Abstract:

This experiment investigates the input and output characteristics of a Bipolar Junction Transistor
(BJT) in common-emitter configuration. The primary objective is to analyze the behavior of the
BJT under varying base and collector voltages, demonstrating its role as an amplifier. Using
theoretical principles and practical simulations via MultiSIM, key parameters like base current
(IBI_BIB), collector current (ICI_CIC), and base-emitter voltage (VBEV_{BE}VBE) were
measured and their relationships plotted. Results highlight the linear and saturation regions,
confirming the transistor's operational modes and amplification properties. Safety precautions
were adhered to during the practical implementation to ensure accurate results and prevent
equipment damage.

Theory:
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor device. It is widely used in
discrete circuits as well as in integrated circuits. The main applications of BJ’s are analog circuits.
For example, BJTs are used for amplifiers, for high-speed amplifiers. BJTs can be used for digital
circuits as well, but most of the digital circuits are nowadays realized by field effect transistors
(FETs).
There are three operating modes for BJTs, the active mode (amplifying mode), the cut-off mode,
and the saturation mode. To apply a BJT as an amplifier, the BJT must operate in active mode. To
apply a BJT as a digital circuit element, the BJT must be operated in the cut-off and the saturation
modes.

Device Structure of BJT:

Each BJT consists of two anti-serial connected diodes. The BJT can be either implemented as an
npn or a pnp transistor. In both cases, the center region forms the base (B) of the transistor, while
the external regions form the collector (C) and the emitter (E) of the transistor. External wire
connections to the p and n regions (transistor terminals) are made through metal (e.g., Aluminum)
contacts. A cross-section of the two types of BJTs consisting of an emitter-base junction and a
collector-base junction is shown in Fig. 1.
An npn or a pnp transistor is called a bipolar transistor because both types of carriers (electrons and
holes) contribute to the overall current. In the case of a field effect transistor, either the electronics
or the holes determine the current flow. Therefore, a field effect transistor is a unipolar device. The
current and voltage amplification of a BJT is controlled by the geometry of the device (for example
width of the base region) and the doping concentrations in the individual regions of the device. To
achieve a high current amplification, the doping concentration in the emitter region is typically
higher than that of the base region. The base is a lightly doped very thin region between the emitter
and the collector and it controls the flow of charge carriers from the emitter to the collector region.

Figure 1: Construction diagram of an npn and a pnp transistors.

Circuit Configuration:
Figure 2 shows the symbol for the npn transistor and pnp transistor. The emitter of the BJT is always
marked by an arrow, which indicates whether the transistor is an npn or a pnp transistor

Figure 2: Emitter, collector, and base of transistors and the connection

There are three basic ways in which a BJT can modes.
be configured. In each case, one terminal is common
to both the input and output circuits shown in the figure above.
1. The common emitter configuration is used for voltage and current amplification and is the
most common configuration for transistor amplifiers.
2. The common collector configuration is often called an emitter follower since its output is
taken from the emitter resistor. It is useful as an impedance-matching device since its input
impedance is much higher than its output impedance.
3. The common base configuration is used for high-frequency applications because the base
separates the input and output, minimizing oscillations at high frequencies. It has a high
voltage gain, relatively low input impedance, and high output impedance compared to the
common collector.

Biasing of Bipolar Junction Transistors:

In most cases, the BJT is used as an amplifier or switch. To perform these functions, the transistor
must be correctly biased. Depending on the bias condition (forward or reverse) of each of the BJT
junctions, different modes of operation of the BJT are obtained.
The three modes are defined as follows:
1. Active Mode: The emitter junction is forward-biased and the collector junction is reverse-
biased. If the BJT is operated in active mode, then the BJT can be used as an amplifier.
2. Saturation Mode: Both the emitter and collector junctions are forward-biased. If the BJT is
used as a switch, the saturation mode corresponds to the on-state of the BJT.
3. Cut-off Mode: Both the emitter and collector junction are reverse-biased. If the BJT is used
as a switch, the cut-off mode corresponds to the off state of the BJT.
Input and Output Characteristics:
The input characteristics curves are plotted between IB and VBE keeping the voltage, VCE constant.
The input characteristics look like the characteristics of a forward-biased diode. The base-to-emitter
voltage varies only slightly. The input dynamic resistance is calculated from the ratio of the small
change of base-to-emitter voltage to the small change of base current.
The output characteristics curves are plotted between the collector current, IC, and the collector-to-
emitter voltage drop by keeping the base current, IB constant. These curves are almost horizontal.
The output dynamic resistance again can be calculated from the ratio of the small change of
emitter-to-collector voltage drop to the small change of the collector current.

