Xiao-Gang Wen - An Introduction of Topological Order

An introduction of topological order
Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT

December 22, 2009
Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT An introduction of topological order
What are phases?
Phases are dened through phase transitions.
What are phase transitions?
As we change a parameter g in Hamilto-
nian H(g), the ground state energy den-
sity or average of some other local oper-
ators may have a singularity at g
c
the
system has a phase transition at g
c
.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
The Hamiltonian H(g) is a smooth function of g. How can the
ground state energy E
g
be singular at a certain g
c
?
Spontaneous symmetry breaking is a mechanism to cause a
singularity in ground state energy E
g
.
Spontaneous symmetry breaking causes phase transition.
What are phases?
c
the
c
.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
g
c
?
g
.
What are phases?
c
the
c
.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
g
c
?
g
.
What are phases?
c
the
c
.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
g
c
?
g
.
What are phases?
c
the
c
.
B
A
C
g
1
g
2
g
c
?
g
.
Symmetry breaking theory of phase transition
Ground state is obtained by minimizing an energy function E
g
()
against the internal variable .
E
g
() is a smooth function of and g. How can it minimal value
E
g
E
g
(
min
) have singularity as a function of g?
Minimum splitting singularity in ground state energy E
g
at g
c
State-B has less symmetry than state-A.
State-A State-B: spontaneous symmetry breaking.
For a long time, we believe that
phase transition = change of symmetry
the dierent phases = dierent symmetry.
A A
B B
E E E

g g
c
g
A
FQH a new chapter of condensed matter physics
Dierent FQH states have the same symmetry Tsui & Stormer & Gossard, 82
So actually dierent phases can have the same symmetry and same
type of correlations
notion of topological order for gapped states Wen, 89
algebraic order for gapless states .
Topological order = pattern of long-range entanglement
E
g
E
g
E
g
A basic assumption: Singularity of E
g
at g
c
= gap closing at g
c
Ground states [(g)) of H(g), 0 g 1 are in the same phase if
the gaps of H(g), 0 g 1 are nite.
Since the gap does not close, we have, for large T
[(1)) = P
_
e
i T
1
0
dg H(g)
_
[(0))
We rewrite H as H = H
A
+ H
B
where the terms in H
A
act on
non-overlapping sites, and the terms in H
B
also act on
non-overlapping sites. For example, for H =
i
S
i
S
i +1
, we have
H =
i =even
S
i
S
i +1
and H =
i =od
S
i
S
i +1
.
e
i TH(g)
= e
i TH
A
(g)
e
i TH
B
(g)
e
i TH
A
(g)
and e
i TH
B
(g)
generate the local unitary
transformations.
A
i T H
B
i T H
e
e
U
i
1 2 l
...
[(1)) = P
_
e
i T
1
0
dg H(g)
_
[(0))
= (local unitary transformation)[(0))
The local unitary transformations dene an equivalence relation:
Two states related by a local unitary transformation are in the
same phase.
A quantum phase is an equivalence class of local unitary
transformations.
A state that can be transformed into a direct-product state through
a local unitary transformation has a trivial topological order.
Non-trivial topological order cannot be transformed into a
direct-product state and has long-range quantum entanglement
How to study long-range entanglement (topological order)?
Topological order/long-range entanglement
cannot be described by symmetry breaking,
cannot be described by order parameters,
cannot be described by long range correlations,
cannot be described by Ginzberg-Landau theory.
But can we describe topological order
in terms what it is, not in terms what it is not?
Some basic issues for a theory of topological order
Characterize topo. order through experimental/numerical probe
(Dene topological order via physical characterization)
Calculate topological orders (ie their physical characterizations)
from ideal/generic ground state wave functions.
Calculate topological orders from Hamiltonian (or Lagrangian)
Classify and nd mathematical frame work of topological orders.
Physical characterizations/denition of topological order
Topo. ordered states are gapped. Trivial low energy dynamics.
Low energy dynamics can be non-trivial if ground state degeneracy

depend on topology
The ground state degeneracy on sphere D
sph
= 1
D
tor
,= D
sph
, and is robust against any perturbations
D
tor
is a physical characterization/denition of topo. orders Wen 89
1) When D
disk
= 1 non-chiral topological order.
2) When D
disk
= chiral topological order and a low energy
spectrum on disk E
disk
n
. Spectrum E
disk
n
= spectrum of a CFT.
Edge CFT is a more complete characterization/denition of
topological orders Wen 90
For example, = 1/2 FQH state has D
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 2, :
E
n
k 1
1
2
3
5
7
depend on topology
sph
= 1
D
tor
,= D
sph
D
tor
1) When D
disk
2) When D
disk
spectrum on disk E
disk
n
. Spectrum E
disk
n
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 2, :
E
n
k 1
1
2
3
5
7
depend on topology
sph
= 1
D
tor
,= D
sph
D
tor
1) When D
disk
2) When D
disk
spectrum on disk E
disk
n
. Spectrum E
disk
n
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 2, :
E
n
k 1
1
2
3
5
7
depend on topology
sph
= 1
D
tor
,= D
sph
D
tor
1) When D
disk
2) When D
disk
spectrum on disk E
disk
n
. Spectrum E
disk
n
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 2, :
E
n
k 1
1
2
3
5
7
Non-Abelian Berry phase of deg. ground states Wen 89
Try squeeze more information from the deg. ground states
Consider a family of FQH Hamiltonian H() on a torus. The
family of degenerate ground states [
()) can give raise to

