AE 8002

AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGINEERING ANDMAINTENANCE

PRACTICES
Unit – 3
MAINTENANCE OF SAFETY AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
PROCESSES

Prepared by
J Karthikeyan
Assistant Professor
Department of Aeronautical Engineering
Nehru Institute of Engineering and Technology

Prepared By J. Karthikeyan AP/Aero

Aircraft maintenance technicians devote a portion of their aviation career to ground handling and operat-ing
aircraft. Technicians also need to be proficient in operating ground support equipment. The complexity of support
equipment and the hazards involved in the ground handling of aircraft require that maintenance technicians possess
a detailed knowledge of safety pro-cedures used in aircraft servicing, taxiing, runup, and in the use of ground support
equipment. The information provided in this chapter is intended as a general guide for safely servicing and
operating aircraft.

Human factors should be introduced to aircraft mainte-nance personnel to make them aware of how it affects the
maintenance performed. Although there are many factors involved when dealing with human perfor-mance,
several areas can be considered. Some of these include fatigue, deadline pressure, stress, distractions, poor
communication skills, complacency, and lack of information. Maintenance technicians should be aware of how
human factors can affect their performance and safety while performing maintenance practices.

Shop Safety
Keeping hangars, shop, and the flight line orderly and clean is essential to safety and efficient maintenance. The
highest standards of orderly work arrangements and cleanliness should be observed during the main-tenance of
aircraft.

Where continuous work shifts are established, the out-going shift should remove and properly store personal tools,
rollaway boxes, all workstands, maintenance stands, hoses, electrical cords, hoists, crates, and boxes that were
needed for the work to be accomplished.

Signs should be posted to indicate dangerous equip-ment or hazardous conditions. There should also be signs
that provide the location of first aid and fire equipment.

Safety lanes, pedestrian walkways, and fire lanes should be painted around the perimeter inside the
hangars. This is a safety measure to prevent accidents and to keep pedestrian traffic out of work areas.

Safety is everyone’s business, and communication is key to ensuring everyone’s safety. Technicians and
supervisors should watch for their own safety and for the safety of others working around them. If other
personnel are conducting their actions in an unsafe manner, communicate with them, reminding them of their
safety and that of others around them.

Electrical Safety
Physiological Safety
Working with electrical equipment poses certain physi-ological safety hazards. It is known that when electricity is
applied to the human body, it can create severe burns in the area of entrance to and at the point of exit from the
body. In addition, the nervous system is affected and can be damaged or destroyed.

To safely deal with electricity, the technician must have a working knowledge of the principles of electricity, and a
healthy respect for its capability to do both work and damage.

Wearing or use of proper safety equipment can pro-vide a psychological assurance at the same time it
physically protects the user. The use of rubber gloves, safety glasses, rubber or grounded safety mats, and other
safety equipment contributes to the physiological safety of the technician working on or with electrical equipment.

Two factors that affect safety when dealing with elec-tricity are fear and overconfidence. These two factors are
major causes of accidents involving electricity. While both a certain amount of respect for electrical equipment is
healthy and a certain level of confidence is necessary, extremes of either can be deadly.

Lack of respect is often due to lack of knowledge. Personnel who attempt to work with electrical equip-ment
and have no knowledge of the principles of
electricity lack the skills to deal with electrical equip-ment safely.

Overconfidence leads to risk taking. The technician who does not respect the capabilities of electricity
will, sooner or later, become a victim of electricity’s awesome power.

Fire Safety
Anytime current flows, whether during generation or transmission, a byproduct of that flow is heat. The
greater the current flow, the greater the amount of heat created. When this heat becomes too great, protective
coatings on wiring and other electrical devices can melt, causing shorting, which leads to more current
flow and greater heat. This heat can become so great that metals can melt, liquids vaporize, and flammable
substances ignite.

An important factor in preventing electrical fires is to keep the area around electrical work or electrical
equipment clean, uncluttered, and free of all unneces-sary flammable substances.

Ensure that all power cords, wires, and lines are free of kinks and bends which can damage the wire. Never
place wires or cords where they will be walked on or run over by other equipment. When several wires inside a
power cord are broken, the current passing through the remaining wires increases. This generates more heat
than the insulation coatings on the wire are designed to withstand and can lead to a fire.

Closely monitor the condition of electrical equipment. Repair or replace damaged equipment before further
use.

