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Starting High-Inertia Loads

Robbie F. McElveen, Member, IEEE, and Michael K. Toney, Senior Member, IEEE
AbstractCommon methods used to start ac induction motors driving high-inertia loads include across-the-line starting and reduced-voltage starting by autotransformer, wyedelta, or resistor/reactor. Application of these methods is generally well documented and understood. However, with the increased use of electronic soft starters and variable-frequency drives, applications can be markedly different. This paper reviews the aforementioned methods and explains the benefits and limitations of each. The effect of high-inertia loads on both acceleration time and motor heating is examined. A case history of starting a centrifuge with an electronic soft starter is studied. Finally, a comparison of all of the methods is presented with recommendations on choosing the proper starter given. Index TermsInertia, motors, soft start, starting, variable-frequency drives.

methods used for both soft start and VFD starting are explained. A special emphasis is placed on the motor losses and heating for each of these starting methods. Finally, factors which should be considered when choosing a starter are discussed and recommendations given. II. METHODS OF STARTING INDUCTION MOTORS Methods of starting ac induction motors can be broken down into four basic categories: Full-voltage (across-the-line) starting, electromechanical reduced-voltage starting, solid-state reduced-voltage starting, and VFD starting. Electromechanical reduced-voltage starting has been in existence nearly as long as the induction motor itself. This starting method encompasses autotransformer starting, wyedelta (stardelta) starting, and resistor/reactor starting. Each of these methods requires the use of some type of mechanical switch or contact. Electromechanical starting is the most common method of reduced voltage starting used in industry today. Solid-state starters, on the other hand, have only been in existence since the early 1970s. This method of starting uses programmable logic controllers in combination with sophisticated power electronic circuits to provide reduced voltage and/or torque. Advances made in the electronics industry with new high-power diodes and SCRs have led to the development of both electronic soft starters as well as inverter controlled VFDs. In each of these cases, smooth, electronically controlled starts can be achieved with a high degree of process control. A. Full-Voltage (Across-the-Line) Starting Of the many methods used to start induction motors, fullvoltage (or across-the-line) starting is typically used unless there is either an electrical or mechanical constraint which makes this option unsuitable. With this method, full voltage is applied to the motor at the instant the switch is thrown. This method of starting results in a large initial current surge, known as inrush, which is typically 600% to 700% rms of the full-load current drawn by the motor. In reality, the first half-cycle current is considerably higher in magnitude, but is short in duration. This large inrush can cause problems for the connected electrical system. Power companies may apply restrictions as to how much current draw is allowed. These restrictions are typically specified as the maximum allowable voltage drop at the incoming power connection point or the maximum allowable kilovoltamperes that may be drawn by the plant. These restrictions may limit when and how many times a particular motor can be started. By limiting the inrush, the corresponding voltage drop will be reduced. Another problem can be with in-plant bus capacity where the given system simply cannot handle this large current draw. Brownout or other associated problems may be experienced

I. INTRODUCTION ANY METHODS are used to reduce the current draw during startup of high-inertia applications such as centrifuges, hammermills, or large fans. Reduced current conditions are desired not only to lessen the burden on the electrical system and avoid power company penalties, but also to decrease the strain on both the motor and the connected mechanical system. This reduction in starting current, however, leads to a corresponding reduction in the starting torque available from the motor. For the purposes of this paper, starting torque is considered to be the average torque produced by the motor which is available to accelerate the load. This reduction in torque leads to longer acceleration times and the potential for increased heating during startup. The goal of this paper is to evaluate the conventional methods of starting, to explain how soft starters and variable-frequency drive (VFD) starting works, and to compare each of the methods for temperature rise, acceleration time, and economical considerations. First, a brief overview of starting methods (including soft start and VFD starting) is presented. Next, the effects of inertia on both acceleration time and motor heating are discussed. Comparisons for starting time, temperature rise, and other factors are made. An actual case history of a soft-started centrifuge is presented, including the problems and solutions associated with this application. Following this case history, the calculation
Paper PID 9806, presented at the 1997 IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical Conference, Banff, AB, Canada, September 1517, and approved for publication in the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS by the Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee of the IEEE Industry Applications Society. Manuscript submitted for review September 17, 1997 and released for publication October 15, 1999. R. McElveen was with Reliance Electric-Rockwell Automation, Kings Mountain, NC 28086 USA. He is now with John Deere, Charlotte, NC 28241 USA (e-mail: McElveenRobie@JohnDeere.com). M. Toney is with Amoco Corporation, Houston, TX 77058 USA (e-mail: miketoney@ieee.org). Publisher Item Identifier S 0093-9994(01)00280-8.