Figure 3: BJT Common Emitter Input Characteristics.

Figure 4: BJT Common Emitter Output Characteristics.

Apparatus:
SL# Apparatus Quantity
1 BJT (2N2222, C828) 1
2 Resistance (1 k 10 k 0 k) 1 each
4 Project Board 1
7 DC milliammeter (0-50 mA) 1
8 DC microammeter (0-500 A) 1
9 Multimeter 1
10 Connecting Leads 10
 Precaution!
The following is a list of some of the special safety precautions that should be taken into consideration
when working with transistors:
1. A transistor should never be removed or inserted into a circuit with voltage applied.
2. A replacement transistor should be ensured to be inserted into the circuit in the correct
direction.
3. Transistors are sensitive to damage caused by electrical overloads, heat, humidity, and
radiation, which often occurs when incorrect polarity voltage is applied to the collector circuit
or excessive voltage is applied to the input circuit.
4. Electrostatic discharge from the human body during handling is one of the most frequent
causes of damage to a transistor.
5. The maximum rating of the applied voltage and current for a given transistor should not
be exceeded.

Experimental Procedures:
(A) Study of BJT input characteristics:
1. The actual values of the 1 kΩ and 10 kΩ resistors are measured.
2. The terminals of the transistor are identified, and the value of Beta (β) is recorded.
3. The circuit is connected as shown in Fig. 5, including the microammeter and milliammeter.
4. The multimeter is connected in voltmeter mode to measure the base resistance (VB) and input
voltages (VBE).
5. Both DC power supplies are turned on, with the voltage control knob set to 0 V.
6. The voltage control knob of the supply voltage, VCC is rotated from 0 to +10 V and gradually
adjusted to achieve a constant collector-to-emitter voltage, VCE
7. For input characteristics, the DC supply voltage VBB is varied, and the base current IB is
calculated using equation (1):

𝐼𝐵 𝑉𝐵𝐵 − 𝑉𝐵𝐸
=
𝑅𝐵
8. The input voltage (VBE) and current (IB) are measured and recorded in Table 1.
9. The voltage control knob of the supply voltage VCC is rotated from +10 to +16 V and gradually
adjusted to achieve a constant collector-to-emitter voltage VCE.
10. Steps 7 and 8 are repeated.
11. All measured data is recorded in Table 1.
12. Images of the circuit diagram are recorded.
13. The DC power supply is turned off.
14. The IB -VBE characteristic curve for the BJT is plotted.
15. The knee voltage and the static and dynamic resistances of the BJT are determined.

Figure 5: Circuit diagram for the determination of CE transistor characteristics

 Table 1 Data for the input characteristic, IB -VBE Curve
Collector Supply Voltage, VCC = +10 V Collector Supply Voltage, VCC = +16 V
Source
Base-to-Emitter Base Resistor Base Current, Base-to-Emitter Base Resistor Base Current,
Voltage,
VBB (V) Voltage, VBE (V) Voltage, VB (V) IB (A) Voltage, VBE (V) Voltage, VB (V) IB (A)