Safety Around Compressed Gases

Compressed air, like electricity, is an excellent tool as long as it is under control. A typical nitrogen bottle set
is shown in Figure 1

The following “do’s and don’ts” apply when working with or around compressed gases:
• Inspect air hoses frequently for breaks and worn spots. Unsafe hoses should be replaced immediately.
• Keep all connections in a “no-leak condition.”
• Maintain in-line oilers, if installed, in operating condition.
• The system should have water sumps installed and should be drained at regular intervals.
• Air used for paint spraying should be filtered to remove oil and water.
• Never use compressed air to clean hands or clothing. Pressure can force debris into the flesh leading to
infection.
• Never spray compressed air in the area of other personnel.
• Air hoses should be straightened, coiled, and properly stored when not in use.
Many accidents involving compressed gases occur during aircraft tire mounting. To prevent possible
personal injury, use tire dollies and other appropriate lifting and mounting devices in mounting or removing
heavy aircraft tires.
When inflating tires on any type of aircraft wheels, always use tire cage guards. Because of possible per-
sonal injury, extreme caution is required to avoid over-inflation of high pressure tires. Use pressure regulators on
high pressure air bottles to eliminate the possibility of overinflation of tires. Tire cages need not be used when
adjusting pressure in tires installed on aircraft.

Safety Around Hazardous Materials

Material safety diamonds are very important with regard to shop safety. These forms and labels are a
simple and quick way to determine the risk and, if used properly with the tags, will indicate what personal
safety equipment to use with the hazardous material.

Figure 1. A typical nitrogen bottle.

 Safety Around Machine Tools
Hazards in a shop’s operation increase when the opera-
tion of lathes, drill presses, grinders, and other types

4 of machines are used. Each machine has its own set of

safety practices. The following discussions regarding
precautions should be followed to avoid injury.

2 3
The drill press can be used to bore and ream holes, to
do facing, milling, and other similar types of opera-
tions. The following precautions can reduce the chance
of injury:

W
• Wear eye protection.
• Securely clamp all work.
• Set the proper RPM for the material used.
• Do not allow the spindle to feed beyond its limit
of travel while drilling.
Figure 2. A risk diamond. • Stop the machine before adjusting work or
attempting to remove jammed work.
The most observable portion of the Material Safety • Clean the area when finished.
Data Sheet (MSDS) label is the risk diamond. It is a
Lathes are used in turning work of a cylindrical nature.
four color segmented diamond that represents Flam-
This work may be performed on the inside or outside
mability (Red), Reactivity (Yellow), Health (Blue), and
of the cylinder. The work is secured in the chuck to
special Hazard (White). In the Flammability, Reactiv-
provide the rotary motion, and the forming is done by
ity, and Health blocks, there should be a number from
contact with a securely mounted tool. The following
0 to 4. Zero represents little or no hazard to the user; 4
precautions can reduce the chance of injury:
means that the material is very hazardous. The special
hazard segment contains a word or abbreviation to • Wear eye protection.
represent the special hazard. Some examples are: RAD • Use sharp cutting tools.
for radiation, ALK for alkali materials, Acid for acidic
materials, and CARC for carcinogenic materials. The • Allow the chuck to stop on its own. Do not attempt
letter W with a line through it stands for high to stop the chuck by hand pressure.
reactivity to water. [Figure 2] • Examine tools and work for cracks or defects
before starting the work.
The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a more
• Do not set tools on the lathe. Tools may be caught
detailed version of the chemical safety issues. They
by the work and thrown.
all have the same information requirements, but the
exact location of the information on the sheet varies • Before measuring the work, allow it to stop in the
by MSDS manufacturer. These forms have the detailed lathe.
breakdown of the chemicals, including formulas and
Milling machines are used to shape or dress; cut gear
action to take if personnel come into contact with the
teeth, slots, or key ways; and similar work. The follow-
chemical(s). The U.S. Department of Labor Occu-
ing precautions can reduce the chance of injury:
pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
requires certain information be on every MSDS. • Wear eye protection.
These forms are necessary for a safe shop that meets • Clean the work bed prior to work.
all the requirements of the governing safety body, the • Secure the work to the bed to prevent movement
U.S. Department of Labor Occupational Safety and during milling.
Health Administration (OSHA). • Select the proper tools for the job.
• Do not change the feed speed while working.
• Lower the table before moving under or away from the work.
• Ensure all clamps and bolts will pass under the arbor.
Grinders are used to sharpen tools, dress metal, and perform other operations involving the removal of small
amounts of metal. The following precautions can reduce the chance of injury:
• Wear eye protection even if the grinder has a shield.
• Inspect the grinding wheel for defects prior to use.
• Do not force grinding wheels onto the spindle. They fit snugly, but do not require force to install them.
Placing side pressure on a wheel could cause it to explode.
• Check the wheel flanges and compression washer. They should be one-third the diameter of the wheel.
• Do not stand in the arc of the grinding wheel while operating, in case the wheel explodes.
Welding should be performed only in designated areas. Any part to be welded should be removed from the
aircraft, if possible. Repair would then be accomplished in the welding shop under a controlled environment.