non-Abelian Berry phase
a
() = i
[
d
d
[
), U(
1

2
) = Pe
i
1
d a
which may contain more information than ground state
degeneracy.
But U( ) = e
is Abelian for topologically ordered states.

If U( ) is non-Abelian, then there will exist local
perturbations to the Hamiltonian that will lift the ground state
degeneracy on torus.
U( ) = e
Hall viscosity. Read 08,Haldane 09

How to get a non-Abelian Berrys phase?
Non-Abelian Berry phase and modular transformation
Now we assume =
x
+ i
y
in H() parameterize
the following inverse mass matrix: (m
1
)
ij
() =
_
y
+

2
x
y
1
y
_
.
+1 H( ) H( ) H( ) H( )
(x, y) (x + y, y) : + 1; (x, y) (y, x) : 1/.
Non-Abelian Berry phase of deg. ground states [
()):
T = U( + 1), and S = U( 1/) has non-Abelian part.
The non-Abelian part is path independent and universal:
U
path 1
= e
i
U
path 2
S and T projective representation of modular group, which may
completely (?) characterize the topological order. Wen 89
Eigenvalues of T quasiparticle statistics.
Checked for Abelian FQH states described by the K-matrix.
An introduction of quantum Hall eect
Classical Hall eect:
V
H
= R
xy
I , R
xy
=
B
ec
Quantum Hall eect:
For 2D electron gas
Appears for strong magnetic eld,
when lling fraction

density of electrons
density of ux quanta
1
Hall coecients are quantized:
R
xy
=
n
m
h
e
2
=
1
h
e
2
=
m
n
Observed lling fractions
= 1, 2, ..., 1/3, 2/3, 2/5...
xy
B
H
I
R
R
V = I
xy
2D electrons gas at those
densities (with rational
) form an incompressible
state. The electron density
and are quantized exactly.
Why incompressible state at integer lling fraction = n
Magnetic eld discrete Landau levels (LL).
Number of states in a LL = number of ux quanta.
n LLs are lled if = n incompressible states.
Filled
Empty
Empty
Filled
Wave functions:
Single electron wave function (in rst LL) has a ring shape.
m
= z
m
e
1
4l
2
B
|z|
2
, z = x + iy
Fill the orbits m = 0, ..., N 1 N-electron droplet of uniform
density = 1 HQ state:
(z
1
, ..., z
N
) = (z
1
)
0
(z
2
)
1
... + ... =
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
i
e
1
4l
2
B
|z
i
|
2
Incompressible states at fractional lling fractions = 1/3
First Landau level is partially lled Huge degeneracy for
non-interacting electron
Interaction lift degeneracy incompressibility at fractional must
come from interaction
Laughlins theory for FQH eect:
Every electron want to stay away from every other electron try
1/3
(z
1
, ..., z
N
) =
i <j
(z
i
z
j
)
3
i
e
1
4l
2
B
|z
i
|
2
Every electron in rst Landau level.
Third order zero between any pair of electrons. Good for energy
Low density. Filling fraction = 1/3.

1/3
is very rigid.
Compression create rst order zero nite energy cost
incompressibility.
Calculate topo. order FQH state: eective theory
Calculate topological order = Calculate D
tor
, E
disk
n
, ...
An eective theory that can calculate D
tor
will be a complete and
useful eective theory.
Consider an electron system in a magnetic eld:
L(J
, A
) = eA
i
J
i
+ kinetic/potential energy
where J(x) =
i
v
i
(x x
i
), J
0
(x) =
i
(x x
i
) are electron
current and density. The kinetic/potential energy is given by
i
1
2
mv
2
i
+
i <j
V(x
i
x
j
).
In a hydrodynamical approach, we assume that the low-energy
collective modes can be described by the density and the current
uctuation J
, and the low-energy eective theory has the form

L(A
, J
) = eA
i
J
i
+ eA
0
J
0
+L
(J
). For small J
, we may
assume L
(J
) to be quadratic in J
.
As an incompressible uid, the density of FQH state is tied to the
magnetic eld, i.e. J
0
=
B
hc/e
. When combined with the nite
Hall conductance
xy
=
e
2
hc
, we nd that J
satises
eJ
=
xy
=
e
2
hc

