradient is known as grade compensation on curves. In India the
ruling gradients provided are:

In planes 1 in 150 to 1 in 200. In hilly tracks 1 in 100 to 1 in 150.

Momentum gradient: A falling gradient is usually followed by a rising gradient. On falling

gradients train gets momentum and this momentum can be utilized for rising gradient. The
gradient that utilizes the momentum from falling gradient for the following rising gradient is
known as momentum gradient.

Pusher or Helper gradient: The gradients that require extra engine to push the train are
known as pusher gradient.

Station yard Gradient: As far as possible the gradients are avoided in station yards because
extra force is required to pull the train on gradients and if high wind blows, the bogies may
begin to move resulting accidents. The maximum gradient in station yard is fixed as 1 in 400.
Indian Railways recommended a gradient of 1 in 1000 at station yards for easy drainage.

Super elevation: In a railway track, the raised elevation of outer rail above the inner rail at a
horizontal curve is termed as super elevation. It is also known as cant or banking.

Equilibrium cant: If the super elevation is provided such that the weight of the moving
vehicle and centrifugal force passes through centre of the track, it is known as equilibrium
cant.

Cant deficiency: The difference between equilibrium cant required for maximum permissible
speed on the curve and the actual cant provided is known as cant deficiency.

Negative cant: At places where branch line meets the main line on curves, the outer rail of
main line will be higher than the inner rail. Hence the outer rail of branch line will become
lower than the inner rail which is reverse of the requirement. Such super elevation is known
as negative super elevation or negative cant.
Cant board: It is used for providing super elevation on tracks.

8. POINTS AND CROSSINGS

POINTS AND CROSSINGS

Wheels of train have flanges on the inner side to prevent the lateral movement of train and
allow them to move in one definite direction only. Hence special arrangements are necessary
to divert a train from one track to another. These special devices which are required to divert a
train from one track to another is known as points and crossings.

Stock rail: It is the fixed straight rail in a track against which tongue rail fits.

Check rail: These are provided on opposite side of the crossing to prevent the tendency of the
wheel to climb over the crossing rail.

Tongue rail: It is a tapered rail having toe at one end heal at the other end. It fit against the
stock rail.

Splice rail: It is the rail of the branch track which meets the point rail at the nose of the
crossing.

Lead rails: These are the length of rails from the end of the tongue rail to the toe of the
crossing.

Wing rail: The two bent up rails of the crossing which are connected to the ends of the
crossing lead rails are called the wing rails.

Heel: Tapered rail where they are fixed to the main rail are known as heel.

Heel Divergence: It is the distance between the running faces of the stock rail and gauge
faces of the tongue rail when measured at the heel of the switch.

Toe: It is the movable end of the tapered rail

Flare: It is the tapered widening of the flangeway which is formed by bending and splaying
the end of check rail or wing rail.

Flangeway clearance: It is the distance between adjoining faces of a stock rail and check rail.
Flangeway depth: It is the vertical distance between the top of the surface of the rail to the top
surface of the blocks provided for keeping the flangeway.

Facing direction: When the crossing is seen while standing at the toe of switch, the direction
is known as facing direction.

Facing point: A point is called facing point when a train runs in facing direction only.

Trailing point: These are the points where the train passes over the crossing first and then
over the switches.

Studs: The bent up plates fitted to the web of the stock rail for preventing the lateral bending
of the tongue rail.

Point rail: It is the main railway track forming the nose of crossing.

Throat of crossing: This is the place where the converging rails are at the nearest position.

Nose of crossing: It is the point of intersection of the point rails and splice rails.

Toe of crossing: It is the end point of a wing rail with lead rail.

Slide chair: These plates are used to support the tongue rail throughout the length and permit
them to slide easily.

Stretcher bar: This is the bar connecting the toe of both the tongue rails and allows them to
traverse the same distance at a time.

Switch angle: This is the angle between running faces of stock rail and tongue rail.

9. TURN OUT
It is track assembly used for diverting train from one track to another.

10. SIGNALLING AND INTERLOCKING

SIGNALLING AND INTERLOCKING

Classification of signaling

1. According to operational characteristics

i) Fog or audible signal or detonating signals

ii) Visual indication hand signals

iii) Visual indication fixed signals

2. According to the functional characteristics.

i) Stop or semaphore signal

ii) Warner signal

iii) Shunting signals (Disc or ground signal)

iv) Coloured light signals.

3. According to the location characteristics:

i) Outer receptional signal.

ii) Home receptional signal.

iii) Starter signal.

iv) Advance starter signal.

4. Special signals

i) Routing signal.

ii) Calling- on signal.

iii) Point signal.

iv) Repeater or co-acting signals.

v) Modified lower quadrant semaphore signals.

vi) Miscellaneous signals.