00939994/01$10.00 2001 IEEE

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if the voltage dips too much. Furthermore, this inrush current induces large magnetic forces in the stator windings, which actually try to force the windings to move and distort. This transitory force can eventually lead to deterioration of the insulation between the windings, especially if adequate coil head bracing techniques are not employed. Full-voltage starting produces the greatest amount of starting torque. High starting torque is generally desired when trying to start a high-inertia load in order to limit the acceleration time. However, in certain cases, this high starting torque may damage the mechanical system. Gears or chains might be broken or damaged. Strain or slippage may reduce belt life. Gearboxes are also put under a greater stress and are subject to more abuse. Voltage drop on the system must be carefully studied and the breaker/relays need to be coordinated with upstream devices to prevent nuisance tripping of these devices during startup. If the voltage drop limitation for the system is exceeded, other methods of starting should be considered. Beyond the initial shock of inrush current and torque, this type of starting does result in a smooth acceleration characteristic with the shortest acceleration time, which offers an advantage over some of the other available methods of starting. B. Electromechanical Reduced-Voltage Starting Another popular method of starting which is used to limit inrush current is reduced-voltage starting. With any type of reduced-voltage starting, the theoretical current drawn by the motor decreases linearly with decreasing voltage. (The exception is VFD starting where the frequency changes as well as the voltage. This is a special topic and is discussed more thoroughly in a later section.) Similarly, the torque is theoretically reduced by the square of the percent voltage ratio, (i.e., 80% reduced voltage results in (0.8) = 0.64 or 64% of nominal motor torque). Although the motor torque and current are dependent upon many factors such as saturation, deep bar effect, and skin effect, a good approximation of the current and torque at any speed and reduced voltage condition may be found by using the following equations: (1) (2) where current at reduced voltage; rated current; reduced voltage; rated voltage; reduced torque; rated torque. Note that the proportion constants used as exponents in the above equations are factors developed from locked-rotor saturation testing and are applicable to the majority of induction motors. Electromechanical reduced-voltage starting can be achieved in the folowing three ways: 1) autotransformer; 2) wyedelta; 3) primary resistor/reactor.

With autotransformer starting, a tapped transformer is used to supply reduced voltage to the motor. Typically, as the motor gains speed, the taps are changed to increase the voltage to the motor terminals. However, this switching of voltage can result in a high spike of current during this transitory period of operation. The magnitude of this spike is dependent upon the motor speed and current when the switching occurs. There is a torque transient associated with this current peak which again may cause problems for the driven equipment. Note that this phenomenon is not present if closed transition starting is used where the circuit is never actually opened during the switching operation. One big advantagefromthepowersystemstandpointisthatthelinecurrent on the distribution side of the autotransformer is reduced by the square of the voltage ratio at the power system input. For the other methods mentioned in this section, the line current varies directly. However, autotransformer starting is a more costly method than either wyedelta or resistor/reactor starting. The second type of electromechanical reduced-voltage starting that is used extensively is wye-start, delta-run. This is particularly true for motor voltages of less than 1000 V. With this type of starting method, a normally delta-connected stator is connected in wye during the initial startup phase. It is most common for the motor to reach full speed before the transition to the delta connection is made. However, it is possible for the connection to be switched from wye to delta as the motor approaches 50%60% of full-load speed. This essentially applies full voltage to the motor at this point. The advantage times rated of connecting the stator in wye is that only voltage is applied to the phase windings. This results in only 1/3 of nominal current draw, but reduces the starting torque by a factor of three as well. When the stator connection is switched from wye to delta, a transitory current arises which can often be equal to or greater than the peak current seen with across-the-line starting. Again, this current and resulting torque transient is present only if open transition is used and is not a problem for closed transition switching. A drawback of this method is that it requires the neutrals of the motor, in addition to the normal line leads, to be externally connected (six leads). Thus, this starter is not an option for use with a motor that was originally constructed with only three leads. Fig. 1(a) and (b) illustrates the relative magnitudes of torque and current for both wye and delta configurations. Both NEMA Design B-type and Design C-type motor curves are shown for comparative purposes. Note the very low amount of torque available on the wye connection for the Design B characteristic. This low amount of available starting torque is an important issue to keep in mind when this type of starting method is being considered. Wye-delta starting requires additional contactors in the starter, which drives up the cost of the equipment. Two cable runs to the field have to be installed in order to perform wye-delta switching and starters must be interlocked in order to prevent catastrophic failure. Again, there is additional heat generated that must be taken into account at the starter, the lead cable, and at the motor. This system is relatively simple to operate, but adjusting the starting characteristics is not an option once the system is installed. Overload protection needs to be designed for both the wye and delta connections.