We choose the eective Lagrangian L(A
, J
) in such a way that

it produces the above equation of motion.
It is convenient to introduce a U(1) gauge eld a
to describe the
electron number current:
J
=
1
2
, a
f
The current dened in this way automatically satises the
conservation law.
Then the eective Lagrangian that produces the above equation
takes the following form:
L =
_
1
4
a
+
e
hc
A
_
+ ...
Is L =
_
1
4
a
+
e
hc
A
+
1
2g
f
2
a correct and
complete eective theory?
Can we calculate D
tor
?
k ,= 0 modes all have a nite energy gap. So to calculate D
tor
we
concentrate on the k = 0 mode.
Take the a
0
= 0 gauge, and rewrite (a
x
, a
y
) = (
2
L
X,
2
L
Y) we nd
L =

(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
which describes a mass-g
1
particle in (X, Y) plane with a
magnetic eld B =
2
.
The states in the rst Landau level form the degenerate ground
states and D
tor
= which is a wrong result.
Is L =
_
1
4
a
+
e
hc
A
+
1
2g
f
2
a correct and
Can we calculate D
tor
?
tor
we
Take the a
0
x
, a
y
) = (
2
L
X,
2
L
Y) we nd
L =

(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
1
magnetic eld B =
2
.
states and D
tor
= !
which is a wrong result.
Is L =
_
1
4
a
+
e
hc
A
+
1
2g
f
2
a correct and
Can we calculate D
tor
?
tor
we
Take the a
0
x
, a
y
) = (
2
L
X,
2
L
Y) we nd
L =

(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
1
magnetic eld B =
2
.
states and D
tor
= which is a wrong result.
How to x this problem?
We note that
_
d
2
x J
0
=
_
d
2
x
1
2
ij
i
a
j
is quantized as a integer.
So the ux of a
is quantized as multiple of 2.
This implies that the charge of a
is quantized as integer.
The gauge transformation of a
is really generated by U(x
):
a
+ i U
1
U
or
a
f , U = e
i f
, f f + 2.
Using the gauge transformation on torus U = e
i 2(mx+ny)/L
, we
ne that
(a
x
, a
y
) (a
x
+
2
L
m, a
y
+
2
L
n), (X, Y) (X + n, Y + m)
are gauge equivalent points.
L =

(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
actually describes a mass-g
1
charge-1 particle on a torus
X X + 1, Y Y + 1 with a magnetic eld B =
2
. The total
magnetic ux is
2
and total ux quantum is 1/.

But the new consideration causes an even bigger problem: An
consistent theory must have integer ux quantum. Now we do not
even have a consistent theory!
This is not a bug but a feature.
1
must quantized as an integer m: = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ....
So is quantized to = 1, 1/3, ..., which is right.
But = 1/2, 1/4, ... is also allowed, which is wrong.
= 2/5, 2/3, ... is not allowed, which is wrong.
L =

(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
actually describes a mass-g
1
X X + 1, Y Y + 1 with a magnetic eld B =
2
. The total
magnetic ux is
2
and total ux quantum is 1/.

But the new consideration causes an even bigger problem: An
consistent theory must have integer ux quantum. Now we do not
even have a consistent theory!
This is not a bug but a feature.
1
must quantized as an integer m: = 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, ....
So is quantized to = 1, 1/3, ..., which is right.
But = 1/2, 1/4, ... is also allowed, which is wrong.
= 2/5, 2/3, ... is not allowed, which is wrong.
Quasiparticle excitations
The a
charge-l excitation is described by

L =
_
m
4
a
+
e
hc
A
_
+ la
0
(x x
0
)
From the equation of motion L/a
0
= 0
J
0
=
1
2
ij
i
a
j
=
1
m
B
e/hc
+
l
m
(x x
0
)
a
charge-l excitation carries electric charge Q = e

l
m
, and a
ux 2
l
m
. Exchange two a
charge-l excitation generate a phase

=
1
2
l 2
l
m
= l
2
/m.
a
charge-1 excitation: Q = e/m, = /m.

a
charge-m excitation: Q = e, = m.
Only when m=odd, the charge-e excitations are fermions, which
are electrons.
When m=odd, the charge-e excitations are bosons.
The = 1/m Laughlin state is described by the following compact
U(1) Chern-Simons eective theory
L =
_
m
4
a
+
e
2
A
_
+ ......
where the a
charge is quantized as integers.

