CARBOHYDRATES AS AN INFORMATION CARRIER

MOLECULE

(ASSIGNMENT#1 SPRING-2025)

Submission Date (January 27th, 2025)

BY

EMAN FATIMA

Roll No. 23011514-008

ZOO-466 (Biochemistry)

BS IV Section A

Submitted To

Prof. Dr. RAZIA IQBAL

Department of Zoology

UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S# CONTENTS PAGE

List of Figures................................................................................................................(ii)

(i)
 LIST OF FIGURES
S# FIGURES PAGE

1. Classification Summary and Example of Carbohydrates…………….………………1

2. Glycoproteins & Glycolipids……….………………………..………………………4

3. ………………………………………………5

4. ………………………………………………………….6

5. ……………………………
6. ………………………………………..10

(ii)
 CARBOHYDRATE AS AN INFORMATION CARRIER MOLECULES

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1.1 Carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates (sugars) can be defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones. The general formula for
carbohydrates is Cx(H2O)x, where x = 6 for hexose. Hydroxyl, aldehyde and ketone groups are potential
sites of reactions and modifications to produce carbohydrate derivatives.(Pelley,2012)

The main categories are:

Figure1: Classification summary and examples of carbohydrates.

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1.1.1Monosaccharides:

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This is the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. They cannot be hydrolyzed
into smaller carbohydrates.

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Consist of two monosaccharide molecules linked together by glycosidic bonds.

Disaccharides can be hydrolyzed into monosaccharide units. They include glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Polysaccharides can be linear or branched and have a variety of functions, such as energy storage and
support.

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Composed of 3 to 10 monosaccharide units.

They are found in nature as more complex molecules like glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Examples: stachyose.

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These are large, complex carbohydrates made up of more than 10 monosaccharide units.

Polysaccharides can be linear or branched and serve various functions like energy storage and structural
support.

Examples: starch, glycogen (energy storage), and cellulose (structural support in plants).
(Nelson&Cox,2017).

[Link] of Carbohydrates as Biomolecules:

Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules that play a vital role in living organisms, affecting a variety of
physiological and biochemical processes.

The primary functions of carbohydrates are:

[Link] of Energy:

Carbohydrates are the energy source of cells. Glucose is a monosaccharide that is used by cells in
processes such as glycolysis, producing ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Polysaccharides) are broken
down into glucose for quick energy.

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[Link] Storage:

It is stored in the liver and muscles and can be rapidly converted to glucose when needed.

[Link] Support:

Cellulose (in plants) and chitin (in fungi and arthropods) are polysaccharides that form the characteristic
components. Cellulose strengthens the cell wall, while chitin provides support for the exoskeleton. It
plays a role in cell signaling and cognition. It plays a role in the immune system, allowing cells to
distinguish between self and foreign. It is essential for processes such as immunity.

[Link] Protection:

Carbohydrates, such as aminoglycans (found in connective tissue), help protect and lubricate joints and
act as shock absorbers.

[Link] of Biological Functioning:

Carbohydrates help regulate metabolic processes, support the synthesis of nucleic acids, and maintain
osmotic pressure in cells and tissues.(Berg et al.,2015).

[Link] of Carbohydrates as Information Carrier Molecules:

Carbohydrates are increasingly recognized for their role in carrying and transmitting information. The
ability of carbohydrates to act as “messengers” is immense due to their unique structure and their
interactions with other biomolecules such as proteins and lipids.

[Link] of message carrier molecules:

In biology, message carrier molecules are molecules that play a role in the transmission or storage of
messages that affect the functioning of the cell. Carbohydrates exist in the form of glycans (sugar chains)
and play an important role in cell-to-cell communication, signaling, and cognition. Carbohydrate-protein
and carbohydrate-lipid complexes) play a role in cell recognition and signaling and are essential for
immunity, disease detection, and cell differentiation. A critical mutation is one that alters the structure or
stability of a protein and can affect receptor-ligand interactions. It acts as a messenger molecule in
biological interactions.