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(a)

(a) Fig. 2.

(b) Waveshapes for 0 and 90 firing angles.

Fig. 3. Voltage waveshape for inductive load (90 firing angle).

(b) Fig. 1. (a) Comparison of torque and amperes for wye and delta connections (NEMA Design B). (b) Comparison of torque and amperes for wye and delta connections (NEMA Design C).

Primary resistor/reactor starting is achieved by placing a resistance or inductance in series with the motor leads in order to reduce the inrush current. The torque is again reduced by the voltage ratio as shown in (2), while the line current decreases per (1). Again, when the motor is nearly up to speed, the resistor or reactor may be switched out of the circuit, causing transitory currents with their corresponding torque pulsations. Energy is wasted as heat is dissipated in the resistor during each startup cycle. Less energy is wasted when using a reactor, but the magnitude can still be significant. C. Electronic Soft Starting There are two basic categories of soft-starting methods: current-limit starting and voltage-ramp starting. Most of todays units offer both options (or various combinations) in one starter package so that the starting characteristic can be optimized to provide a more healthy start for both the motor and connected equipment. Voltage ramp starting is the simplest form of soft starting in which a microprocessor is used to control the firing angle of pairs of SCRs, thus progressively increasing the voltage supplied to the motor. In order to understand the effect the firing

angle of the SCRs has on the voltage waveshape and harmonic content, consider the following example for a single phase voltage source. Fig. 2 shows the percentage 1st (fundamental), 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics for a phased back sine wave. If the phased back angle were 90 , the percent content of each harmonic would be as shown in Fig. 2(a) (% fundamental 100) and Fig. 2(b) (% fundamental 58.5; % 3rd 31.7; % 5th 10.7; % 7th 10.5). Please note that this analysis is only applicable for a resistive load. Due to the fact that the current lags the voltage for an inductive load (such as a motor), the voltage waveshape will be somewhat different. In order to turn off an SCR, the current through the SCR must pass through zero. The resultant voltage waveshape will resemble that shown in Fig. 3 Harmonics produce pulsating torques whose net total is zero. These harmonics contribute to additional losses (heating) in the motor. Useable motor torque is produced only by the fundamental component of the voltage. The usable fundamental component of the voltage can be considerably less than the rms value, depending upon the complexity of the circuit used to fire the SCRs. This factor must be considered when designing a motor for use with this type of starter. With voltage ramp starting, it is possible for the user to set the initial voltage which will be applied at time zero and to specify the ramp time (how long it will take the voltage to rise from its initial to final value). By starting the motor at reduced voltage, starting current and starting torque are reduced, thus lessening the stress on both the mechanical and the electrical system. This method of starting results in a smooth acceleration of the load from zero speed to full-load speed. Fig. 4 shows typical voltage and current characteristics for a 50-s voltage ramp. Notice how

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Fig. 6. Temperature rises versus voltage ramp.

Fig. 4. Voltage and current characteristics for a typical voltage ramp soft start.