A welding shop should be equipped with proper tables, ventilation, tool storage, and fire prevention and extin-
guishing equipment.

Welding on an aircraft should be performed outside, if possible. If welding in the hangar is necessary, observe
these precautions:
• During welding operations, there should be no open fuel tanks, and no work on fuel systems should be in
progress.
• No painting should be in progress.
• No aircraft are to be within 35 feet of the welding operation.
• No flammable material should be in the area around the welding operation.
• Only qualified welders should be permitted to do the work.
• The welding area should be roped off and plac-arded.
• Fire extinguishing equipment of a minimum rating of 20B should be in the immediate area with 80B rated
equipment as a backup. These ratings will be explained later in this chapter.

Flight Line Safety

Hearing Protection
The flight line is a place of dangerous activity. Techni-cians who perform maintenance on the flight line must
constantly be aware of what is going on around them.

The noise on a flight line comes from many places. Aircraft are only one source of noise. There are auxil-iary-
power units (APUs), fuel trucks, baggage handling equipment, and so forth. Each has its own frequency of sound.
Combined all together, the ramp or flight line can cause hearing loss.

There are many types of hearing protection available. Hearing protection can be external or internal. The
external protection is the earmuff/headphone type. The internal type fit into the auditory canal. Both types will
reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum and reduce the chances of hearing loss.

Hearing protection should also be used when working with pneumatic drills, rivet guns, or other loud or noisy
tools or machinery. Because of their high frequency, even short duration exposure to these sounds can cause a
hearing loss. Continued exposure will cause hearing loss.

Foreign Object Damage (FOD)

FOD is any damage caused by any loose object to aircraft, personnel, or equipment. These loose objects can
be anything from broken runway concrete to shop towels to safety wire.

To control FOD, keep ramp and operation areas clean, have a tool control program, and provide convenient
receptacles for used hardware, shop towels, and other consumables.
• There should be trained fire watches in the area around the welding operation.
• Aircraft being welded should be in towable condition, with a tug attached, and the aircraft parking
brakes released. A qualified operator should be on the tug, and mechanics available to assist in the towing
operation should it become necessary to tow the aircraft. If the aircraft is in the hangar, the hangar doors
should be opened.

• There should be trained fire watches in the area around the welding operation.
• Aircraft being welded should be in towable condition, with a tug attached, and the aircraft parking
brakes released. A qualified operator should be on the tug, and mechanics available to assist in the towing
operation should it become necessary to tow the aircraft. If the aircraft is in the hangar, the hangar doors
should be opened.
The importance of an FOD program cannot be overstressed when a technician considers the cost of
engines, components, or the cost of a human life. Never leave tools or other items around the intake of a turbine
engine.

Safety Around Airplanes

As with the previously mentioned items, it is important to be aware of propellers. Do not assume the pilot of a
taxiing aircraft can see you. Technicians must stay where the pilot can see them while on the ramp area.
Turbine engine intakes and exhaust can also be very hazardous areas. There should be no smoking or open
flames anywhere near an aircraft in operation. Be aware of aircraft fluids that can be detrimental to skin. When
operating support equipment around aircraft, be sure to allow space between it and the aircraft and secure it so
it cannot roll into the aircraft. All items in the area of operating aircraft must be stowed properly.

Safety Around Helicopters

Every type of helicopter has its own differences. These differences must be learned to avoid damaging the
helicopter or injuring the technician.

When approaching a helicopter while the blades are turning, observe the rotor head and blades to see if they are
level. This will allow maximum clearance as you approach the helicopter. Observe the following:
• Approach the helicopter in view of the pilot.
• Never approach a helicopter carrying anything with a vertical height that the blades could hit. This could
cause blade damage and injury to the person.
• Never approach a single-rotor helicopter from the rear. The tail rotor is invisible when operating.
• Never go from one side of the helicopter to the other by going around the tail. Always go around the nose of
the helicopter.
When securing the rotor on helicopters with elasto-metric bearings, check the maintenance manual for the
proper method. Using the wrong method could damage the bearing.

Fire Safety
Performing maintenance on aircraft and their com-ponents requires the use of electrical tools which can
produce sparks, along with heat-producing tools and equipment, flammable and explosive liquids, and gases. As
a result, a high potential exists for fire to occur.

