控制系統(一) Control Systems (1)

Reference books: “Control Systems Engineering,” N. S. Nise, John Wiley & Sons
“Modern Control Engineering,” K. Ogata, Prentice Hall

成績:(1) 平常考(Chaps. 1~9): 50%

(2) 期中考(Chaps. 1~4): 25%
(3) 期末考(Chaps. 5~8): 25%

Course Contents:
* Mathematical Backgrounds
Laplace Transform (Chap. 1)
Linear Algebra
Complex Functions (Chap. 9)
* Control System Modeling
Input-Output Models (Chaps. 2, 3)
State-Space Models (Chap. 4)
* Analysis & Design Objectives
Transient Response (Chap. 5)
Stability (Chap. 6)
Steady-State Response (Chap. 7)
* Analysis & Design Methods
Root Locus Method (Chap. 8)
Frequency Response Method (Chap. 9)

1
 1. Introduction

1.1. Introduction
* System, inputs and outputs

1.2. Response Characteristics and System Configurations

* Time response (transient and steady-state response):

* Open-loop closed-loop (feedback control) systems

* Analysis and Design Objectives
(1) Transient response
(2) Steady-state response
(3) Stability

1.3. Laplace Transform Review

* Laplace transform table

f(t) F(s)
(t), impulse 1
1, step 1
s
t, ramp 1
s2
e−at 1
s +a
sin(t) ω
s +ω 2
2

cos(t) s
s +ω 2
2

2
* Laplace transform theorems

Theorems f(t) F(s)

Linearity f(t)+ g(t) F(s)+ G(s)
Frequency shift F(s+a)
e−at f(t)

Differentiation df (t )
sF(s)- f(0)
dt
Differentiation d 2 f (t )
s2 F (s)−sf (0)−ḟ (0)
dt 2

Final value f (∞)=lim f (t )= lim sF ( s )

t→∞ s →0

⃗ −1
* Partial fraction expansion ( F ( s ) L f (t ))
– Case 1: Real and distinct roots
2 K K K
F (s )= = 1+ 2 + 3
s( s+1 )(s +2) s s+1 s +2 ⇒ 2=K 1 ( s+1 )(s +2)+K 2 s(s +2)+K 3 s(s+1)

(i)
s=0⇒ 2=2 K 1 ⇒ K 1 =1

(ii) s=−1⇒ 2=−K 2 ⇒ K 2=−2

(iii)
s=−2⇒ 2=2 K 3 ⇒ K 3 =1

– Case 2: Repeated and real roots

1 K1 K2 K3
F ( s )= = + + 2
s( s+1 )2 s ( s+ 1)2 s +1 ⇒1=K 1 ( s+1 ) + K 2 s+ K 3 s (s +1)

(i)
s=0⇒ 1=K 1 ⇒ K 1=1

(ii) s=−1⇒ 1=−K 2 ⇒ K 2=−1

2 2
(iii) 1=K 1 (s +1) + K 2 s + K 3 s( s+1 )⇒ s :0=K 1 + K 3 ⇒ K 3 =−K 1 =−1
– Case 3: Complex roots

3
 5 K1 K 2s+K3
F ( s )= = + 2
s( s2 + 2 s+5 ) s s2 +2 s+ 5 ⇒5=K 1 ( s +2 s +5)+( K 2 s + K 3 ) s

(i) s=0⇒ 5=5 K 1 ⇒ K 1=1

2
(ii) 5=K 1 ( s + 2 s+5 )+( K 2 s+ K 3 )s

s2 : 0=K 1 + K 2 ⇒ K 2 =−1

s :0=2 K 1 + K 3 ⇒ K 3 =−2

d 2 y dy dy
2
+2 +5 y =5 x , y (0 )= (0 )=0
* Example: dt dt dt .
x(t) is a unit step input(x(t)=1), determine the output, y(t)

Lapalce transform
⇒L { d2 y
dt 2
dy
dt }
+2 +5 y=5 x , ⇒ ( s 2 +2 s +5 ) Y ( s )=5 X ( s )=
5
s