Fig. 7. Voltage and current characteristics for a typical current limit soft start. Fig. 5. Acceleration time versus voltage ramp.

the current tends to ramp up at a rate similar to the voltage. This characteristic is due to the fact that the current magnitude does not decrease dramatically until the motor reaches breakdown speed. In Fig. 4, breakdown r/min is reached at approximately 48 s. Figs. 5 and 6 show acceleration times and motor heating results for various voltage ramps. In each figure, the first three bars are the calculated data for an initial voltage of 2080, a final voltage of 4160, and various ramp times from 15 to 60 s. The full-voltage starting results are also given in column four for comparison. The second general type of soft starting is current-limit starting. In this case, the user can set a predefined maximum current that will be supplied to the motor (usually given in percentage of full-load amperes). The starter control circuit will sense the load current or motor back EMF and alter the firing angle of the SCRs in order to adjust the voltage at every point to whatever value is necessary in order to maintain the current at the desired level. As mentioned before, this reduced current results in a torque reduction by an exponent of 2.2. Care must be taken not to set the current limit to a value that will reduce the starting capability of the motor too much. If this happens, excessive motor heating will result, which may lead to premature failure. Fig. 7 shows typical voltage and current characteristics for a current-limit-type start. Notice how data from the feedback cir-

cuit is used to adjust the voltage in order to maintain the current at a constant level. Figs. 8 and 9 show acceleration times and motor heating results for various current limits. Fig. 8 demonstrates how the acceleration time increases with decreasing the current limit to the motor. As less current is supplied to the motor, less starting torque is produced, which results in increased acceleration time. Fig. 9 illustrates how both the rotor and stator temperature rises are affected by decreasing the current limit. Because there is less available torque under limited current conditions, the tendency is to believe that increased motor heating may result. However, due to the fact that the current is reduced, both the losses are decreased. In addition to this rotor and stator decrease in losses, the acceleration time is extended, allowing for more of the heat generated to be dissipated to the frame and surrounding atmosphere. Thus, the reduced current leads not to increased heating, but rather to a cooler acceleration for the motor. However, when implementing any type of reduced voltage starting the application engineer must be sure not to reduce the motor torque to a point which would result in the motor stalling. In this case, motor damage would be likely to occur. Electronic soft starters are typically more expensive than the other starting means discussed previously, but may provide a lower total cost of ownership over the life of the motor. There are limitations to the distance that the starters can be installed from the motor and harmonics do exist as described above. However, most soft starters are bypassed once the motor reaches full speed, so exposure to the harmonics is limited.

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Fig. 8.

Acceleration time versus current limit.

an inverter to start a high-inertia load. This results in relatively little rotor heating during startup. The VFD offers the most control for starting any type of load. However, the VFD is considerably more expensive than the other methods discussed and takes up more space than the other electronic starter option (soft start). The VFD is generally not bypassed after the motor reaches full speed that in the past has caused some reliability concerns. However, with the increasing dependability of power electronic devices and circuits, this is becoming less of an issue. Maintenance of the VFD is more involved, which will add to the life cost of the equipment. Harmonics and mounting distance from the motor are issues that must be addressed and can add to the complexity of the installation. Relay coordination with a VFD is simplified due to the protection afforded by the electronics and to the controlled starting of the motor itself. III. INERTIA AND MOTOR HEATING Inertia is defined as a bodys resistance to a change in velocity. This velocity can either be linear or rotational in nature. ) An objects moment of inertia (commonly referred to as is the product of the weight of the object and the square of the objects radius of gyration . The radius of gyration is a measure of how the objects mass is distributed about the center of rotation and is commonly expressed in units of feet. The inertia of the given load is a major factor when determining both the acceleration time and the motor heating. The acceleration time may be calculated using the following formula:

Fig. 9. Rotor and stator temperature rises for various current limits.