When m=odd, the electrons have Fermi statistics.
When m=even, the electrons have Bose statistics.
The ground state sector is described by
L = m(X

Y Y

X)
1
2g
(

X
2
+

Y
2
)
1
X X + 1, Y Y + 1 with a magnetic eld B = 2m. The
total ux quanta is m. So D
tor
= m.
It is interesting to see that just trying to calculate one physical
quantity D
tor
allow us to understand so much.
Topological order from ideal wave function: eective theory
tor
, E
disk
n
, ...
Topo. order for the = 1/2 FQH state
1/2
=
(z
i
z
j
)
2
1/2
(z
i
) = [
1
(z
i
)]
2
=
_
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
)
_
z
i
=z
(1)
i
=z
(2)
i
Before the z
i
= z
(1)
i
= z
(2)
i
projection,
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
) is the
ground state of 2 kinds of partons, each kind of parton z
(a)
i
form
= 1 IQH
1
=
(z
(a)
i
z
(a)
j
)
Eective theory of independent partons
L = i
I

t
I

1
2m
I
( iA)
2
I
The electron wave function
1/2
(z
i
) = 0[
e
(z
i
)[
1
1
)
The electron operator
e
=
1
2
is SU(2) singlet.
tor
, E
disk
n
, ...
Projective (parton) construction
1/2
=
(z
i
z
j
)
2
1/2
(z
i
) = [
1
(z
i
)]
2
=
_
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
)
_
z
i
=z
(1)
i
=z
(2)
i
Before the z
i
= z
(1)
i
= z
(2)
i
projection,
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
) is the
(a)
i
form
= 1 IQH
1
=
(z
(a)
i
z
(a)
j
)
L = i
I

t
I

1
2m
I
( iA)
2
I
1/2
(z
i
) = 0[
e
(z
i
)[
1
1
)
e
=
1
2
is SU(2) singlet.
tor
, E
disk
n
, ...
1/2
=
(z
i
z
j
)
2
1/2
(z
i
) = [
1
(z
i
)]
2
=
_
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
)
_
z
i
=z
(1)
i
=z
(2)
i
Before the z
i
= z
(1)
i
= z
(2)
i
projection,
1
(z
(1)
i
)
1
(z
(2)
i
) is the
(a)
i
form
= 1 IQH
1
=
(z
(a)
i
z
(a)
j
)
L = i
I

t
I

1
2m
I
( iA)
2
I
1/2
(z
i
) = 0[
e
(z
i
)[
1
1
)
e
=
1
2
is SU(2) singlet.
Introduce SU(2) gauge eld a
IJ
to do projection (glue partons
back to electrons) at Lagrangian level:
L = i
I

t
I
( iA
IJ
ia
IJ
)
2
J
Low energy eective theory is obtained by integrating out the
gapped parton elds: L =
1
4
Tr(aa +
i
3
a
3
) SU
1
(2) CS theory.
More general states
k/n
= [
k
(z
i
)]
n
: eective theory is
L =
k
4
Tr(aa +
i
3
a
3
), a = SU(n) gauge eld
SU
k
(n) CS theory.
D
tor
, E
disk
n
, S, T (ie topological order) can be calculated from the
eective CS theory.
1/n
states are Abelian FQH states
k/n
states are non-Abelian FQH states Wen 91
Introduce SU(2) gauge eld a
IJ
to do projection (glue partons
back to electrons) at Lagrangian level:
L = i
I

t
I
( iA
IJ
ia
IJ
)
2
J
Low energy eective theory is obtained by integrating out the
gapped parton elds: L =
1
4
Tr(aa +
i
3
a
3
) SU
1
(2) CS theory.
More general states
k/n
= [
k
(z
i
)]
n
: eective theory is
L =
k
4
Tr(aa +
i
3
a
3
), a = SU(n) gauge eld
SU
k
(n) CS theory.
D
tor
, E
disk
n
, S, T (ie topological order) can be calculated from the
eective CS theory.
1/n
states are Abelian FQH states
k/n
states are non-Abelian FQH states Wen 91
Quantum spin liquids
Herbertsmithsite: spin-1/2 on Kagome lattice H = J
S
i
S
j
.
J 200K, but no phase transition down to 50mK spin liquid
Helton etal 06
Organics -(ET)
2
X:
t
/t = 0.5 1.1 X=Cu[N(CN)

