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Human behavior can be de�ned as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs.

Motivation is the force that causes a person to move toward a goal. It is the greatest in�uence
on learning.

Motivations may be:

• Positive or negative
• Tangible or intangible
• Obvious or subtle and di�cult to identify

Human needs are the things that humans require for normal growth and development.

1. Physiological (Biological)
2. Safety and Security
3. Love/Belonging (Social)
4. Self-Esteem (Egoistic)
5. Self-Actualization (Self-Ful�llment)

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Defense mechanisms are subconscious defenses against the realities of unpleasant

situations.

“Dr, Dr, CPR Fast“

• Denial: Refusing to admit a truth (a form of repression).

• Repression: Placing uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the mind.
• Displacement: Taking anger out on someone else.
• Rationalization: Justifying unacceptable actions.
• Compensation: Hiding weaknesses by emphasizing strengths in other areas.
• Projection: Blaming others.
• Reaction Formation: Faking a belief opposite to the actual belief.
• Fantasy: Daydreaming.

• Anxiety
• Feelings of unfair treatment
• Impatience
• Worry or lack of interest
• Apathy due to inadequate instruction
• Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration

Stress is a term to describe the body’s response to demands placed on it.

Normal individuals react to stress by:

• Becoming extremely sensitive to their surroundings.

• Responding rapidly, often automatically, within their experience and training.

Abnormal responses to stress include:

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• Severe anger at the instructor or others.

• Inappropriate laughter or singing.
• Marked changes in mood on different lessons.
• Actions that are random or illogical.

Anxiety is a reaction to stress that produces a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease.

Adverse responses to anxiety include:

• A hesitancy or inability to act.

• An impulse to do something quickly.

Adverse responses to anxiety can be countered by:

• Reinforcing the learner’s enjoyment of �ying.

• Treating fears as a normal reaction rather than ignoring them.
• Introducing new maneuvers with care.

An instructor who believes a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect should get a
second opinion from another instructor. If both instructors agree, endorsements and
recommendations should be withheld.

Hazardous behaviors that affect airmen certi�cation should be reported to the local FSDO.

Learning theory is a body of principles that explain how people acquire knowledge, skills, and
attitudes.

Behaviorism suggests that learning occurs by having behaviors reinforced or controlled

(stimulus and response).

Learning Models in Behaviorism

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Classical conditioning is learning that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired (e.g.,
Pavlov’s dog).

Operant conditioning modi�es behaviors through reward or punishment (reinforcement).

Cognitivism focuses on what is going on inside the mind (e.g., problem-solving and decision-
making).

Learning Models in Cognitivism

Information processing theory compares the brain to a computer as a model for learning. Both
process incoming information, store it, and retrieve it.

Constructivism states that learners must actively build or construct knowledge and skills
based on past experiences.

Social learning occurs by observing, imitating, and modeling the actions of others.

Four stages of social learning:

1. Attention: Observing others.

2. Retention: Remembering an observed behavior.
3. Reproduction: Producing an observed behavior.
4. Motivation: Deciding to reproduce an observed behavior.

Perceptions occur when a person gives meaning to the information received from one or more
of the �ve bodily senses.

Insight is the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. It occurs when something is
understood.

G-STEP

• Goals and Values: Beliefs shape learning experiences.

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• Self-Concept: A favorable self-image makes one more receptive to new experiences.

• Time and Opportunity: Learning takes time.
• Element of Threat: Fear limits perceptiveness.
• Physical Organism: The body affects one’s ability to detect and interpret information.

MUA

1. Memorization: Memorizing facts.

2. Understanding: Facts are organized. Similarities and associations can be made.
3. Application: Using the knowledge to solve problems and make decisions.

REEPIR

• Readiness: People learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready.
• Effect: Learning is strengthened when associated with pleasant experiences.
• Exercise: Things repeated (practiced) are best remembered.
• Primacy: Things learned �rst often create strong and unshakable impressions. What is
taught must be taught right the �rst time.
• Intensity: Exciting learning experiences teach more than routine or dull experiences.
• Recency: Things most recently learned are best remembered.

• Right Brain/Left Brain (Analytical/Creative)

• Holistic/Serialistic (Top-Down/Bottom-Up)
• Visual/Auditory/Kinesthetic/Tactile (VAKT)
• Index of Learning Styles:
◦ Active/Re�ective
◦ Sensing/Intuitive
◦ Visual/Verbal
◦ Sequential/Global

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Cognitive (Thinking) – (RUAC)

1. Rote (De�ning)
2. Understanding (Explaining)
3. Application (Solving)
4. Correlation (Comparing)

Affective (Feeling)

1. Receiving (Awareness)
2. Responding (Reacting)
3. Valuing (Accepting)
4. Organization (Rearranging)
5. Characterization (Integrating)

Psychomotor (Doing)

1. Observation (Watching)
2. Imitation (Copying)
3. Practice (Gaining Pro�ciency)
4. Habit (Automation)

RAMP

• Result of Experience: Learning is an individual process; the instructor cannot do it for the
learner.
• Active Process: Knowledge is retained better when combined with hands-on activities.
• Multifaceted: The learning process may involve verbal, conceptual, perceptual, and
elements of problem-solving, all taking place at once.
• Purposeful: Everyone has speci�c intentions and goals.