Measures must be taken to prevent a fire from occurring and to also have a plan for extinguishing it.

The key to fire safety is knowledge of what causes fire, how to prevent it, and how to put it out. This knowl-
edge must be instilled in each technician emphasized by their supervisors through sound safety programs,
and occasionally practiced. Airport or other local fire departments can normally be called upon to assist in
training personnel and helping to establish fire safety programs for the hangar, shops, and flight line.
HARDWARE
Aircraft hardware is the term used to describe the various types of fasteners and miscellaneous
small items used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. The importance of aircraft hardware is often
overlooked because of its small size; however, the safe and efficient operation of any aircraft is greatly
dependent upon the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware.
HAMMERS AND MALLETS
A hammer is a tool that delivers an impact to an object. The most common uses for hammers are
to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, and break apart objects. Hammers often serve a specific purpose,
and vary in shape and structure. Metal head hammers are usually sized according to the weight of the
head without the handle.
Occasionally it is necessary to use a soft-faced hammer, which has a striking surface made of
wood, brass, lead, rawhide, hard rubber, or plastic. These hammers are intended for use in forming soft
metals and striking surfaces that are easily damaged. Soft-faced hammers should not be used for striking
punch heads, bolts, or nails, as using one in this fashion will quickly ruin this type of hammer.
Mallet is type of soft hammer. It is generally made of wooden or plastics. It consists of head and
handle. Head is generally 60 mm to 70 mm. in diameter and 150 mm to 300 mm in length. It is generally
used to strike finished or delicate jobs or machine parts during repair or assembling.
When using a hammer or mallet, choose the one best suited for the job. Ensure that the handle is
tight. When striking a blow with the hammer, use the forearm as an extension of the handle. Swing the
hammer by bending the elbow, not the wrist. Always strike the work squarely with the full face of the
hammer. When striking a metal tool with a metal hammer, the use of safety glasses or goggles is
strongly encouraged.
Always keep the faces of hammers and mallets smooth and free from dents, chips, or gouges to
prevent marring the work.
There are two types of hammers
1. Hard face hammers
2. Soft face hammers
Hard face hammers are further divided in four types:-
1. Ball peen hammer
2. Cross peen hammer
3. Straight peen hammer
4. Sledge hammer
1. Ball peen hammer
This type of hammer is widely used for general purpose, lay outing, riveting, chipping and forming.
Ball peen hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. It’s peen is ball shaped thus it is called ball
peen hammer. In eye hole a wooden handle is fixed. The peen and face are hardened, whereas the
middle portion is not hardened so it can absorb the shock during striking the job. Its sizes vary from 0.12
kg to 1.00 kg.
2. Cross peen hammer
It is generally used in smithy shop for heavy work and spreading the hot material. Cross peen
hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. Peen of ball peen hammer is like a wedge and is
perpendicular to the shaft or handle.
3. Straight peen hammer
Straight peen hammer is generally used in smithy shop for swaging and riveting process. Straight
peen hammer consist of peen, face, eye hole and handle. In straight peen hammer peen is parallel to the
handle.
4. Sledge hammer
Sledge hammer is used for heavier works and on flat surface in smithy shop. It’s size varies from
2.00 kg to 10.00 kg

Soft hammers are further divided in five types

1. Raw hide hammer
2. Mallet hammer
3. Brass hammer
4. Plastic hammer
5. Hard Rubber hammer
Hammer Safety
a) Make sure you are focused on your work and are not distracted
b) The handle of the hammer should be solid and not split
c) The head of the hammer should be tightly affixed to the handle
d) Make sure the hammer is clean
 Do not strike hammers together or damage the head of your hammer by pounding metal or concrete.
Hand tools will last longer if they are only used for their intended purpose.
PLIERS
Pliers are shaped like scissors and are a type of adjustable
wrench. The jaws usually have teeth to help grip, and the jaws can be
adjusted to grip various widths. The most common use is to hold metal
or wire objects during assembly. Pliers are one of the most commonly
used tools. They allow you to grip objects tightly. Notice there are two or
three width settings available allowing you to grip larger objects.
Squeeze the handles together to tighten your grip.
NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS
Needle nose pliers allow you to reach into tight places and handle smaller objects. They come in
many sizes and are also used to bend metal.
VISE GRIPS
Vise Grips are locking pliers that can hold objects very tightly. A knob on the handle controls the
width and tension in the jaws. Although you still squeeze the handles to tighten, a lever is supplied to
remove the pliers.
CHANNEL LOCK
A channel lock is most useful to grab round objects and is often used in plumbing projects. Its
advantage is that it has a wider variety of jaw width settings. Channel locks come in various lengths and
you get more mechanical advantage to hold objects as you use larger sizes. Remember the upper jaw
always goes on top of the object to be held, and you need to turn in the direction that causes the object
held to turn "into" the channel locks