0 0.01 0 0 0.01 0 0

0.2 0.26 0 0 0.28 0 0

-4
0.4 0.43 0.002 2.012×10 0.44 0.003 3.01×10-4

0.6 0.57 0.163 0.0163 0.55 0.097 9.75×10-4

0.8 0.58 0.26 0.0261 0.584 0.262 0.0263

1.0 0.60 0.47 0.0472 0.604 0.49 0.0492

1.5 0.63 0.97 0.0975 0.637 0.97 0.0975

2.0 0.64 1.45 0.1458 0.64 1.46 0.1468

2.5 0.65 1.88 0.1891 0.65 1.91 0.1921

3.0 0.66 2.42 0.2434 0.66 2.4 0.2414

Table 2 Data for the input characteristic, IC -VCE Curve

Base Current, IB = 0 A Base Current, IB = 50 A Base Current, IB = 100 A
Collector- Collector Collector- Collector Collector- Collector
Source Collector Collector Collector
to-Emitter Resistor to-Emitter Resistor to-Emitter Resistor
Voltage, Current, Current, Current,
Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage,
VCC (V) VCE (V) VC (V) I C (mA)
VCE (V) VC (V) I C (mA)
VCE (V) VC (V) IC (mA)
0.0 0.5 1.01
0.7 0 0 0.003 0.5102 0.003 1.0306
2.0 0.46 0.99
2.1 0 0 0.06 0.4693 0.04 1.0102
4.0 0.44 0.97
4.03 0 0 0.08 0.4489 0.06 0.9897
6.0 0.43 0.96
6.03 0 0 0.1 0.4387 0.07 0.9795
8.0 0.43 0.95
8.06 0 0 0.13 0.4387 0.08 0.9693
10.0 0.42 0.95
10.06 0 0 0.16 0.4285 0.1 0.9693
12.0 0.41 0.94
12.08 0 0 0.18 0.4183 0.11 0.9591
 Input Characteristic Curve:

Ib vs Vb Characteristic Curve
0.3

0.25

0.2
Vcc 10V
0.15
Ib

Vcc 16V
0.1

0.05

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Vbe

Simulations:
For Table 1:

Figure1: when Vc=10V and VBB = 0V

Figure1.1: when Vc=10V and VBB = 0.2V

Figure1.2: when Vc=10V and VBB = 0.4V

Figure1.3: when Vc=10V and VBB = 0.6V

Figure1.4: when Vc=10V and VBB = 0.8V

Figure1.5: when Vc=10V and VBB = 1V

Figure1.6: when Vc=10V and VBB = 1.5V

Figure1.7: when Vc=10V and VBB = 2V

Figure1.8: when Vc=10V and VBB = 2.5V

Figure1.9: when Vc=10V and VBB = 3V

 Figure2: when Vc=16V and VBB =0V

Figure2.1: when Vc=16V and VBB =0.2V

Figure2.2: when Vc=16V and VBB =0.4V

Figure2.3: when Vc=16V and VBB =0.6V

Figure2.4: when Vc=16V and VBB =0.8V

Figure2.5: when Vc=16V and VBB =1V

Figure2.6: when Vc=16V and VBB =1.5V

Figure2.7: when Vc=16V and VBB =2V

Figure2.8: when Vc=16V and VBB =2.5V

Figure2.9: when Vc=16V and VBB =3V

For Table 2:

Figure3: when VBB=0V and Vc=0V

Figure3.1: when VBB=0V and Vc=2V

Figure3.2: when VBB=0V and Vc=4V

Figure3.3: when VBB=0V and Vc=6V

Figure3.4: when VBB=0V and Vc=8V

Figure3.5: when VBB=0V and Vc=10V

Figure3.6: when VBB=0V and Vc=12V

Figure 4: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=0V

Figure 4.1: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=2V

Figure 4.2: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=4V

Figure 4.3: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=6V

Figure 4.4: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=8V

Figure 4.5: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=10V

Figure 4.6: when VBB=1.1V and Vc=12V

Figure 5: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=0V

Figure 5.1: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=2V

Figure 5.2: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=4V

Figure 5.3: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=6V

Figure 5.4: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=8V

Figure 5.5: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=10V

 Figure 5.6: when VBB=1.6V and Vc=12V

Simulated Table 1 Data for the input characteristic, IB -VBE Curve

Collector Supply Voltage, VCC = +10 V Collector Supply Voltage, VCC = +16 V
Source
Base-to-Emitter Base Resistor Base Current, Base-to-Emitter Base Resistor Base Current,
Voltage,
VBB (V) Voltage, VBE (V) Voltage, VB (V) IB (A) Voltage, VBE (V) Voltage, VB (V) IB (A)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-3 -6 -4 -6 -3
0.2 199.998×10 1.904×10 1.904×10 1.844×10 199.998×10 199.998