CAAR

1. Cognitive: Memorizing the required steps.

2. Associative: Muscles are coordinated with visual and tactile senses through practice.

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3. Automatic Response: It is possible to do things simultaneously. Performance is rapid and

smooth.

Learning is rapid early in training but tends to slow down. This is called a learning plateau.

Deliberate: Practicing speci�c areas for improvement with brief instructor feedback.

Blocked: Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. It results in good
short-term performance but poorer long-term learning.

Random: Mixing up practice skills in random order. This helps to recognize similarities and
differences.

SBT is a type of problem-based learning (PBL). It uses “real-world” scenarios to meet training
objectives. The instructor serves as a mentor and coach to foster the development of
aeronautical decision-making (ADM) skills.

• Slips (errors of action)

• Mistakes (errors of thought)

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• Learning and Practicing

• Taking Time
• Checking for Errors (e.g., “check your work”)
• Using Reminders (e.g., checklists)
• Developing Routines (e.g., standardized operating procedures)
• Raising Awareness (e.g., when rushed or fatigued)

Sensory: Receives information from the environment and processes it. Extraneous information
is discarded.

Short-Term: Where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds. It is also called working or
“scratch-pad” memory because information is put to use.

Long-Term: The relatively permanent storage of unlimited information.

Praise Stimulates Remembering: Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated.

Association Promotes Recall: Each bit of information or action, which is associated with
something to be learned, tends to facilitate its recall.

Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention: Without motivation, there is little chance for recall.

Learning with All Senses is Most Effective: A better understanding and chance of recall are
achieved when several senses work together.

Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall: Repetitions allow the learner to gain a more accurate
perception of the subject. 3 or 4 repetitions provide the maximum effect.

Retrieval Failure: The inability to retrieve information (“tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon).

Fading: If a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period, it fades away.

Interference: People forget something because a particular experience overshadowed it or the

learning of similar things has intervened.

Repression or Suppression: A bad memory is pushed out of reach. Repression is unconscious,

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suppression is conscious.

• Positive: When learning one skill aids in learning another skill.

• Negative: When a previously learned skill interferes with learning a new skill.

Communication is the continuous, two-way exchange of information for conveying ideas or

feelings.

Effective communication takes place when the receivers react with understanding and change
their behavior accordingly.

SSR

• Source: The sender, speaker, or writer.

• Symbols: The words or gestures used.
• Receiver: The listener or reader.

Effectiveness communicators:

• Select symbols that are meaningful to the receiver.

• Display a positive attitude when delivering the message.
• Use accurate, up-to-date, and stimulating material.

Three characteristics of receivers need to be understood:

• Their viewpoint and background

• Their willingness to listen or learn

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• Their past experiences and motivations

COIL

Confusion Between the Symbol and Symbolized Object: Words and symbols do not always
represent the same thing to every person. Some words may transfer with their intended
meaning.

Overuse of Abstractions: Abstract words may not evoke items in the listener’s mind that the
communicator intends. Concrete (speci�c) words should be used.

Interference (External Factors): A breakdown in the communication cycle.

Types of interference:

• Physiological (e.g., hearing loss, injury, or physical illness)

• Environmental (e.g., unfamiliar noises, vibrations, or smells)
• Psychological (e.g., feelings of mistrust or a lack of commitment to the communication
process)

Lack of Common Experience: The greatest barrier to communication. Instructors cannot use
the same dialogue with pilots of different experience levels.

LIQIR

Listening is more than hearing. Hearing is a passive but constant process. Listening is an
active process (hearing with comprehension).

Effective listeners:

• Take notes.
• Maintain eye contact.
• Listen for the main ideas.
• Guard against daydreaming.
• Listen to understand rather than refute.

Instructional communication is used to inform the listeners in the teaching-learning process. It

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requires the instructor to be knowledgeable and con�dent.

Instructors perform better when speaking of something they know very well. Examples of past
experiences should be shared to illustrate particular points.

Questioning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught. It also
shows the learner that the instructor is paying attention and is interested in the response.

An instructor should ask open-ended questions (“why” or “how”) and avoid closed-ended
questions (“yes” or “no”).

Instructional enhancement states that the more knowledgeable the instructor is, the more
con�dent, engaging, and productive he or she will be at conveying it.

Professional development opportunities for aviation instructors include seminars, professional

organizations, and online courses.

Role-playing can give Instructor applicants experience in instructional communication. The

instructor applicant takes the role of the instructor and is responsible for teaching his or her
colleagues as if they were learners.