NEEDLE NOSE PLIERS CHANNEL LOCK VISE GRIPS

SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers are used to tighten (insert) or loosen (remove) screws. They are named by the type of
screw and need to match the type of screw for safe and efficient operation. Screwdrivers which are too
large, too small or of the wrong type will only destroy the screw head making it difficult to tighten or
loosen in the future.
(a) Slotted or flat screwdrivers are the most common but are being replaced by designs that "strip"
less easily as we begin to use power drivers more often.
(b) A Phillip's head screwdriver - The head of a Phillips-type screw has a four-way slot into which
the screwdriver fits. This prevents the screwdriver from slipping. Three standard-sized Phillips
screwdrivers handle a wide range of screw sizes. Their ability to hold helps to prevent damaging the
slots or the work surrounding the screw. It is a poor practice to try to use a standard screwdriver on a
Phillips screw, because both the tool and screw slot will be damaged.
 (c) Reed and Prince Screwdriver - The Phillips screwdriver has about 30-degree flukes and a blunt
end, while the Reed and Prince has 45-degree flukes and a sharper, pointed end. The Phillips screw
has bevelled walls between the slots; the Reed and Prince has straight and pointed walls. In addition,
the Phillips screw slot is not as deep as the Reed and Prince slot.
(d) Torx are star shaped (d) and uses often in the automotive, appliance and computer industry as
they are often inserted by robotic assembly.
(e) Hex screws and drivers allow you to use either a screwdriver or a hex wrench.
(f) Robertson are square drive (f) and allow for high torque uses such as a power screwdriver or
combination drill/driver. These screws are made to be inserted flush or beneath the surface of the
wood.
Pig nose (g & h) or snake eye (i) screws are often used in public facilities to prevent vandalism.

Using a screwdriver each screwdriver has 3 parts:

The handle, the shank and the blade. They come in a
wide variety of sizes. To safely use a screwdriver, you
need to choose one of the right size and type of blade.
Always position the shank perpendicular to the work.
Clockwise tightens a screw and counter clockwise
loosens (right is tight, left is loose or "righty tightly, lefty
loosely"). The screw also has both a shank and a head.
Notice the wide variety. Some are meant to be sunk into
the wood and others tighten flush with the wood or metal
surface. Choose the right screw for the job, taking into factor the material, the length and diameter of the
screw and the amount of force needed to hold the two pieces (or more) of material together

SCREWDRIVER SAFETY
Many accidents happen when the screwdriver blade slips out of the screw's slot. Keep your
nonworking hand out of the way. Keep the screwdriver blade clean, and do not force the screw.
Excessive force often damages the screw, making the work more difficult.

WRENCHES
A large variety of wrenches are made for different uses such as turning capscrews, bolts, and
nuts.
The adjustable wrench, commonly called a crescent wrench is a general purpose tool and will not
suit every job, especially those requiring work in close quarters. The wrench should be rotated toward
the movable jaw and should fit the nut or bolt tightly. The size of the wrench is determined by its overall
length in inches.
Open end wrenches are best suited to square-headed bolts, and usually fit two sizes, one on each
end. The ends of this type of wrench are angled so they can be used in close quarters.
 Box wrenches are also double ended and offset to clear the user’s hand. The box completely
surrounds the nut or bolt and usually has 12 points so that the wrench can be reset after rotating only a
partial turn. Mostly used on hex-headed bolts, these wrenches have the advantage of precise fit.
Combination and open end wrenches are made with a box at one end and an open end at the
other.
Socket wrenches are similar to box wrenches in that t hey also surround the bolt or nut and
usually are made with 12 points contacting the six-sided nut. Sockets are made to be detached from
various types of drive handles.
Pipe wrenches as the name implies, are used for holding and turning pipe. These wrenches have
sharp serrated teeth and will damage any finished part on which they are used.
Strap wrenches are used for extremely large parts or to avoid marring the surface of tubular parts such
as tubing, pipes, small fittings, and round or irregularly shaped components.
Spanner wrenches come in several basic types, including face and hook. Face types are
sometimes called pin spanners. Spanners are made in fixed sizes or adjustable types.
Socket head wrenches are six-sided bars having a 90-degree bend near one end. They are used
with socket head capscrews and socket setscrews.
Torque wrenches are widely used by machinists and mechanics to provide the correct amount of
tightening torque on a screw or nut. A dial reads in English measure (inch-pounds and foot-pounds) or in
metric measure (kilogram-centimeters and newton-meters).
The hand tap wrench is used for medium sized and large taps.
The T-handle tap wrench is used for small taps in. and under, as its more sensitive ―feel‖ results
in less tap breakage.