0.4 399.996×10-3 3.96×10-6 3.96×10-4 3.9×10-6 399.996×10-3 399.996

0.6 599.876×10-3 124.138×10-6 12.4138×10-3 124.078×10-6 599.876×10-3 599.876

0.8 754.077×10-3 45.923×10-3 4.5023 45.923×10-3 754.077×10-3 754.077

1.0 793.022×10-3 206.978×10-3 20.6978 206.978×10-3 793.022×10-3 793.022

 1.5 823.649×10-3 676.351×10-3 67.6351 676.351×10-3 823.649×10-3 823.649
-3 -3
2.0 833.431×10 1.167 116.7 1.162 837.654×10 837.654

2.5 833.772×10-3 1.666 116.6 1.654 845.62×10-3 845.62

-3 -3
3.0 834.059×10 2.166 216.6 2.154 845.863×10 845.863

Simulated Table 2 Data for the input characteristic, IC -VCE Curve

Base Current, IB = 0 A Base Current, IB = 50 A Base Current, IB = 100 A

Collector- Collector Collector- Collector Collector- Collector

Source Collector Collector Collector
to-Emitter Resistor to-Emitter Resistor to-Emitter Resistor
Voltage, Current, Current, Current,
Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage, Voltage,
VCC (V) VCE (V) VRC (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) VRC (V) IC (mA) VCE (V) VC (V) IC (mA)

0 0 0 0 13.152×10-3 0 0 0 0 0

2.0 2 2.005×10-6 2.005×10-3 130.905×10-3 1.869 1.869×103 2 2.021×10-6 2.021×10-3

4.0 4 4.01×10-6 4.01×10-3 1.024 2.976 2.976×103 4 5.521×10-6 5.521×10-3

6.0 6 6.016×10-6 6.016×10-3 3.024 2.976 2.976×103 6 8.124×10-6 8.124×10-3

8.0 8 8.021×10-6 8.021×10-3 8 10.577×10-6 10.577×10-3 8 10.727×10-6 10.727×10-3

10.0 10 10.02×10-6 10.02×10-3 10 13.181×10-6 13.181×10-3 10 13.331×10-6 13.331×10-3

12.0 12 12.03×10-6 12.03×10-3 12 15.785×10-6 15.785×10-6 12 15.935×10-6 15.935×10-3

Simulated Input Characteristic Curve

 Ib vs Vbe Characteristic Curve
900
800
700
600
500 Vcc 10V
Ib

400 Vcc 16V

300
200
100
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Vbe

Discussion & Conclusion :

This experiment successfully demonstrated the input and output characteristics of a BJT in
common-emitter configuration. The input characteristic curve confirmed that the base-emitter
junction behaves like a forward-biased diode, while the output curve highlighted the distinct
operational regions: active, saturation, and cutoff. In the active region, a nearly constant collector
current for a given base current validated the transistor's amplifying properties.
Simulation results aligned with theoretical expectations, showcasing the transistor's behavior
under varying voltages and currents. The findings reinforce the critical role of BJTs in
amplification and switching applications, bridging theoretical principles with practical
applications in electronics.

References:
[1] Robert L. Boylestad, Louis Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory, 9th Edition,
2007-2008
[2] Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College Publishing, 3rd
ed., ISBN: 0-03 051648-X, 1991.
[3] American International University–Bangladesh (AIUB) Electronic Devices Lab Manual.
[4] David J. Comer, Donald T. Comer, Fundamentals of Electronic Circuit Design, John Wiley
& Sons Canada, Ltd., ISBN: 0471410160, 2002.
[5] Resistor values: https://www.eleccircuit.com/how-to-basic-use-resistor/, accessed on 20
September 2023.