5 1 −s−2 1 s+1 1 2
⇒Y ( s )= = + = − −
s ( s2 + 2 s+5 ) s s 2 +2 s +5 s ( s+1 )2 + 22 2 ( s+ 1 )2 +22
1
⇒ y (t )=L−1 { Y ( s ) }=1−e−t cos2 t− e−t sin 2 t
Inverse Laplace transform 2

1.4. Problems

Problem 1.1
A 2nd-order system is described by the following differential equations and x(t)=1(a unit step input).
d2 y dy dy
2
+ 4 +5 y =15 x , y (0 )= (0 )=0
dt dt dt
Apply Lapalce transform method to determine the output, y(t).

Problem 1.2
A 2nd-order system is described by the following set of differential equations and u(t)=1 (a unit step
input).

{dx
dt
+x=2 u(t ) ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
Apply Lapalce transform method to determine the output, y(t).

4
 2. Input-Output Models

2.1. Transfer Function

* Definition
A nth order differential equation with zero initial conditions:
d n c (t ) d n−1 c (t ) d m r (t ) d m −1 r (t )
an +a n−1 +¿⋅¿+a 0 c (t )=b m +b m−1 +¿⋅¿+b0 r (t )
dt n dt n−1 dt m dt m−1 ,

c (n−1)(0 )=¿⋅¿=ċ(0)=c(0)=0
m m−1
C ( s ) bm s +bm−1 s + ¿⋅¿⋅+ b0
⇒G ( s )= =
R( s ) an sn +an−1 s n−1 +¿⋅¿⋅+a0

2.2. Electrical Networks

voltage V (s ) I (s ) 1
Z (s )= = Y ( s )= =
current I( s ) V (s ) Z ( s )
* Impedance : ; Admittance:

component voltage-current impedance

capacitor 1 1
v (t )=
C
∫ i(t )dt Cs

resistor R
v (t )=Ri(t )

inductor di(t )
v (t )=L Ls
dt

* Methods to obtain transfer functions

(1) by mesh analysis (voltage law):

R1 I 1 ( s)+ Ls[ I 1 (s)−I 2 (s)]=V in (s)

1
Ls [ I 2 ( s )−I 1 (s )]+R 2 I 2 (s )+ I ( s )=0
Cs 2
5
 1
V o (s )= I (s )
Cs 2
(2) by nodal analysis (current law):
V in ( s )−V 1 ( s ) V 1 (s ) V 1 ( s )−V o ( s )
− − =0
R1 Ls R2
V 1 ( s )−V o (s )
−CsV o ( s )=0
R2
(3) by mesh inspection:

[ Ls+R 1 - Ls ¿ ] ¿
¿¿
¿
1 |Ls+R1 V in (s) ¿|¿
V o (s)= I 2(s)= ¿¿¿¿
Cs ¿
Transfer function:
L
V o ( s) C Ls
T (s)= = =
V in (s) 1 2
( R1 +R 2 )LCs +( R1 R2 C +L)s+R1
( Ls+R 1 )( Ls+R 2 + )−L2 s2
Cs

V o (s ) Z 2( s )
=−
* Operational amplifier: V in ( s ) Z 1( s )

1
1
Cs+
V o (s ) Z 2( s ) R2 R2
=− =− =−
Example: V in ( s ) Z 1( s ) Ls+ R1 ( Ls + R1 )(R 2 Cs+1)

6
2.3. Translational Mechanical Systems
force F (s )
Z (s )= =
position X ( s )
* Impedance :

component force-position impedance

spring
f (t )=kx k

viscous damper dx(t )

f (t )=bv=b bs
dt

mass dx 2 (t )
f (t )=ma=m ms 2
dt 2

* Methods to obtain transfer functions

(1) by equations of motion (Newton’s law):

k 2 [ X 2 ( s )−X 1 (s )]−bsX 1 (s )−k 1 X 1 (s )=m1 s 2 X 1 ( s )