Open End Wrench

Crescent Wrench Box wrench

Combination wrench
Socket wrench set

Strap wrench.
Dial and click–type torque wrench
 Hand tap wrench
T-handle tap wrench

METAL CUTTING TOOLS

SNIPS
Snips is used for cutting sheet metal and steel of various thickness and shapes. Normally, the
heavier or thicker materials are cut by shears. One of the handiest tools for cutting light (up to 1/16-inch
thick) sheet metal is the hand snip (tip snips).
The straight hand snips have blades that are straight and cutting edges that are sharpened to an
85-degree angle. Snips like this can be obtained in different sizes, ranging from the small, 6-inch, to the
large, 14-inch, snip. Tin snips will also work on slightly heavier gauges of soft metals, such as
aluminium alloys.
Snips will not remove any metal when a cut is made. There is danger, though, of causing minute
metal fractures along the edges of the metal during the shearing process. For this reason, it is better to
cut just outside the layout line. This procedure will allow you to dress the cutting edge while keeping the
material within required dimensions.
Cutting extremely heavy gauge metal always presents the possibility of springing the blades.
Once the blades are sprung, hand snips are useless. When cutting heavy material, use the rear portion of
the blades. This procedure not only avoids the possibility
of springing the blades but also gives you greater cutting
leverage.
Many snips have small serrations (notches) on the
cutting edges of the blades. These serrations tend to
prevent the snips from slipping backwards when a cut is
being made. Although this feature does make the actual
cutting easier, it mars the edges of the metal slightly. You
can remove these small cutting marks if you allow proper
clearance for dressing the metal to size. There are many
other types of hand snips used for special jobs, but the
snips discussed
HACKSAWS
Hacksaws are used to cut metal that is too heavy for snips or bolt cutters. Thus, metal bar stock
can be cut readily with hacksaws.
There are two parts to a hacksaw: the frame and the blade. Common hacksaws have either an
adjustable or a solid frame. Most hacksaws found in the Navy are of the adjustable-frame type.
Adjustable frames can be made to hold blades from 8 to 16 inches long, while those with solid frames
take only the length blade for which they are made. This length is the distance between the two pins that
hold the blade in place.
Hacksaw blades are made of high-grade tool steel, hardened and tempered. There are two types,
the all-hard and the flexible. All-hard blades are hardened throughout, whereas only the teeth of the
flexible blades are hardened. Hacksaw blades are about 1/2-inch wide, have from 14 to 32 teeth per inch,
and are from 8 to 16 inches long. The blades have a hole at each end, which hooks to a pin in the frame.
All hacksaw frames, which hold the blades either parallel or at right angles to the frame, are provided
with a wing nut or screw to permit tightening or removing the blade.
 The SET in a saw refers to how much the teeth are pushed out in opposite directions from the
sides of the blade. The four different kinds of set are the ALTERNATE set, DOUBLE ALTERNATE
set, RAKER set, and WAVE set.
The teeth in the alternate set are staggered, one to the left and one to the right throughout the length of
the blade. On the double alternate set blade, two adjoining teeth are staggered to the right, two to the
left, and so on. On the raker set blade, every third tooth remains straight and the other two are set
alternately. On the wave (undulated) set blade, short sections of teeth are bent in opposite direction.