[Link]' Special Properties for Carrying Messages:

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Carbohydrates exhibit several unique properties that make them ideal for carrying messages in biological
systems:

[Link] Diversity:

Carbohydrates have a variety of different structures (branching, type of linkage, and sugar composition)
that allow for multiple signaling possibilities. The complexity of these structures allows them to encode
many types of data, like a "code."

[Link] Specificity: Carbohydrates have the ability to transmit specific biological signals by
binding specifically to certain proteins (lectins) or other carbohydrate structures. These interactions are
highly selective, which is important for processes such as the immune system.

2.2.3. Dynamic Modification:

This makes systems flexible and responsive to changing biological responses to environmental changes or
cellular needs.

[Link] memory:

Cells, pathogens, or signaling molecules important in processes such as immunity or inflammation.(Varki

[Link] and their role in signal transduction:

Glycoconjugates are molecules that contain carbohydrates (glycans) covalently attached to proteins or
lipids. These molecules are vital in biological systems, facilitating message transmission and
communication between cells. Glycoconjugates include glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans,
which are essential for a variety of cellular functions such as recognition, signaling, and
adhesion(Kornfeld & Kornfeld,1985).

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Definition:

Glycoproteins are proteins that contain carbohydrate groups attached to polypeptide chains. These
carbohydrate groups play an important role in determining the structure, stability, and function of
proteins. Role in information Transmission:

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The carbohydrate chains of glycoproteins can mediate interactions with other cells or molecules that
affect processes such as immunity, growth, and tissue formation. They also serve as receptors for a variety
of signaling molecules, allowing cells to communicate with and respond to their environment.

Example:

MHC Molecule:

Glycoproteins are important to the immune system because they help T cells recognize foreign pathogens.
The carbohydrate chains often play a key role in the receptor's ability to bind to its ligand and transmit
signals across cell membranes.

Figure [Link] & Glycolipids

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Structure:

Glycolipids consist of a lipid moiety (fatty acid chain) attached to one or more carbohydrate molecules.
They are found mostly in the plasma membrane of cells.

Function

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They play a role in cell-cell recognition, signaling, and adhesion. The carbohydrate portion of glycolipids
can interact with other cells or molecules and serve as cellular markers.

Role in Extra Cellular Signaling:

They serve as binding sites for certain proteins and other cellular components and facilitate processes
such as immunity, infection, and tumor formation.(Varki et al.,2015)

[Link] role of carbohydrates in cell-to-cell communication

Carbohydrates play an important role in cellular communication and affect many physiological processes
such as immunity, growth, and tissue formation. The interaction between the carbohydrate structure of the
cell membrane and other molecules or cells is essential for cell recognition, adhesion, and signaling. This
is especially important in the immune system, where cells must recognize and respond to pathogens or
foreign molecules.

[Link]-Mediated Cell Signaling Mechanism

Carbohydrate chains attached to proteins or lipids (glycoconjugates) participate in cellular signaling by

[Link]-of-signaling-pathways-involving-glycoconjugates-in-NCSs
Glycoconjugates

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[Link]
glycoconjugates-in-NCSs-Glycoconjugates_fig3_304492076

[Link] in Immune Response

Carbohydrates in glycoproteins and glycolipids play an important role in the immune response. The
immune system, such as macrophages and dendritic cells, uses carbohydrate recognition to identify and
bind to pathogens, triggering the immune system. For example, the glycosylation pattern of a cell surface
protein can determine whether the immune system recognizes self and nonself, thus preventing
autoimmunity. Carbohydrates also aid the immune system, bringing the immune system to the site of
infection or pain.(Drickamer & Taylor, 2015)

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Figure4 Schematic representation of the immune response to polysaccharides (A) and
glycoconjugates (B).