2
]Cl, Cu
2
(CN)
3
,...
Cu[N(CN)
2
]Cl t
/t = .75 Cu
2
(CN)
3
t
/t = 1.06
Spin int.
J = 250K
But no AF
order down
to 35mK
Calculate topo. order from ideal wave function: Spin liquid
How to construct a many-boson/spin wave function (i
1
, i
2
, )
for quantum spin liquids? Zou & Baskaran & Anderson, 87
Enlarge Hilbert space: Start with two fermions
1
and
2
SU(2) singlets [0),
2
[0) [ ) = [empty), [ ) = [one boson)
SU(2) doublet
1
[0),
2
[0) unphysical states
Choose a trial Hamiltonian
H
trial
=
ij
i
u
ij
j
,
i
=
_
1
i
2
i
_
, u
ij
= i
0
ij
+
l
ij
l
Spin liquid [
u
ij
) = T[
u
ij
mean
) or
u
ij
(i
1
, i
2
, ..) = 0[b
i
1
b
i
2
..[
u
ij
mean
)
where [
u
ij
mean
) is the ground state of H
trial
and b
i
=
1
(i)
2
(i) .
T: projection to local SU(2) singlet; b
i
is SU(2) singlet.
u
ij
: variational parameters
SU(2) gauge structure many-to-one label:
[
u
ij
) = [
u
ij
), u
ij
= W
i
u
ij
W
j
, W
i
SU(2)
Mean-eld phase diagram of J
1
-J
2
model
The trial wave function [
u
ij
)
is more general than the tra-
ditional trial wave function
i
(u
i
[ ) + v
i
[ ).
[
u
ij
) can have long range en-
tanglements and we may get a
richer phase diagram.
H = J
1
nn
S
i
S
j
+ J
2
nnn
S
i
S
j
where J
1
+ J
2
= 1.
A
I
D
B
C
G
E
H
J
2
F
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0.5
0.45
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Obtain trial ground state by minimizing E(u
ij
) =
u
ij
[H[
u
ij
)
We nd many local minima.
Mean-eld states
state-A (-ux): u
i,i+x
=
3
1
, u
i,i+y
=
3
+
1
state-D (chiral-spin): u
i,i+x
=
3
1
, u
i,i+y
=
3
+
1
u
i,i+x+y
=
2
, u
i,i+xy
= +
2
.
state-I (uRVB): u
i,i+x
=
3
, u
i,i+y
=
3
state-G: u
i,i+x
=
3
1
, u
i,i+y
=
3
+
1
u
i,i+x+y
=
3
, u
i,ix+y
= +
3
.
state-H: u
i,i+x
=
3
1
, u
i,i+y
=
3
+
1
u
i,i+x+y
= +
3
, u
i,ix+y
= +
3
.
All those states are spin rotation invariant and translation invariant
They are spin liquids with one spin-1/2 per unit cell.
How to tell if two ansatz u
ij
and u
ij
belong to the same phase or
not?
Projective symmetry group (PSG) Wen, 01
Landau symmetry breaking theory for minimizing energy:
1) The energy function E(u
ij
) =
u
ij
[H[
u
ij
) has a symmetry.
2) u
ij
that minimize E(u
ij
) has a lower symmetry.
3) If we change the energy function E(u
ij
), u
ij
will change.
a) If the symmetry of u
ij
does not change no singularity in the
minimal energy and no phase transition.
b) If the symmetry of u
ij
does change a singularity in the
minimal energy and a phase transition.
The symmetry of the energy function E(u
ij
)
1) Hamiltonian symmetry group (SG
H
), eg T
x
: u
i,j
u
i+x,j+x
2) SU(2)-gauge symmetry W
i
: u
i,j
W
i
u
i,j
W
j
The symmetry group of u
ij
is PSG SG
H
SU(2)-gauge:
The PSG of u
ij
is the group formed by all the combined symmetry
and gauge transformations that leave u
ij
unchanged.
PSG of the ansatz characterize the quantum phases.
PSG is a new label to characterize quantum phases.
Projective symmetry group (PSG) Wen, 01
Landau symmetry breaking theory for minimizing energy:
1) The energy function E(u
ij
) =
u
ij
[H[
u
ij
) has a symmetry.
2) u
ij
that minimize E(u
ij
) has a lower symmetry.
3) If we change the energy function E(u
ij
), u
ij
will change.
a) If the symmetry of u
ij