F (s )−k 2 [ X 2 (s )− X 1 ( s )]=m2 s2 X 2 ( s)
(2) by inspection

[ m1 s2+bs+k 1+k 2 - k 2 ¿ ] ¿ ¿¿
¿
7
 |0 -k2 ¿|¿ X (s)=|m1 s2+bs+k 1+k2 0¿|¿ ¿¿¿¿
⇒X 1(s)= ¿¿¿¿ 2
¿ ¿ ,

X1 (s ) k2 X 2( s ) m 1 s 2 +bs +k 1 + k 2
⇒ = =
F (s) (m1 s2 +bs+ k 1 + k 2 )( m2 s 2 + k 2 )−k 22 , F( s ) ( m 1 s 2 + bs+k 1 +k 2 )( m2 s 2 +k 2 )−k
22

2.4. Rotational Mechanical Systems

torque τ ( s )
Z (s )= =
angle θ( s )
* Impedance :

component torque-angle impedance

spring
τ (t )=Kθ K

damper dθ(t )
τ (t )=Dω=D Ds
dt

inertia d 2 θ(t )
τ (t )=Jα=J Js 2
dt 2

* Example:

[ 1 +D1 s+k
J s 2
-k ¿ ] ¿ ¿¿
¿

8
 ⇒θ1(s)=| 0 -k ¿|¿ ¿¿¿¿ θ (s)=|J 1 s2+D1 s+k 0 ¿|¿ ¿¿¿¿
2
¿ , ¿
θ1 ( s ) k θ2 ( s ) J 1 s2 + D 1 s +k
⇒ = =
τ ( s ) ( J s2 + D s +k )( J s2 + D s +k )−k 2 τ ( s ) ( J 1 s 2 + D 1 s+ k )( J 2 s 2 + D 2 s+ k )−k 2
1 1 2 2 ,

2.5. Systems with Gears

* Assumption: no backlash, no energy loss
τ 1 θ2 r 1 n1
= = =
 τ 2 θ1 r 2 n2

( )
2
n1
σ=
n2
* Equivalent elements by transfer ratio:

* Example:

n1 n1
()θ1 ( s )
θ (s) n n2
T (s )= 2 = 2 =
τ 1( s ) τ 1 (s ) 2
J e s + De s+ K e
Transfer function: ,

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
n1 n1 n1
J e =J 1 + J 2 D e =D 1 + D 2 K e =K 2
n2 n2 n2
where , ,

2.6. Electromechanical Systems (DC motor)

9
 dθm
v b =K b
* Assumptions: dt , τ m=K t i a , La ≈0
Kt
θm ( s ) ( Ra J m )
=

[ ( )] ; ( ) ( )
2 2
Ea ( s ) 1 K K nm nm
s s+ D m+ t b J m=J a + J L D m=D a + D L
Jm Ra nL nL
where ,

10
2.7. Problems

Problem 2.1
Find the transfer function, T(s) = Eout (s)/Ein(s), for the following electrical system.

Problem 2.2
Find the transfer function, G(s) = Y(s)/X(s), for the following mechanical system.

Problem 2.3
Find the transfer function, G(s) = o(s)/in(s), for the following mechanical system.

11
 3. Reduction of Subsystems

3.1. Step-by-Step
* Components of a block diagram: signals, summing junction, pickoff point

* Cascade form:

* Parallel form:

* Feedback form:

12
* Example:

13
3.2. Mason's Rule

C (s )
∑ Fi Δi
i
T (s )= =
* R (s ) Δ

Δ=1−∑ Li +∑ Li L j − ∑ Li L j Lk
i i,j (two non-touching loops) i, j, k (three non-touching loops) + ….
i is formed by eliminating the components of  that touch Fi.
Fi is the ith forward-path gain
Li the ith loop gain
* Example:

L1 =−G1 G2 G4 H 1
L2 =−G2 H 2

L3 =−G3 G4 H 1
F 1=G1 G2 G 4

F 2=G3 G4
Δ=1− {−G1 G2 G4 H 1−G 2 H 2−G3 G 4 H 1 }+ {G2 H 2⋅G3 G4 H 1 }
=1+G1 G2 G 4 H 1 +G2 H 2 +G3 G4 H 1 +G2 G3 G 4 H 1 H 2
Δ 1=1
Δ 2 =1+ G 2 H 2
C (s ) F1 Δ1 + F 2 Δ 2 G1 G2 G4 +G3 G4 (1+G2 H 2 )
T (s )= = =
R (s ) Δ 1+ G1 G2 G4 H 1 +G2 H 2 +G3 G 4 H 1 + G2 G3 G4 H 1 H 2

14
3.3. Problems

Problem 3.1
For the system shown in the following figure, find the transfer function, T(s) = C(s)/R(s).

Problem 3.2
For the system shown in the following figure, find the transfer function, T(s) = C(s)/R(s), and
the differential equation.

15
 4. State-Space Models

4.1. Introduction
* Classical, frequency-domain, transfer function,  modern, time-domain, state-space model

4.2. State-Space Representation

*
{ ẋ= Ax+Bu¿¿¿¿
where x = state vector, u = input vector, y = output vector
* Example

x=¿ [ x1 ¿] [ x2 ¿] [ x3 ¿ ] ¿
¿¿
¿ , u=f , y=x 1

Newton’s 2nd law:

{m1 v̇1=k2(x2−x1)−k1 x1−bv1 ¿ ¿¿¿

{ 1
⇒¿{ẋ1=x3 ¿ ẋ3= [−(k1+k2)x1+k2 x2−bx3]¿ {ẋ2=x4 ¿ ¿¿
m1
and y=x 1

16
 ⇒¿ [ ẋ1 ¿ ] [ ẋ2 ¿][ ẋ3 ¿] ¿
¿¿
¿
¿
4.3. Transfer Function State-Space Form
* Phase-variable form:

d4 y d3 y d2 y dy
4
+a 3 3 + a2 2 + a1 +a 0 y=u
dt dt dt dt

{{{
2 3
dy d y d y
{x1=y¿ x2=dt =ẋ1¿ x3=dt2 =ẋ2¿ x4=dt3 =ẋ3 ¿ ¿
⇒¿ [ ẋ1 ¿ ] [ ẋ2 ¿][ ẋ3 ¿] ¿
¿¿
¿
¿
* Modified phase-variable form:

17
 ⇒¿ [ ẋ1 ¿ ] [ ẋ2 ¿][ ẋ3 ¿] ¿
¿¿
¿
¿
* Decomposing the block diagram:

{ẋ1=−a1x+b1u¿{ w=x1+b4u2¿{ẋ2=−a2x+b2w=−a2x+b2x1+b2 4u2¿{ẋ3=−a3x+b3x2¿{y1=x2 ¿

⇒¿
¿
[ ẋ 1 ¿ ][ ẋ 2 ¿ ] ¿
¿
¿¿

4.4. State-Space Form  Transfer Function

* By Laplace transform:
Y ( s)
T (s )= =C ( sI− A )−1 B+D
U ( s)

4.5. Problems
Problem 4.1
Represent the system as shown in the following figure in the state-space form. Note that the
system has one input (f), one output (v=dx/dt), and two state variables (x1, x2) = (x, v).

18
Problem 4.2
Represent the system as shown in the following figure in the state-space form. Note that the
system has two inputs (u1, u2), one output (y), and three state variables (x1, x2, x3).