(3) Note that these figures are included to demonstrate typical characteristics of soft-started loads. Individual data will depend upon motor design, starting load curve, and load inertia. D. VFD Starting Starting a motor using a VFD provides maximum control over the starting characteristic. Because the frequency is varied, the motor operates only on the right side of breakdown on the speedtorque curve. Thus, any torque value from full load to breakdown can be achieved across the entire speed range from zero speed to base speed assuming that the drive has the necessary current capability. The load can be accelerated as slowly as desired, thus virtually eliminating mechanical stress. Further, full-voltage inrush is never seen by either the motor or the connected power system. Typically, maximum drive currents are 150%200% of the full-load current. This results in a relatively long acceleration time due to the fact that the motor will produce only 150%200% accelerating torque. However, motors can generally carry this much current for an extended period of time without thermal stress (overheating) becoming a problem. If faster acceleration times are desired, the drive must be suitable to supply higher current during the startup period. Rotor losses are proportional to the difference in the rotational speed of the rotor and synchronous speed. For inverters, the motor operates at low slip (near synchronous speed) due to the fact that the frequency is varied. Thus, the rotor losses associated with slip speed are dramatically reduced when using where acceleration time (seconds); total connected inertia (lb ft ); speed change during time (r/min); 308 constant; average accelerating torque (lb ft) (i.e., average motor torque average load torque during startup). The energy, which must be dissipated by the rotor, can found by calculating the kinetic energy dissipated while accelerating the given inertia, as shown in (4) where rotor energy during speed interval (kW s) total connected inertia (lb ft ); speed change during given interval (r/min); synchronous speed (r/min); average speed during given interval (r/min); average motor torque during interval (lb ft); average accelerating torque during given interval (lb ft). An alternate method would be to use the equivalent circuit in losses in the rotor during startup. order to calculate the total By multiplying these total losses by the acceleration time, the energy (kW s) can be obtained. The energy, which is input to the stator, can also be determined by either of two methods. A simple approach is to use

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the ratio of the stator resistance to the rotor resistance as follows: (5) where stator energy during speed interval (kW s); ratio of stator to rotor resistance during speed interval; rotor energy during given interval (kW s). This method can be derived from the motor equivalent circuit, given that the magnetizing branch is ignored. The losses are proportional to the relative magnitudes of the rotor and stator resistances. Thus, once the rotor energy has been calculated, the stator energy can be easily obtained using (5). losses assoThe second method is to calculate the total ciated with the stator windings as shown in (6) where stator losses during speed interval (kW); stator current during speed interval (amperes); stator resistance during speed interval (ohms). Again, by multiplying the total stator losses by the acceleration time, the total energy can be obtained. Once the energy that must be dissipated by both the rotor and stator has been determined, the corresponding temperature rises are found by dividing the kW s by the specific heat ( ) of the material and the total weight of the material. It is important to note that temperature rises calculated in this fashion are by absorption only; that is, all the heat is assumed to go into either the stator windings or rotor bars and no heat dissipation is assumed. For acceleration times of only a few seconds, this method is satisfactory. For longer acceleration times, the actual temperature rises will be lower since conduction, convection, and radiation will dissipate heat. In this case, it is common practice to correct the calculated temperature rise by applying reduction factors that have been determined experimentally. Table I summarizes the acceleration time, locked-rotor torque, locked rotor amperes, stator rise/start, and rotor rise/start for each starting method given above. The motor used in each calculation is a 500-hp TEFC high-torque (Design C) four-pole 4160-V motor. The load inertia used was 30 000 lb ft and the load curve was assumed to be linear from 0 to 1800 r/min, with 190 lb ft of torque required at full-load speed. Note that Design C-type rotors are not suited for inverter duty applications due to the harmonic losses and excessive heating in the small, upper cage. However, this fact has been disregarded for the sake of comparison. Analyzing starting methods, not motor design, is the main focus of this paper. IV. CASE HISTORY (CENTRIFUGE STARTUP) The load was a chemical plant centrifuge with 30 000 lb ft of inertia. It was determined that belt slippage and decreased life would be a problem if some type of reduced voltage/torque starting was not used. Also, reducing the current draw during startup would be a benefit. The soft-start manufacturer specified a motor that would accelerate the centrifuge with a current limit