does not change no singularity in the
minimal energy and no phase transition.
b) If the symmetry of u
ij
does change a singularity in the
minimal energy and a phase transition.
The symmetry of the energy function E(u
ij
)
1) Hamiltonian symmetry group (SG
H
), eg T
x
: u
i,j
u
i+x,j+x
2) SU(2)-gauge symmetry W
i
: u
i,j
W
i
u
i,j
W
j
The symmetry group of u
ij
is PSG SG
H
SU(2)-gauge:
The PSG of u
ij
is the group formed by all the combined symmetry
and gauge transformations that leave u
ij
unchanged.
PSG of the ansatz characterize the quantum phases.
PSG is a new label to characterize quantum phases.
Physical symmetry of ground state and PSG
Relation to physical symmetry of the ground state [
u
ij
):
u
i,i+x
=
3
+ ()
i
y
1
, u
i,i+y
=
3
()
i
y
1
:
PSG = W
0
i
, T
x
, W
T
y
i
T
y
, ... SG
H
SU(2)-gauge symmetry.
W
0
i
= 1 pure gauge trans. that leave u
ij
unchanged
invariant gauge group (IGG): IGG PSG
The ansatz with the above PSG has physical symmetry T
x
, T
y
The ansatz is translation inv. up to gauge transformations.
In general physical symmetry group (SG) = PSG/IGG
PSG IGG SG
State-G: Z2Azz13 Z
2
T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
State-H: Z2A0013 Z
2
T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
1) State-G and state-H have the same physical symmetry, but are
distinct quantum phases since there PSGs are dierent.
2) If Hamiltonian breaks P
x
: x x and P
y
: y y, then
state-G and state-H will belong to the same phase.
PSG and symmetry protected topological/algebraic order
Systems with no symmetry can have rich topological order
Systems with symmetry can have even richer symmetry protected
topological order (ie with long range entanglement)
PSG IGG SG
State-A: SU2Bn0 SU(2) T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
State-D: SU2???? SU(2) T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
State-I: SU2An0 SU(2) T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
State-G: Z2Azz13 Z
2
T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
State-H: Z2A0013 Z
2
T
x
, T
y
, P
x
, P
y
, P
xy
, T
The distinction between state-G and state-H requires P
x
and P
y
symmetry. Wen, 01
The distinction between state-A (-ux) and state-I (uRVB)
requires T
x
and T
y
symmetry. Wen, 01
The distinction between band insulator and topological insulator
requires T symmetry. Kane & Mele, 05; Bernevig & Zhang, 06
PSG in topological/algebraic order plays a role of
symmetry group in symmetry-breaking order
PSG characterizes dierent symm. protected quant./topo. order
Symmetry group characterizes dierent symmetry breaking orders
Phase trans. = a change in PSG
Phase trans. = a change in
symm. of ground state
Both PSG and symm.-breaking
characterizations require H to
have some symm.
A G B continuous trans.
without any change of physical
symm. (PSG changes). Wen, 01
A D continuous trans. that
breaks T, but not in 3D Ising
class. Ran & Wen, 06
G: Z2Azz13linear
D: SU2gapped
(chiral spin, break T)
A: SU2Bn0linear
(piflux)
E: SU2gapless
(break 90)
I: SU2An0gapless
J
(uRVB)
C: SU2xSU2linear
B: SU2xSU2gapless
F: U1Cn00xgapped
H: Z2A0013linear
2
0.5 0.5
0.3
0.1
0 1 0.5 0
0.1
0.3
1
Low energy eective theory of spin liquids
Starting from H
trial
=
ij