ADJUSTABLE & SOLID

CHISELS
Chisels are tools that can be used for chipping or cutting
metal. They are made from a good grade of tool steel and have a
hardened cutting edge and bevelled head. Chisels are classified
according to the shape of their points, and the width of the
cutting edge denotes their size. The most common shapes of
chisels are the flat (cold chisel), cape, round nose, and diamond
point
The type of chisel most commonly used is the flat cold
chisel, which serves to cut rivets, split nuts, chip castings, and cut
thin metal sheets. The cape chisel is used for special jobs like
cutting keyways, narrow grooves, and square corners. Round-nose
chisels make circular grooves and chip inside corners. Finally, the
diamond-point is used for cutting V-grooves and sharp corners.
As with other tools, there is a correct technique for using a
chisel. Select a chisel that is large enough for the job. Be sure to
use a hammer that matches the chisel; that is, the larger the chisel,
the heavier the hammer. A heavy chisel will absorb the blows of a
light hammer and will do virtually no cutting.
When using a chisel for chipping, always wear goggles to
protect your eyes. If others are working close by, see that they are
protected from flying chips by erecting a screen or shield to
contain the chips.
FILES
There are a number of different types of files in common use, and each type may range in length
from 3 to 18 inches.
GRADES
Files are graded according to the degree of fineness and whether they have single- or double-cut
teeth. Single-cut files have rows of teeth cut parallel to each other. These teeth are set at an angle of
about 65 degrees with the center line. You will use single-cut files for sharpening tools, finish filing, and
draw filing. They are also the best tools for smoothing the edges of sheet metal.
Files with crisscrossed rows of teeth are double-cut files. The double cut forms teeth that are
diamond-shaped and fast cutting. You will use double-cut files for quick removal of metal and for rough
work. Files are also graded according to the spacing and size of their teeth, or their coarseness and
fineness. Some of these grades are pictured in view B. In addition to the three grades shown, you may
use some DEAD SMOOTH files, which have very fine teeth, and some ROUGH files, with very coarse
teeth. The fineness or coarseness of file teeth is also influenced by the length of the file.
SHAPES
Files come in different shapes. Therefore, in selecting a file for a job, consider the shape of the finished
work.
TRIANGULAR files are tapered on all three sides. They are used to file acute internal angles
and to clear out square corners. Special triangular files are used to file saw teeth.
MILL files are tapered in both width and thickness. One edge has no teeth and is known as a
SAFE EDGE. Mill files are used for smoothing lathe work, draw filing, and other fine, precision work.
Mill files are always single-cut.
FLAT files are general-purpose files and may be either single- or double-cut. They are tapered in
width and thickness.
HARD files are somewhat thicker than flat files. They taper slightly in thickness, but their edges
are parallel. The flat or hard files most often used are the double-cut for rough work and the single-cut
smooth file for finish work.
SQUARE files are tapered on all four sides and are used to enlarge rectangular-shaped holes and
slots.
ROUND files serve the same purpose for round openings. Small round files are often called
rattail files.
HALF ROUND file is a general-purpose tool. The rounded side is used for curved surfaces, and
the flat face on flat surfaces. When you file an inside curve, use a round or half-round file whose curve
most nearly matches the curve of the work.
Kits of small files, often called "swiss pattern" or "jewelers'" files, are used to fit parts of delicate
mechanisms and for filing work on instruments. Handle these small files carefully because they break
easily.

FLAT FILE MILLFILE

HALF ROUND FILE

SQUARE FILE

ROUND FILE

SWISS PATTERN FILES

PRECISION TOOLS
Layout and measuring devices are precision tools. They are carefully machined, accurately marked and,
in many cases, are made up of very delicate parts. When using these tools, be careful not to drop, bend,
or scratch them. The finished product will be no more accurate than the measurements or the layout;
therefore, it is very important to understand how to read, use, and care for these tools.
RULES
Rules are made of steel and are either rigid or flexible. The flexible steel rule will bend, but it
should not be bent intentionally as it may be broken rather easily. In aircraft work, the unit of measure
most commonly used is the inch. The inch may be divided into smaller parts by means of either common
or decimal fraction divisions.
The fractional divisions for an inch ar e found by dividing the inch into equal parts: halves (1⁄2),
quarters (1⁄4) , eighths (1⁄8), sixteenths (1⁄16), thirty-seconds (1⁄32), and sixty-fourths (1⁄64).
The fractions of an inch may be expressed in decimals, called decimal equivalents of an inch; for
example, 1⁄8 inch is expressed as 0.0125 (one hundred twenty-five ten-thousandths of an inch).