TABLE I VARIOUS STARTING METHODS SUMMARY

TABLE II TEST DATA SUMMARY

of 225% of full-load amperes. It was critical to be able to calculate the heating that would be experienced by both the rotor and stator while accelerating this large inertia under reduced torque conditions. For this reason, a computer program was developed which could simulate the torque produced and the current drawn by the motor at every point during the acceleration time period. By knowing the torque output of the motor at the reduced current conditions, the acceleration time and motor heating can be calculated. Using this program, it was determined that the motor would be suitable to start this load with the specified current limit without overheating either the rotor or stator. Data was taken during the actual startup of the motor/load combination to test the accuracy of the program. Table II summarizes the results of this startup. Unfortunately, due to plant limitations and the fact that this was a totally enclosed machine, actual rotor temperatures could not be recorded. V. TORQUE EFFICIENCY (TE) TE has been used in the past to describe a motors torque per ampere ratio. This ratio is a measure of how much output torque is supplied by a motor for a particular current level. For example, if motor A supplies 200% of full load torque at locked rotor and draws 650% of full-load amperes, its torque efficiency would be 200/650 = 0.308 or 30.8%. On the other hand, if motor B supplies the same 200% of full-load torque at locked rotor and draws only 450% of full load amperes, its torque efficiency would be 200/450 = 0.444 or 44.4%. TE can be a major factor when using current limit starting. Special rotor bar shapes and materials and winding configurations are used to achieve a high TE ratio. A motor with a higher value of torque efficiency would produce more starting torque for a given current limit than a motor with a lower TE value. Thus, if a soft starter were being used on a high-inertia or

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heavy-load application, a motor with a high TE ratio may be desired. Design C-type motors generally have a high TE ratio as compared to Design B-type motors. Some easier applications, such as pumps and compressors may not need a special high TE motor. Whether or not a special motor is needed is very application dependent. VFDs offer the highest torque efficiency available. Because VFDs operate on the right-hand side of breakdown, the torque produced is roughly proportionate to the current drawn. For example, to produce 150% of full-load torque, only about 150% of full-load current is needed. This results in a torque efficiency of approximately 150/150 = 1.0 or 100%. For this reason, among others, VFD starting is the best method when current is limited and maximum starting torque is required. VI. METHODS OF CALCULATION The calculation procedure for both soft starting and inverter duty starting was implemented utilizing a numerical integration technique in which the acceleration intervals were broken down into small sections. Using (3)(5) and taking into account the harmonics produced by the starter, the calculations were performed for each individual period during acceleration from zero to full-load speed. Each parameter involved (i.e., losses, acceleration times, and heating calculations) was computed for each of the speed intervals and then totaled to obtain the final result. By letting these speed intervals approach zero, a very accurate representation of what is happening during the motor startup is obtained. As mentioned earlier, the heating calculations were performed based on absorption only. Empirical factors obtained from test data were used to correct for dissipation by convection, radiation, and conduction. VII. EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In order to give a recommendation on which type of starter is best for use with high-inertia loads, it is necessary to develop a list of features that are to be considered and also to decide the importance of each attribute to the final decision. Table III shows four major factors to be weighed when choosing a starter for a high-inertia load. In parentheses is the percentage each factor was weighed in the decision making process. Values from 1 to 5 were assigned to each factor, with a 1 given to the method considered to be the best option in a given category and a 5 being given to the least desirable. The final column shows a weighted average for each of the starting methods. The best possible score is 1. The motor heating rankings are based upon the relative temperature rises per start for both the rotor and stator using different starting techniques. These temperature rises depend upon several factors including current/voltage limit and the driven equipment load curve and inertia. The values given here are based upon a typical installation. Adjustable acceleration deals with whether or not the acceleration time can be controlled and to what degree. Full-voltage starters obviously allow for no control and, thus, are ranked worst in this category. Electromechanical reduced-voltage starting methods do allow for a minor degree of control (adjustable taps, etc.), but still are relatively fixed in their starting