i
u
ij
j
[
u
ij
mean
)
Ground state: [
u
ij
) = T[
u
ij
mean
)
1) Collective uctuations [
u
ij
+u
ij
) SU(2) gauge elds.
2) Topological excitations spinons at i
1
and i
2
:
[i
1
, i
2
) = T
1
i
1
2
i
2
[
u
ij
mean
)
whose dynamics is described by H =
ij

i
u
ij
j
.
Lattice eective theory = spinons coupled to SU(2)-gauge theory:
H =
ij

i
( u
ij
+ u
ij
)
j
.
Lattice gauge group is SU(2)
Low eective theory = spinons coupled to IGG-gauge theory:
H =
ij

i
( u
ij
+ u
ij
)
j
, restrict u
ij
to IGG gauge mode.
Low energy gauge group is IGG
The ansatz u
ij
is not SU(2) invariant. The Higgs mechanism
breaks the SU(2) gauge group to the IGG gauge group.
Spinon spectrum:
1 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
4
0.3
3
2
1
0.5
2
3
4
1 0.5 0 0.5 1
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1
0.3
0.5 1
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1
2
3
4
1 0.5 0
0.3
State-A (-ux) State-G (Z2Azz13) State-H (Z2A0013)
Low energy eective theories:
State-A (-ux): SU(2)-gauge + 2 massless Dirac fermions
State-D (chiral-spin): SU(2)
2
CS gauge theory (massive spinons)
Topological order with semions D
tor
= 2, E
disk
n
, S, T
State-I (uRVB): SU(2)-gauge + gapless spinon with Fermi surface
State-G (Z2Azz13): Z
2
-gauge + 2 massless Dirac fermions
State-H (Z2A0013): Z
2
-gauge + 2 massless Dirac fermions
The measurable characters of PSG spin liquids
Spectrum of physical spin-1 excitations (2 spinons):
0.4
1
0.3
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
3
4
0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
2
0.2
3
2
1
0.3
0 0.2 0.4
0.4
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.4
4
0.4
3
2
1
0.3
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4
4
State-A (-ux) State-G (Z2Azz13) State-H (Z2A0013)
The spin-1 spectrum of state-A (-ux/SU2Bn0) is periodic in 1/4
of B.Z.!
The spin-1 nodal points near (0, ), (, 0) split along the zone
boundary for the state-G (Z2Azz13).
The spin-1 nodal points near (0, ), (, 0) split perpendicular to
the zone boundary for the state-H (Z2A0013).
PSG does not describe all symm. protected topo. orders
How many Z
2
topological orders with translation symmetry?
(How many translation symmetry protected Z
2
topological orders?)
1) Z
2
topological order = fully gapped state described low energy
Z
2
gauge theory (IGG = Z
2
)
2) We have only translation symmetry T
x
, T
y
. No spin rotation,
no time reversal T, no any other symmetries.
According to PSG, there are only two classes:
Z2A: the spinon hopping on lattice see 0 ux per unit cell
Z2B: the spinon hopping on lattice see ux per unit cell
At least 16 trans. symm. protected Z2A topo. orders Kou & Wen, 09
The deg. D
tor
on torus depend on L
x
, L
y
= even/odd, even/odd
L
x
L
y
ind. 15 14 13 11 7 12 3 9 6 10 5 8 4 2 1 0
ee 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
eo 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
oe 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
oo 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
States 1,2,4,8, 7,11,13,14 are actually non-Abelian states.
How many Z
2
2
1) Z
2
Z
2
2
)
x
, T
y
. No spin rotation,
The deg. D
tor
x
, L
y
L
x
L
y
ind. 15 14 13 11 7 12 3 9 6 10 5 8 4 2 1 0
ee 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
eo 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
oe 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
oo 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
How many Z
2
2
1) Z
2
Z
2
2
)
x
, T
y
. No spin rotation,
The deg. D
tor
x
, L
y
L
x
L
y
ind. 15 14 13 11 7 12 3 9 6 10 5 8 4 2 1 0
ee 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
eo 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
oe 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 3 3 3 3 4
oo 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4
Translation symmetry protected topo. superconductors
Spinons form a paired state in the Z2A states
Trans. symm. protected Z2A topo. orders
are closely related to trans. symm. protected
topo. superconductors.
How many fully gapped and distinct super-
conducting states with only trans. symm.?
(no parity, no time-reversal, no spin, ...)
2D: 16, 3D: 256, d-dimension: 2
(2
d
)
Even/odd electrons in ground state depend
on L
x
, L
y
= even/odd, even/odd Kou & Wen, 09
T protected topo. superconductors
Roy, 06; Qi & Hughes & Raghu & Zhang, 09; Sato & Fujimoto, 09;
T
x
, T
y
protected topo. superconductors
Kou & Wen, 09
T symm. is not important to have topo.
superconductors.
()
N
e
ee eo oe oo
0000 : + + + +
1111 : + + +
0101 : + + +
1010 : + +
0011 : + + +
1100 : + +
0110 : + +
1001 : +
0001 : + + +
1110 : + +
0100 : + +
1011 : +
0010 : + +
1101 : +
0111 : +
1000 :
Towards a systematic theory of topological orders
Ideal wave function for particle condensation ([ ) = [1), [ ) = [0))
[
part
) =
all conf.
_
=
i
([0) +[1)) =
i
[
x
)
1) Foundation for symmetry breaking order
2) No long range entanglement
Ideal wave function for loop condensation [
loop
) =
_
1) Z
2
topological order: D
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 4, 1
2) Exact ground state of Kitaev, 97
H
Z
2
= U
I
Q
I
g
p
B
p
, B
p

edges of p

x
i
, Q
I

legs of I

z
i
=4
x
z
z
z
e o
e e
e
o o
o
p
D
tor
i I
B
Q
[
part
) =
all conf.
_
=
i
([0) +[1)) =
i
[
x
)
loop
) =
_
1) Z
2
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 4, 1
H
Z
2
= U
I
Q
I
g
p
B
p
, B
p

edges of p

x
i
, Q
I

legs of I

z
i
=4
x
z
z
z
e o
e e
e
o o
o
p
D
tor
i I
B
Q
[
part
) =
all conf.
_
=
i
([0) +[1)) =
i
[
x
)
loop
) =
_
1) Z
2
sph
, D
tor
, D
disk
= 1, 4, 1
H
Z
2
= U
I
Q
I
g
p
B
p
, B
p

edges of p

x
i
, Q
I

legs of I

z
i
=4
x
z
z
z
e o
e e
e
o o
o
p
D
tor
i I
B
Q
String-net wave function for generic topological orders
Ideal wave function for string-net condensation Levin & Wen, 04
[
strnet
) =
all conf.