5. Transient Response

5.1. Poles and Zeros

* Definition:

T(s) = transfer function pi = poles, T ( p i )=¿

zi = zeros, T ( zi )=0

* Step response:

K (s−z 1 )(s−z 2 )
G( s )=
(s− p1 )( s−p 2 )( s− p3 )
k k k k3
⇒C ( s )= 0 + 1 + 2 +
s s− p1 s− p2 s− p 3
p1 t p2 t p3 t
⇒ c ( t )=k 0 +k 1 e +k 2 e + k3 e (forced response + natural response)

5.2. First-Order Systems

K Ka
G( s )= =
* τs+1 s +a
* Step response:
19
 * Specifications:
Static gain, K
1
τ=
Time constant, a
2. 2
t r=
Rise time (0.1~0.9), a
4
t s=
Settling time (2%), a

5.3. Second-Order Systems

Kω 2
c n
G ( s )= 2 = 2
s +as +b s + 2ζω n s +ω
* n2

* Classification:
2
(1) Overdamped systems: a −4 b>0 ( >1)
2
(2) Critically damped systems: a −4 b=0 ( = 1)
2
(3) Underdamped systems: a −4 b<0 (0 <  < 1)
(4) Undamped systems: a=0 ( = 0)
(5) Unstable systems: a< 0 ( < 0)

5.4. Overdamped 2nd Order Systems

p1 p2
G( s )=
* (s− p1 )( s−p 2 )

p2 p t p1 p t
c (t )=1+ e 1+ e 2
For unit step input (r = 1), output p1 −p 2 p 2− p1

* Example:
20
 10 10 −t 1 −10 t
G( s)= ⇒ c (t )=1− e + e
(s +1)( s+10 ) 9 9
1
G 1 ( s )= ⇒ c1 (t )=1−e−t
s +1
10
G 2 (s )=
s +10 ⇒ c 2 (t )=1−e−10 t

5.5. Underdamped 2nd Order Systems

Kω
n2
G ( s )= 2
s +2 ζωn s+ω
* n2

where  = damping ratio, n = undamped natural frequency.

* Examples

X(s) 1
F(s) ms +bs+k
* Step response:
m
k
= 2 ;¿ ωn= ¿ ¿¿ {√ V o (s)
=
1
V in(s) LCs +RCs+1
2
;¿ {√
ω n =
1
LC
¿ ¿¿

21
 K (static gain) = 1

( ς
)
−ςωn t
cosω n √ 1−ς t + sin ωn √1−ς t
2 2
⇒ c(t )=1−e
√1−ς 2

−σ t
e d
⇒ c (t )=1− cos ( ω d t−φ )
√1−ς 2
where
σ d =ςωn = exponential damping frequency

ω d =ω n √ 1−ς 2 = damped frequency

φ=tan−1
( √ 1−ς )
ς
2
= phase lag

* Poles,
p1 ,2 =−σ d ± jωd =−ςωn± jωn √ 1−ς 2

* Specifications:
π π π
t p= =
ωd ω √ 1−ς 2 ⇔ ωd =ωn √ 1−ς 2 =
Peak time, n tp

22
 σ
d ln ( OS ) −ln ( OS )
−( σ d π /ω d ) −( ςπ / 1−ς
√ 2
) ⇔ ω =− ⇔ ς=
Overshoot, OS=e =e d π √ π 2+ln 2( OS )
4 4 4
t s= = ⇔ σ d =ςωn=
Settling time (2%),
σ d ςωn ts

1
G( s )= 2
* Example: ms +bs +k

Analysis process:
{ m , b , k } ⇒ {σ d , ωd } or { ς , ωn } ⇒ {OS , t p , t s }

Design process: {
OS , t p , t s } ⇒ {σ d , ω d } or {ς , ω n }⇒ { m, b , k }

23
5.6. System Responses with Additional Poles/Zeros
* Dominant poles:

{ { 5 25(s+20)
G1(s)= 2 ¿ G2(s)= 2
s +2s+5 (s +2s+5)( s+4)(s+25)
⇒G 2 (s )≈G1 ( s )
¿ ¿¿¿

{G 3 ( s )=
40( s +30 )
( s 2 +2 s +5)( s+ 6)( s+20 )
¿¿¿¿

24
5.7. Problems

Problem 5.1
For the system as shown in the following figure, compute the system’s peak time (tp), settling
time (ts), and overshoot (OS) for step input.

