NOTES! HIP HIP HOORAY!

All the elements of the periodic table are neutral as is; that is, every element has a set number of protons (positive charge) and a set number of electrons (negative charge). The number of protons and electrons in each specific element are equal, and the intensity of the negative charge from the electrons is equal to the intensity of the positive charge from the protons. This means that the charges cancel out and that the atom has an overall neutral charge. Since there is an equal number of electrons and protons in each atom, the specific number of electrons and protons for a particular atom can be represented by one number. We call that number the Atomic number (represented by the symbol: Z). In addition to protons and electrons, elements also have neutrons. Neutrons have no charge at all. They exist along side the protons in the center of the atom, while the electrons orbit them in specific energy levels we sometimes call shells. Without the neutrons, the positive charges of the protons would repel each other. Protons, neutrons and electrons are extremely small, but of the three electrons are the smallest. Electrons are so small that it would take about 2000 of them to make the size of a proton. and just to give you an idea of how small a proton is, it would take 6.02 x 10^23 (thats 602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000) protons to have a mass of 1 gram (about the weight of a paperclip). Since they are so light, and becasue no element comes anywhere near having 2000 electrons, when determining the mass of a particular element, we ignore the electrons. That means that the weight of the atom comes entirely from the weight of the neutrons and protons (represented by the symbol: A). lets look at one of the elements off of the periodic table.

In general, the short hand notation for any element can be seen in the figure below, where X

is the elements atomic symbol; A is the atomic massfor that element; and Z is the atomic number for that element.

Sometimes to visually represent atoms we use a Bohr model. A Bohr model shows the element name in the center (or sometimes the number of protons and neutrons for that element), and the electrons orbiting around it in their respective energy levels (shells). As far as were concerned for now, elements fill up their energy levels, or shells, using the octet rule which states that each energy level except the first can hold 8 electrons (the first one only being able to hold 2). Using a Bohr model, lets take a look at one of the elements for an example.

What do we have here? Nitrogen! how do we know? looking at the periodic table we notice that the atomic number for

nitrogen is 7, this means that nitrogen should have 7 electrons and 7 protons... just count!

This is all fine and dandy, but we all know that elements do not exist only by themselves, elements interact with other elements and can form compounds. All the elements of the periodic table are trying to attain noble gas configuration. What that means is that all the other elements think the noble gases are awesome and want to be just like them. The noble gases all have complete orbitals; in other words, each 'shell' they have is holding the maximum number of electrons possible for that shell. Soooo, for the Bohr model above, we have an element whose first shell is completely filled, and whose next shell needs 3 more electrons to be completely filled. That means if, somehow, nitrogen picks up 3 more electrons, it will have filled its octet and have achieved noble gas electron configuration, (nitrogen will have the same number of electrons as Neon). So lets pretend it gets 3 more electrons (we'll look at how it does that soon... just keep reading).

Now both shells are filled and nitrogen is happy. But wait!... if nitrogen has the same number of electrons as neon now, why doesn't nitrogen actually BECOME neon? Count the protons... there are still only 7 protons, and neon has 10 protons and 10 electrons. So nitrogen is still nitrogen, it just has a few extra electrons that he stole from some other element (or elements... maybe he got all 3 from one element, or maybe he just stole one electron from 3 different elements). Since each electron has a negative charge, and nitrogen now has 3 more electrons than it SHOULD have, the overall charge on nitrogen is now -3. This is now a nitrogen ion An ion is an atom or molecule with a net electric charge due to the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Lets look at an example of who nitrogen might have stole these extra electrons from... who ever he stole it from, they are now an ion as well.

Here is lithium:

Lithium has a total of 3 electrons, and just like nitrogen, lithium would like to be like the noble gases too. In order to do this, lithium would have to gain 7 electrons to have a full outer shell and be like neon (too hard to do and doesnt happen)... OR lithium could just loose one electron and be like helium!

So lithium gives away the outer most electron to nitrogen and now lithium is happy! Two additional lithium's would have to do this to give nitrogen the 3 electrons that it needs to fill its outer shell. When lithium gives away an electron lithium will have 3 protons and 2 electrons, and since protons have a positive charge and electrons a negative charge, 3 protons and 2 electrons give lithium a net charge of +1. It is important to note that the only electrons involved in bonding is the electrons in the highest energy level; in other words it is the electrons in the outer most shell or the valence shell that are involved in transfer, or as well will see, sharing of electrons. HANG ON ONE SECOND!!!!!!!!! We just talked about 3 atoms of lithium giving up one electron each and one atom of nitrogen accepting 3 electrons. When this happens these elements cant just part ways and go off happily with a noble gas configuration. By donating/accepting electrons, these elements have written their vows and said I do and are now bonded together by the strongest bond out

there... an ionic bond. Lets view the equation for this reaction:

From this equation we see that Lithium metal reacts with nitrogen gas to from a compound called lithium nitride. The top equation tells you what is involved in the reaction; in other words what things are reacting and what happened (what is formed) after the reaction is over. The bottom equation is the same equation balanced. But what does that mean? Whats the point, and how is it useful? Welllll...., If you were to want to create lithium nitride in this way in the lab, this equation would be useful. The coefficients (big numbers on the left) tell you how many thingys are required for this reaction to happen. To avoid potential confusion, for now, were going to call the quantity of substance thingys. So in this case, it would take 6 thingys of lithium metal and 1 thingy of nitrogen gas to make 2 thingys of lithium nitride (solid). Its the same as baking a cake. This is the ingredients for a cake: 250g butter, chopped 3 teaspoons finely grated lime rind 180g white chocolate, chopped 1 1/3 cups caster sugar 3/4 cup milk 1 1/2 cups plain flour, sifted 2 eggs 280g jar lemon butter For simplicity reasons, lets focus on just the eggs and flour. It says we need 2 eggs and 1.5 cups of flour to make 1 cake... well in chemistry we try to avoid using anything but whole numbers for balancing our equations. So another way to say this is that it takes 4 eggs and 3 cups of flour to make 2 cakes.

Weve learned thus far that an ion is an element (or molecule, eg. polyatomic ion) that has lost or gained electrons when taking part in an bond (ionic bond). Once you have an ionic compound that is made up of a cation (positively charged ion; eg. element lost one or more electrons) and an anion (negatively charged ion; eg. element gained one or more electrons), even though these are tightly bonded together with an ionic bond, it is possible for the compound to dissociate in a solvent. An example of this would be dissolving table salt (NaCl) in water. Na has an atomic number of 11. Following the octet rule there would be 2 electrons in the first energy level (shell) 8 electrons in the next, and with one electron left over, there would be one electron in sodiums valence (outermost) shell. Side note 1! in fact, if we ignore the transition metal, following the octet rule well notice that all the elements in the first group (up and down on periodic table) end up having 1 valence electron. All the elements in group 2 have 2 valence electrons and so on. Side note 2. Using the the fact from side note 1 we can also determine the charges each element would have (excluding the transition metals) if they were to become ions. Eg. everything in group 1 has 1 valence electron, which means if it were to ionize it would only have one electron to loose. If it looses that one electron, it has one less negative charge making it an ion with a charge of +1. All the elements in group 2 have 2 valence electrons, which means if they were to become ions they could only loose 2 electrons. This would mean that if an element in group two becomes an ion it would have a charge of +2. When we reach the fourth group (remember skipping the transition metals), the group starting with carbon, these elements are right in the middle. They can either loose or gain four electrons in order to attain noble gas configuration, so their charge is +/- 4. Elements in groups 5,6 and 7 all receive electrons when ionizing. (eg. its easier for chlorine, with a valence number of 7, to gain one electron that to loose 7). Receiving an electron or electrons give your a more negative charge. Therefore elements in these groups end up having negative charges when becoming ions (they become anions). Covalent bonds Weve talked about ionic bonds, the strongest of them all, now lets talking about the next strongest bond type; covalent bonds. In a covalent bond, instead of atom donating or accepting electrons, they pass them back and forth between each other; they share non-lone pair valence electrons. Before we look at an example of this, it is useful to learn about Lewis dot diagrams. Lewis dot diagrams Since it is only the valence shell that takes part in chemical bonding, it become tedious drawing Bohr models showing every shell. What the Lewis dot diagrams do is ignore the lower energy

levels and only draw valence electrons. Lets look at an example: Nitrogen has 7 electrons total, and weve already looked at the Bohr model of this. The Lewis dot diagram only shows the valence electrons, so in the case of nitrogen there are 5 valence electrons. First you draw the symbol for the element, then you put dots clockwise around the element at 12:00, 3:00, 6:00, and 9:00 and repeat again until youve used all the valence electrons.

To show ionic bonding in Lewis dot diagrams, see

below:

Naming When given the molecular formula to name a compound, first identify if the cation is a metal or a non-metal. Non-metals are on the right side of the staircase on the periodic table starting by carbon and aluminum. As a rule, if the cation IS a metal then it is an ionic molecule with an ionic bond. If the cation is a non-metal then the molecule is a molecular compound with a covalent bond. For ionic compounds you simply name the first element and then change the ending to ide Eg. NaCl is Sodium Chloride For molecular compounds you need to know your prefixes heres a list:

Prefix monoditritetrapenta-

Number 1 2 3 4 5

Prefix hexaheptaoctanonadeca-

Number 6 7 8 9 10

For molecular compounds you simply name the element and state how many atoms of each their are using prefixes. Eg. CO2 = Carbon dioxide N205 dinitrogen pentaoxide. Note 1: In both cases, if a polyatomic ion is used (from your polyatomic ion list) then instead of changing the name to -ide, just write the name of the polyatomic

ion Eg. Ca3PO4 = Calcium Phosphate Note 2: with IONIC COMPOUNDS sometimes the metal is a transition metal (or tin or lead) if so, you must be sure to write THE CHARGE of the transition metal in roman numerals next to the name. To figure out what the charge is you must look at what the transition metal is bonded with. Use the charge of what it is bonded with to determine what the transition metals charge would have to be to cancel out the charge. Eg. SnO right away you can see that the cation is a metal, but is not an alkali or alkaline earth metal, so you know youre going to need roman numerals to tell the reader what the CHARGE is. Step 1: Write the name like you would for any other ionic compound and leave room for the roman numerals Tin ( ) Oxide Step 2: Determine the charge on the anion Oxygen has a charge of -2 Step 3: Determine the positive number required to cancel out the negative charge +2 Step 4: Finish the name by writing in the number (in roman numerals) you determined in step 3 Tin (II) Oxide Eg.2 SnO2 Step 1: Tin ( ) Oxide Step 2: Oxygen has a charge of -2, and there are 2 of them: total = -4 Step 3: Need +4 to balance charges Step 4: Tin (IV) Oxide Eg.3. FeSO4 Step 1: Iron ( ) Sulfate Step 2: Sulfate, a polyatomic ion, has a charge of -2, and there is only 1 of them Step 3: Need +2 to balance charges Step 4: Iron (II) Sulfate

Writing Molecular Formulas: If you are given the name of an ionic compound, to write the molecular formula you need to determine the individual charges of the cation and the anion in the molecule and then balance those charges using appropriate subscripts. Eg. Calcium Carbonate Step 1: Write the symbols for each element (or polyatomic ion, as in this example) you may wish to leave a tiny space in case you do end up putting a subscript in the last step. Ca CO3 Step 2: Determine the charges on the cation and the anion Calcium, group 2, has a charge of +2; the carbonate ion has a charge of -2 Ca+2 CO3-2 Step 3: If the charges arent already equal, determine how many of each one you need to make them equal, then write that quantity as a subscript. If the charges are already equal, than youre done. Just write it all together. CaCO3 Eg.2. Iron (II) Phosphate Step 1: Fe PO4 Step 2: The roman numeral tells us that the charge on iron is +2 Fe+2 PO4-3 Step 3: The charges are +2 and -3; 6 is the first number that these both go into. So we need three +2 charges, and two -3 charges. In other words, three irons and 2 phosphate Fe3(PO4)2 Molecular compounds are even easier: For molecular compound, use the prefixes to tell you what number your subscripts should be for each atom in the compound. Eg1. Carbon dioxide Carbon has no prefix, so there is an assumed 1 di tells us that there are 2 atoms of the element to follow, and in this case, the element that follows di is oxygen. Remember that compound names change the ending to ide, so oxide is oxygen. Carbon dioxide = CO2 Eg2. Carbon tetrachloride Carbon has no prefix, so there is only 1 of them. Write: C tetra means 4, and chloride is chlorine Write: Cl4 Put it altogether Write CCl4 Types of reactions: Synthesis: The definition of synthesis means to combine 2 or more entities together to

make something new. The general equation for a synthesis reaction is: A + B --> AB Decomposition: Decomposition is the opposite of synthesis and means to take a compound and break it into its individual parts AB --> A + B Combustion: Combustion is the process of burning something. To burn something you need a fuel source, heat, and oxygen, and complete combustion always yields carbon dioxide and water. CxHy + O2 --> CO2 + H2O Single Displacement: The reaction of an element (or diatomic molecule; HOFBRINCL) with a compound. If the lone element is a cation it will replace the cation in the compound, if the lone element is an anion, it will replace the anion in the compound. For this one you have to keep an eye on the part of the reactants that is by itself. It is IMPORTANT to remember that we always write the cation in a compound first followed by the anion. If A is a cation: A + BC --> AC + B If A is an anion: A + BC --> BA + C Double Displacement: Similar to single displacement, but in this type of reaction the cation of one compound replaces the cation of the other compound. AB + CD --> AD +BC Again, it is important to remember that the cation always goes first and the anion always goes last. Steps to complete a reaction. Step 1: Determine what type of reaction it is and write JUST THE ELEMENT SYMBOL on the products side (ignore all subscripts for this step.) Step 2: Just like when you are given the name of a compound and have to come up with the formula, in this step you look at the elements you have written on the products side and determine the charge for all species (cations and anion). Then balance the charges by putting the appropriate subscripts. Step 3: Balance the whole equation by putting coefficients in front of lone elements, diatomic molecules, or compounds. Eg. Na2CO3 + HCl -->

Step 1: This is a double displacement. Na will go with Cl and H will go with CO3. Hint - its a good idea to leave a tiny space for potential subscripts that you may add in step 2. Na2CO3 + HCl --> Na Cl + H CO3 Step 2: Now add the subscripts to balance the compound you just made on the right. Na2CO3 + HCl --> Na+1 Cl -1 + H+1 CO3-2 The Na and Cl can be written as is because the charges cancel. We need 2 Hydrogen ions to combined with one carbonate ion. Na2CO3 + HCl --> NaCl + H2CO3 Step 3: Now just balance the whole equation. Na2CO3 + 2HCl --> 2NaCl + H2CO3