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fcimb.2021.808005/full

Example: Lectins and carbohydrate recognition:

Lectins are proteins that specifically bind to carbohydrate structures. Lectin-carbohydrate interactions are
important for immune function, cell adhesion, and inflammation.

Example:

Selectins :

A lectin that plays a role in leukocyte trafficking during inflammation.

Mannose binding Lectin:

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It recognizes mannose residues in bacteria.

C type Lectin:

Activates the body's immune system.(Varki et al.,2015)

[Link] in Pathogen Host Interactions:

During the recognition and adhesion process. Many pathogens, including bacteria and viruses, use
carbohydrate-binding proteins (lectins) to recognize specific carbohydrate patterns on the cell surface,
thereby facilitating infection. The interaction between cellular carbohydrates and bacterial protein
synthesis is essential for the formation of bacteria and the development of disease .

[Link] in pathogen recognition (e.g. viruses and bacteria bind to host cells)

Carbohydrates on the surface of cells serve as binding sites for pathogens, causing them to adhere to
tissues. This adhesion is often the first step in the spread of infection. Pathogens such as bacteria and
viruses use specific carbohydrate motifs found on host cells to facilitate their entry and colonization.

[Link] Infection:

The unique carbohydrate structure of cells interacts with the cell surface. For example, Helicobacter
pylori binds to Lewis antigens on the stomach lining, allowing infection to occur.(López & Zúñiga, 2016).

[Link] Infection:

Similarly, many viruses, such as the common cold, can activate the virus by recognizing and binding to
sialic acid residues on the surface of cell membranes.

Examples of Carbohydrate-Protein Interactions in Disease:

Carbohydrate-protein interactions are important in disease and infection. Here are some examples of
interactions:

Bacterial lectins:

Escherichia coli (E. coli) has type 1 pili that recognize mannose residues on the surface of epithelial cells,
which leads to adhesions and urinary tract infections. (Urinary tract infections).(López & Zúñiga, 2016).

Viral Lectin:

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(HIV) recognizes the CD4 receptor using the gp120 protein, which helps the virus enter T cells. These
carbohydrate tags are usually found on glycoproteins and glycolipids and play a role in cell
communication and interactions (Liu & Liu, 2019).

[Link] in Cell Recognition and Differentiation:

Carbohydrates in the cell membrane serve as markers that allow cells to recognize each other. This
information is essential for processes such as immune function, tissue development, and embryogenesis.
Carbohydrate signatures help distinguish self from non-self cells, ensuring appropriate immune responses
and tissue differentiation. Act to influence the development of specific cells.(Varki et al., 2015)

6.1. Example of the ABO blood group system:

The ABO blood group system is an example of carbohydrates acting as molecular markers. ABO blood
groups are determined by the presence or absence of specific carbohydrate antigens on red blood cells:

Type A: Has the A antigen (N-acetylgalactosamine).

Type B: Has B antigen (galactose).

Type O: Has neither A nor B antigens.

Type AB: Has both A and B antigens. important(Daniels, 2013).

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[Link] in biotechnology and drug manufacturing:

Carbohydrates are used in biotechnology to produce proteins, transduce enzymes, and target drug
delivery. Glycans (sugar chains) attached to proteins play an important role in protein folding, stability,
and function. In drug development, carbohydrate-based molecules are being investigated for therapeutic
purposes, particularly in cancer treatment, where carbohydrate targeting can help deliver drugs selectively
to tumor cells. (Kornfeld & Kornfeld, 2011).

[Link] in vaccine production (e.g. glycoconjugate vaccines):

Carbohydrates form the basis for the production of glycoconjugate vaccines, which are effective in
preventing diseases. In glycoconjugate vaccines, polysaccharides (carbohydrates) are combined with
protein carriers to enhance the immune response and increase disease resistance. An example is the

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Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib) vaccine, which uses conjugated polysaccharides derived from
bacteria to protect against infection.(Plested, 2016).

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