Problem 5.2
For the mechanical system as shown, the desired system specifications are: mass (m) = 20 Kg,
settling time (ts) = 0.5 sec, and overshoot (OS) = 5%. Determine the spring constant (k) and the
damper factor (b).

25
 6. Stability

6.1. Introduction
* Unstable: there is any pole on the right-hand plane or repeated poles on the imaginary axis

6.2. Routh-Hurwitz Criterion

* Routh table:
N ( s)
T ( s )=
a 4 s + a3 s +a 2 s 2 +a 1 s+ a0
4 3

s4 a4 a2 a0

s3 a3 a1 0

s2 a4 a4 0
b 2=a2 −a1 ( ) b 1=a0 −0( )
a3 a3
s1 a 0 0
c 1 =a1 −b 1 ( 3 )
b2
s0 b 0 0
d 0 =b 1−0( 2 )
c1

Number of sign changes in the first column (

a 4 → a3 → b2 → c 1 → d 0 ) = Number of poles

on the right-hand plane

* Example:

100 100 100

G( s )= = 3 ⇒T ( s )= 3
(s +1)( s+2 )(s +3 ) s +6 s +11 s+6
2
s +6 s2 + 11s +106
s3 1 11

s2 6 106

s1 1 0
11−106× =−6 .667
6

26
 s0 6 0
106−0× =106
−6 . 667

2 sign changes in the first column ⇒ 2 poles on the RHP ⇒ unstable

(closed-loop poles: -6.7134, 0.357 + j3.96)

* Special cases: A zero in the first column:

10
T ( s )=
s5 +2 s 4 + 3 s 3 +6 s2 + 8 s +4

s5 1 3 8

s4 2 6 4

s3 0(⇒ ) 6 0

s2 12 4 0
6−
ε
s1 4 ε2 0 0
6−
6 ε−12
s0 4 0 0

+
{ε=0 :+,+,+,−,+,+ }or{ε=0− :+,+,−,+,+,+ }⇒ 2 sign changes in the first column ⇒ 2
poles on the RHP ⇒ unstable
(closed-loop poles: 0.53 + j1.56, -1.03 + j 0.65, -1)

6.3. Problems

Problem 6.1
For the system as shown below, determine the range of the parameter K so that the system is
stable.

27
Problem 6.2
For the system as shown below, determine the range of the parameter  so that the system is
stable.

28
 7. Steady-State Errors

7.1. Introduction
* Unity Feedback Systems:

* Error: e (t )=r(t )−c (t )

e ss =e (∞ )=lim e (t )
Steady-state error: t →∞

7.2. Steady-State Errors

* Final value theorem

e ss =lim [ sE( s ) ] =lim
s→0 s →0 [ sR (s )
1+G(s ) ]
1 1
e ss = =
1+lim G( s ) 1+ K p
Unit step input: s→ 0 , Kp = position constant

1 1
e ss = =
lim sG( s ) K v
Unit ramp input: s→0 , Kv = velocity constant

1 1
e ss = =
lim s G( s ) K a
2

Unit parabolic input: s→0 , Ka = acceleration constant

29
 )⋅¿⋅¿⋅¿
G(s)=K(s+z1 )(s+z2 n
¿¿
* System type: s (s+ p1 )(s+ p2 )⋅¿⋅¿⋅¿ (Type n system)

ess (steady-state error)

Input Type 0 Type 1 Type 2
1
unit step 1+ K p 0 0

1
∞
unit ramp Kv 0

1
∞ ∞
unit parabola Ka

10( s+5 )
G( s )=
* Example: s (s 2 +2 s +10 )

unit step input, r = 1

e ss =0

3
e ss = =0. 6
ramp input, r = 3t
Kv

parabolic input, r = 5t2

e ss =∞

7.3. Systems with Disturbances

* Steady-state errors:

s→0
R D
e ss =lim [ sE( s ) ] =e ss +e ss =lim
s →0 [ sR ( s )
] [
−lim
sG2 ( s ) D( s )
1+G 1 ( s )G 2 ( s ) s→0 1+G 1 ( s ) G 2 ( s ) ]
10 G (s )=20
G 1 ( s )=
* Example: s +2 , 2 s ( s+5 )

step input (r = 1) and step disturbance (d = +0.2)

e ss =0−0 . 04=−0 .04

30
 ramp input (r = t) and step disturbance (d = -0.2)
e ss =0 . 05+0 . 04=0 . 09

7.4. Problems

Problem 7.1
Shown in the following figure is a system with a ramp input, r(t) = t, and a step disturbance, d(t)
= -0.3. Compute the steady-state error (ess).