Rules are manufactured in two basic styles – those divided or marked in common fractions and
those divided or marked in decimals or divisions of one hundredth of an inch. A rule may be used either
as a measuring tool or as a straightedge.
COMBINATION SETS
The combination set can be adapted to
perform a wide variety of layout operations. A
complete combination set consists of a hardened
blade (a No. 4 graduated rule), a square head, a
center head, and a bevel protractor. The blade fits
all three heads.
The square head has a standard 90° edge
and a 45° edge. This makes it possible for the tool
to be used as both a standard square and a miter
square. By projecting the graduated blade a given
distance below the edge, the tool can also be used
as a depth gage.
The spirit level built into one edge of the
square head allows the tool to be used as a simple level. The center head has two extending edges
forming a 90° angle. With the rule properly inserted, the center head can be used to quickly locate the
center of round stock. The protractor head can be rotated through 180° and is graduated accordingly.
The head can be locked to the blade with a locking nut, making it possible to accurately measure
or lay out angles. The head also has a built-in spirit level, allowing the tool to be used to set up work
requiring angular cutting.
SCRIBER
Accurate layout work requires fine lines to be scribed or scratched into the metal. A scriber is
commonly used to produce these lines. The point of this tool is made of hardened steel. it is kept needle-
sharp by frequent honing on a fine oilstone. Many types of scribers are available.
 Accurate layout work requires fine lines to be scribed or scratched into the metal. A scriber is
commonly used to produce these lines. The point of this tool is made of hardened steel. it is kept needle-
sharp by frequent honing on a fine oilstone. Many types of scribers are available.
Always use a scriber with caution and handle it with care. Never carry an open scriber in your
pocket. It can cause severe puncture wounds.
DIVIDER
Scribers are designed to draw straight and slightly curved lines. Circles
and arcs are made with the divider. Dividers have two pointed legs and a stem
for turning the tool. It is essential that both legs of the tool be equal in length
and kept pointed. Dividers are commonly used to layout and measure
distances. To set the tool to the correct dimension, place one point on an inch
mark or metric division on a steel rule, and open the divider until the other leg
is set to the right distance.
TRAMMEL
A trammel is used to draw circles and arcs too large to be made with a divider. A trammel
consists of two sliding heads with scriber points mounted on a long, thin rod called a beam. One of the
heads is fitted with an adjusting screw. Extension rods can be added to the beam to increase the capacity
of the tool.

CALIPERS
Calipers are used for measuring diameters and distances or for comparing distances and sizes.
The three common types of calipers are inside, outside, and hermaphrodite calipers, such as gear tool
calipers. Outside calipers are used for measuring outside dimensions — for example, the diameter of a
piece of round stock. Inside calipers have outward curved legs for measuring inside diameters, such as
diameters of holes, the distance between two surfaces, the width of slots, and other similar jobs. A
hermaphrodite caliper is generally used as a marking gauge in
layout work. It should not be used for precision measurement.

MICROMETERS
A micrometer sometimes known as a micrometer screw
gauge is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used
for precise measurement of components. They are more reliable
and more exact than calipers. Standard micrometers can measure
distance to the nearest one-thousandth of an inch. Some
micrometers have a vernier scale. These micrometers can
measure distance to the nearest ten thousandth of an inch. The
measurement is usually written as a decimal.
TYPES OF MICROMETERS
Three types of micrometers are commonly used
a) The outside micrometer
b) The inside micrometer
c) The depth micrometer.
OUTSIDE MICROMETERS
Outside micrometers can measure an outside distance to an
accuracy of 0.001 of an inch. Some have a vernier scale. They
can measure to the nearest 0.0001 inch. The outside micrometer
is sometimes called a micrometer caliper.
INSIDE MICROMETERS
Inside micrometers measure an inside distance to the nearest 0.001 of an inch. The inside micrometer is
just a micrometer head; it uses a set of extension rods to measure a range of sizes. This range is usually
from 2 to 10 inches.
DEPTH MICROMETERS
Depth micrometers are used to measure depths to the nearest 1/1000 of an inch. A depth
micrometer has a flat base attached to the barrel of a micrometer head. The size of the flat base ranges
from 2 to 6 inches. Like the inside micrometer, the depth micrometer uses extension rods in a range of
sizes. The hollow micrometer screw itself has a range of either 1/2 or one inch.

Outside micrometers Inside micrometers Depth micrometers

PARTS OF A MICROMETER
a) FRAME
The C-shaped body that holds the anvil and barrel in constant relation to each other. It is thick
because it needs to minimize flexion, expansion, and contraction, which would distort the
measurement.
The frame is heavy and consequently has a high thermal mass, to prevent substantial heating up
by the holding hand/fingers. It is often covered by insulating plastic plates which further reduce heat
transference.
b) ANVIL
The shiny part that the spindle moves toward, and that the sample rests against.
c) SLEEVE / BARREL / STOCK
The stationary round component with the linear scale on it. Sometimes vernier markings.
d) LOCK NUT / LOCK-RING / THIMBLE LOCK
The knurled component (or lever) that one can tighten to hold the spindle stationary, such as
when momentarily holding a measurement.
e) SCREW
It is inside the barrel.
f) SPINDLE
The shiny cylindrical component that the
thimble causes to move toward the anvil.
g) THIMBLE
The component that one's thumb turns.
Graduated markings.
h) RATCHET STOP
Device on end of handle that limits applied
pressure by slipping at a calibrated torque.