_ _
_
1) string has types a = 0, 1, ..., N (spins on links have N + 1 states)
2) Branching rule:
ijk
= 1 (ijk) branching is allowed in ground state.
ijk
= 0 (ijk) branching is not allowed in ground state.
3) Topological: (X) = (X
) if two string-nets X and X
has the
same topology. Freedman etal 03
4) Recoupling relation and 6j-symbol:
_
j i k
m
l
_
=
N
n=0
F
ijm
kln

_
j i k
l
n
_
Topological string-net condensation is described by a set of data
(N,
ijk
, F
ijm
kln
)
Pentagon identity
Not all sets (N,
ijk
, F
ijm
kln
) describe consistent string-net
condensation. Moore & Seiberg 89
_
_
j i k l
m
p
n
_
_
=
q
F
mkn
lpq

_
_
j i k l
m
p
q
_
_
=
q,s
F
mkn
lpq
F
ijm
qps
_
_
j i k l
p
q
s
_
_
_
_
j i k l
m
p
n
_
_
=
t
F
ijm
knt
_
_
j i k l
p
n
t
_
_
=
t,s
F
ijm
knt
F
itn
lps
_
_
j i k l
p
s
t
_
_
=
t,s,q
F
ijm
knt
F
itn
lps
F
jkt
lsq

_
_
j i k l
p
q
s
_
_
Pentagon identity (non-lin. alg. equ.):
t
F
ijm
knt
F
itn
lps
F
jkt
lsq
= F
ijm
knt
F
itn
lps
Tensor category and topological orders
A solution of pentagon identity (tensor category)
An ideal string-net condensed state
_ _
which is the exact ground state of a local Hamiltonian H.
The pentagon identity has many solutions
a large class of 2D topological orders F
ijm
kln
D
tor
, S, T, ..
[classify all the non-chiral topological orders D
disk
= 1 ]
Excitations in string-net condensed states
Charge excitations = ends of strings
Vortex excitations = modied string-net wave functions:
Z
2
state:
ground
= 1,
vortex pair
x
1
,x
2
(X) = ()
# of crossings
.
Z
2
topological order
N = 1,
000
=
110
= 1,
100
= 0 (only closed strings), F
ijm
kln

_ _
=
_ _
,
_ _
=
_ _
, (X) = 1
D
tor
= 4, 4 types of quasiparticles: boson,boson,boson,fermion
Eective theory: U(1) U(1) CS theory with K =
_
0 2
2 0
_
Doubled semion theory
N = 1,
000
=
110
= 1,
100
= 0 (only closed strings), F
ijm
kln

_ _
=
_ _
,
_ _
=
_ _
,
(X) = ()
# of loops
D
tor
= 4, 4 types of quasiparticles: boson,semion,semion,boson
Eective theory: U(1) U(1) CS theory with K =
_
2 0
0 2
_
Doubled Fibonacci theory
N = 1,
000
=
110
=
111
= 1,
100
= 0 (branched string-nets),
F
ijm
kln
leads to
_ _
=
_ _
_ _
=
1

_ _
+
1/2

_ _
_ _
=
1/2

_ _
1

_ _
where =
1+
5
2
Eective theory: SO
3
(3) SO
3
(3) Chern-Simons theory with
D
tor
= 4
Ends of open strings particles with non-Abelian statistics
Dierent string-net condensations dierent low energy gauge
theories and dierent statistics:
A unication of gauge theory and quantum statistics.
Summary
Topological order is really a pattern of long range entanglement.
Topological order can be measured/dened through some
topological quantum numbers, such as D
tor
, E
disk
n
, S, T ...
We demonstrate how to calculate topological order from some
ideal/trial wave functions.
We show that, for systems with some symmetries, there can be
even richer symmetry protected topological orders.
What are not covered:
How to calculate topological order from a generic ground wave
function?
How to calculate topological order from a generic
Lagrangian/Hamiltonian?
What is the mathematical frame work for chiral topological orders
with gapless edge states?
Topological order a rich world
(CFT)
Classification
of 3manifolds
High Tc
superconductor
Vertex Algebra
Herbertsmithite
ADS/CFT
Topological
Order =
Long range
entanglement
Lattice
gauge theory
Topological
quantum field
theory
Topological
quantum comp.
NonAbelian
Statistics
Spin
Category
liquid
Emergent
of zeros
gravity
Emergent
Pattern
Network
Tensor
photons & electrons
Edge state
Stringnet
condensation
Modular
Transformation
FQH
Numerical
Approach
Cont. trans. without
symm. breaking
Tensor

Xiao-Gang Wen - An Introduction of Topological Order

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An introduction of topological order

Xiao-Gang Wen, MIT

Low energy dynamics can be non-trivial if ground state degeneracy

()) can give raise to

is Abelian for topologically ordered states.

Hall viscosity. Read 08,Haldane 09

, and the low-energy eective theory has the form

We choose the eective Lagrangian L(A

) in such a way that

is really generated by U(x

and total ux quantum is 1/.

and total ux quantum is 1/.

charge-l excitation is described by

charge-l excitation carries electric charge Q = e

charge-l excitation generate a phase

charge-1 excitation: Q = e/m, = /m.

charge is quantized as integers.

/t = 0.5 1.1 X=Cu[N(CN)

) if two string-nets X and X

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