Problem 7.2
Shown in the following figure is a system with a ramp input, r(t) = t, and a step disturbance, d(t)
= -0.3. Determine the range(範圍) of K so that ess < 0.05.

31
 8. Root Locus Methods

8.1. Introduction

C (s ) kG( s )
T (s )= =
* Closed-loop transfer function: R (s ) 1+kG( s )H ( s )

* Root locus: the paths of the closed-loop poles (i.e., roots of Δ(s)=1+kG( s)H ( s)=0 )

that change as k is varied (from 0 to ∞ )

8.2. Root Locus

N (s ) numerator polynomial
G( s )H ( s )= =
* Open-loop poles/zeros: D(s ) denomenator polynomial
n = deg(D(s)) = number of open-loop poles, pi
m = deg(N(s)) = number of open-loop zeros, zi
* Number of branches (closed-loop poles) = n
* Symmetry
* Real-axis segments: odd number of open-loop poles/zeros on RHS
* Starting and ending points: from open-loop poles (pi) to open-loop zeros(zi) or infinity(∞ )
* Behavior at infinity (asymptotes):

σ a=
∑ pi − ∑ z i
n−m
(2 k +1 )π
θ a= ; k =0, 1, 2, ⋅¿⋅¿ ¿
n−m
* j-axis crossing: stability limit (by Routh table)
* Real-axis break-away and break-in points:

dD( s ) dN (s ) 1 D( s)
N ( s) − D (s )=0⇒ s=si k =− =−
ds ds ; where G(s i ) H (s i ) N ( s)

8.3. Examples
k ( s+6 )
kG (s ) H (s )=
* Example 1: ( s+ 2)(s + 4 )

n = 2, m = 1;
p1 ,2 =−2 ,−4 ; z 1=−6

32
 σ a =0 θ a=π
; ;

s2 1 8+6k

s1 6+k 0

s0 8+6k 0

{ 6+k>0 ¿ ¿¿¿
dD( s ) dN (s )
N ( s) − D (s )=(s +6 )(2 s+ 6)−( s2 + 6 s+ 8)=s 2 +12 s +28=0
ds ds

⇒ s 1, 2 =−3.17 ,−8 . 83⇒ k 1 ,2 =0 . 34 , 11.66

k ( s+4 )
kG (s ) H (s )=
* Example 2: s( s+2 )(s +6 )(s +8 )

n = 4, m = 1;
p1 ,2 ,3 ,4 =0,−2,−6,−8 ; z 1=−4

−12 π 5π
σ a= =−4 θ a= , π ,
3 3 3
; ;

s4 1 76 4k

s3 16 96+k 0

s2 k 4k 0
70−
16

33
 s1 −k 2 /16+6720 0 0
70−k /16

s0 4k 0 0

{ {
2
k −k /16+6720
70− >0 ¿ >0 ¿¿¿¿
16 70−k/16

8.4. Generalized Root Locus

* Rearrangement of the characteristic equation (system parameter, k):
N ( s)
Δ (s )=1+ k =0
D( s )
s+6
G( s )H ( s )=
* Example: ( s+2 )(s+k )
s +6
Δ (s )=1+ =0 ⇒( s+2 )(s +k )+ s+ 6=0⇒( s2 + 3 s+ 6 )+ k (s +2)=0
(s +2)( s+ k )

s+2
⇒ 1+k =0 ⇒ ¿ { N (s)=s+2 ¿ ¿ ¿
s 2 +3 s+6

n = 2, m = 1;
p1 ,2 =−1 .5± j1 .94 ; z 1=−2

dD( s ) dN (s )
N ( s) − D (s )=(s +2)(2 s+3 )−( s 2 +3 s +6 )=s2 +4 s=0 ⇒ s 1 ,2 =0 ,−4
ds ds

34
(at s2 =−4 , k =5 )

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8.5. Problems

Problem 8.1 For the system shown as follows, draw the root locus as K varies from 0 to infinity.