TABLE III RECOMMENDATION SUMMARY

characteristics. Solid-state soft starters and inverters, on the other hand, allow for virtually unlimited control of the start. The current limit for the inverter determines the minimum acceleration time, but the load can be brought up to speed as slowly as desired. Soft-starter current/voltage limits can be adjusted as well to either increase or decrease the acceleration time if desired. Note that the weighting factors were chosen to try and match the importance the industry places on each of these features. If the reader places a different value on any of the factors, the table can be easily modified to fill a specified need. Obviously, if there are no power company or application restrictions, most users will purchase a full voltage starter based on price alone. Similarly, if variable speed capability is needed an inverter is the only option. However, when reduced voltage is required for either electrical or mechanical reasons, there are a few options available. Among the reduced voltage options, electronic soft-starters appear to be the best choice. Electronic soft-starters offer the most versatility for their price and are a very good selection for starting high inertia loads. The low currents drawn by the motor coupled with the extended acceleration time lead to relatively low temperature rises even with very high inertia loads. This low rise is beneficial for both motor reliability and longevity. Many motors that are used to drive high inertia loads must be sized for startup temperatures rather than full load operating temperature. When using a soft-starter, the motor design engineer may have the ability to use a smaller motor with less active material (steel, copper, etc.). The fact that both the voltage and current are adjustable offers the process engineer a great deal of flexibility and control over the startup process as well. If the process changes for any reason and more starting torque is required, the current limit of the soft-starter can simply be adjusted to increase the starting capability. This flexibility is not readily available with the other reduced-voltage starting methods discussed. Even though soft starters are somewhat more expensive than comparable wyedelta starters, work is being done to bring down their price and make them more cost competitive. This fact, coupled with the other benefits of soft

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starters previously mentioned make them a superb choice for starting high-inertia loads. VIII. CONCLUSION Various methods of starting are available for use with highinertia loads. Motor heating, acceleration time, and total cost of ownership are all factors that must be considered when choosing a specific starter for a high-inertia application. No matter which starting method is used, it is vital that the motor manufacturer be advised so that the proper design steps can be taken to be certain that the motor will perform as desired. More work needs to be done to investigate further the impact that the harmonics have on both motor heating and usable motor torque. However, test data show that the program developed for analyzing soft starters is reasonably accurate for predicting temperatures and acceleration times for soft-started motors. Using the weighting factors chosen and based upon the test results, soft starters are an excellent choice to start high-inertia load applications when some type of reduced voltage/current is required. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors wish to thank F. Heredos for his guidance and technical assistance. Thanks are also extended to J. Koehler for his help implementing the programs for both the soft-start and VFD-start calculations. REFERENCES
[1] W. McMurray, A comparative study of symmetrical 3-phase circuits for phase-controlled a.c. motor drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Applicat., vol. IA-10, pp. 403411, May/June 1974. [2] Bulletin 150 application and product guide, Allen Bradley Company, Richland Center, WI, 1995.

[3] A. N. Eliasen, High-inertia drive motors and their starting characteristics, IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. 99, pp. 14721482, July/Aug. 1980. [4] J. F. Heidbreder, Induction motor temperature characteristics, presented at the AIEE Fall Meeting, 1955, Paper 55-761. [5] J. H. Dymond, Stall time, acceleration time, frequency of starting: The myths and the facts, presented at the IEEE Petroleum and Chemical Industry Technical Conf., 1991, Paper PCIC-91-03.

Robbie F. McElveen (S93M95) received the B.S. and M.S. degrees from Clemson University, Clemson, SC, in 1993 and 1995, respectively, both in electrical engineering. In 1995, he joined the Custom Motors Group, Reliance Electric-Rockwell Automation, Kings Mountain, NC, as a Motor Design Engineer. His primary responsibilities included variable-speed motor design, as well as motor design for high-inertia applications. In 1999, he joined John Deere, Charlotte, NC, as a Project Engineer.

Michael K. Toney (S68M69SM97) received the B.S.E.E. degree from West Virginia Institute of Technology, Montgomery. He has been with Amoco Corporation since 1980 and is currently an Electrical Engineering Consultant in the Amoco Worldwide Engineering and Construction Office, Houston, TX. He provides electrical expertise and counsel for refining, production, chemical, and pipeline operations. He is the current Vice-Chairman of the American Petroleum Institute (API) Refining Subcommittee on Electrical Equipment and actively participated in the 1997 revision of API RP 500, the new API RP 505, and the 1998 revision of API RP 14F. His present activities include the Chemical Manufacturers Association alternate representative on Panel 7 of the National Electrical Code, APIs primary representative on NFPA 70E Employee Safety in the Workplace, and APIs primary representative on NFPA 780 Lightning Protection. Mr. Toney is a member of several national and international technical organizations, including The International Society for Measurement and Control, National Fire Protection Association, Association for Facilities Engineering, and International Association of Electrical Inspectors. He is also a member of Tau Beta Pi.