Problem 8.2 For the system shown as follows, draw the root locus as K varies from 0 to infinity.

Problem 8.3 For the system shown as follows, draw the root locus and determine the range(範圍) of K
to satisfy the following specifications: (1) ts < 1.0(s), (3) tp < 0.5(s), (4) OS < 10%.

36
 9. Frequency Response Techniques

9.1. Complex Numbers and Functions

* Complex numbers:

z=a+jb⇔¿ {a=Re(z)¿¿¿
* magnitude and phase angle:

M ( z)=|z|=√ a2 +b2
φ ( z)=∠ z=tan −1
b
a ()
* Multiplication and division:

z=z1 z2 ⇒¿ {|z|=|z1||z2|¿ ¿¿
z1
{
|z1|
z= ⇒ ¿ |z|= ¿ ¿¿
z2 |z 2|
2 s +5
G( s )=
* Example: ( s+ 2 ) (s +10) , s=0+ j 3
(1)
5+ j6
G( j 3 )=
( 2+ j 3 ) (10+ j3 )
5+ j6 (5+ j 6 ) ( 11− j36 ) 271− j 114
= = = =0 . 1912− j0 . 0805
11+ j36 (11+ j 36 ) ( 11− j36 ) 1417

⇒¿ {M =|G(j3)|=√0.1912 +(−0.0805) =0.2075 ¿ ¿¿

2 2

(2)

M =|G ( j3 )|=
√5 2+62 =0 . 2075
√ 22+3 2× √102+ 32
φ =∠G( j3 )=tan
−1
( 65 )−(tan ( 32 )+ tan ( 103 ))=−22. 8
−1 −1 o

37
9.2. Frequency Response
* Sinusoidal frequency response: magnitude(M) + phase angle()

* Analytical expression:

{M o=M i M G ¿ ¿¿¿
where

G( jω )=G( s)|s→ jω ,

{ M G (ω)=|G( jω )|¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
9.3. Bode Plots

* Magnitude in Decibel (dB): M (dB )=20 log 10 ( M )

a
G( s )=
* s+ a

38
 s+ a
G( s )=
* a

ω
n2
G ( s )= 2
s +2 ςωn s+ ω
* n2

39
 aω
n2
G ( s )=
( )
2
( s +a ) s +2 ςωn s+ ω 2
* n

9.4. Nyquist Plots and Criterion

* Nyquist Plots
* Nyquist Criterion: Z = P + N
Z = number of closed-loop poles in RHP
P = number of open -loop poles in RHP
N = number of CW revolutions around (-1,0) of the mapping

40
* Example:
30
G( s)H ( s)=
( s+1 )(s+2)( s+3 )

Z=P+ N=0+0=0 ⇒ stable

* For most systems,

P=0⇒Z=N⇒¿ {Stable,N=0¿¿¿
⇒ Z = N = CW revolutions around (-1,0)
⇒ via only the positive j-axis

* Example:
K
KG(s) H (s)=
s( s+1)(s+2) ⇒ K < 6 for stability

41
9.5. Relative Stability
* Gain Margin and Phase Margin

9.6. Problems

Problem 9.1
As shown below, a mechanical system is actuated by a positional input, x(t)=sin(15t), and the
system’s parameters are: m=10kg, b=150 Ns/m, and k=1500N/m. Determine the magnitude(My) and
phase(y) of the output position at steady state, yss(t)= My sin(15t+y).

Problem 9.2
500( s+1 )
G( s )=
For the system, s 2 +10 s +100 , draw the Bode plot and Nyquist plot.

42