PAMS

• People Skills: Communicate clearly, motivate learners, and adapt to their needs.
• Assessment Skills: Provide guidance, suggestions for improvement, and positive
reinforcement.
• Management Skills: Plan, organize, lead, and supervise.
• Subject Matter Expertise (SME): Have expertise in aviation and teaching.

1. Establish the training objectives.

2. Organize the material into a logical sequence.
3. Determine if instructional aids should be used.
4. Develop learning activities.
5. Plan an assessment method.

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�. Create a realistic timeline.

7. Plan for lesson closure.

• Performance-Based: Describe precisely what needs to be done and how it is done.

• Decision-Based: Promote critical thinking skills (e.g., risk management).

Performance-based objectives consist of:

• Description: An explanation of the skill or behavior to be learned.

• Conditions: The rules (e.g., “using no more than 5° of bank”).
• Criteria: The standards (e.g., “within ±100′”).

Introduction

• Attention: Grabs attention (e.g., a story).

• Motivation: Provokes a desire to learn.
• Overview: A glimpse of what is to be covered.

Development

Main points should be organized:

• From the past to the present.

• From the simple to the complex.
• From the known to the unknown.
• From the most frequently used to the least frequently used.

Conclusion

The conclusion reviews the main points and relates them to the objectives. It also links the
knowledge gained to future lessons.

P-PAR

1. Preparation

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2. Presentation
3. Application
4. Review and Assessment

• Lecture:
◦ Illustrated Talk
◦ Brie�ng
◦ Formal Lecture
◦ Informal Lecture
◦ Teaching Lecture
• Discussion:
◦ Guided Discussion
• Electronic Learning:
◦ Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL)
◦ Simulation or Role-Playing
• Cooperative or Group Learning
• Demonstration-Performance
• Drill and Practice

• Lead-Off: Opens up the discussion. They usually begin with “how” or “why.”
• Follow-up: Asked to further guide the discussion further.
• Overhead: Directed to the entire group.
• Rhetorical: Spurs thought, but the instructor provides the answer.
• Direct: Asked to a speci�c individual.
• Reverse: The instructor redirects a learner’s question to another learner.
• Relay: A reverse question that is redirected to the group instead of an individual.

PBL is a teaching strategy that confronts learners with problems that are encountered in real
life.

Types of PBL:

• Scenario-Based Training (SBT)

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• Collaborative Problem-Solving
• Case Studies

1. Establish the learning objectives.

2. Research the subject and gather supporting materials.
3. Organize the material into a logical learning sequence.
4. Determine what ideas should be supported with instruction aids.

• Traditional (written) or Authentic (scenario-based)

• Formal (documented) or Informal (casual)
• Formative (ungraded review) or Summative (periodic measurements of course progress)
• Norm-Referenced (performance is compared against other learners) or Criterion-
Referenced (performance is compared to an established standard)

A proper assessment:

• Contributes to learning.
• Reveals the quality of instruction.
• Highlights strong and weak areas.
• Indicates if the learning objectives were met.

FAST COCO

• Flexible: Fits the learner and the occasion.

• Acceptable: The learner must �rst accept the instructor to accept the critique.
• Speci�c: Guidance should be clear and concise.
• Thoughtful: It should not ridicule or anger the learner.
• Comprehensive: Covers both strengths and weaknesses.

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• Objective: Does not re�ect the instructor’s opinions or preferences.

• Constructive: Bene�ts the learner.
• Organized: Logical and makes sense to the learner.

Traditional assessments:

• Generally refer to written tests.

• Evaluate rote and understanding levels of learning.
• Are instructor-centered.
• Use a traditional grading system (e.g., “95%”).

DR COVU

• Discrimination: Small differences can be measured between learners or the course

objectives.
• Reliability: Yields consistent results.
• Comprehensiveness: Samples a good cross-section of all the knowledge being measured.
• Objectivity: Can be graded consistently.
• Validity: Measures the achievement of lesson objectives and nothing else.
• Usability: Easy to give, read, and grade.

1. Determine Level-of-Learning Objectives

2. List Indicators/Samples of Desired Behaviors
3. Establish Criterion (Performance-Based) Objectives
4. Develop Criterion-Referenced Assessment Items

Authentic assessments:

• Focus on real-world tasks in “authentic” settings.

• Evaluate the application and correlation levels of learning.

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• Are learner-centered, focusing on learning more than grading.

• Use a rubric with de�ned levels for grading (e.g., describe, explain, practice, perform).

The collaborative assessment is an example of an authentic assessment method. It is used

during post-�ight debrie�ngs and consists of four steps: replay, reconstruct, re�ect, and
redirect.

• Instructor/Learner: A joint or group discussion.

• Instructor-Led: An instructor critiques a learner’s performance.
• Learner-Led: The learner leads the assessment.
• Small-Group: Small groups analyze information and then present their �ndings to the class.
• Critique by Another Learner: The instructor requires another learner to present a critique.
• Self: A learner critiques a personal performance.
• Written: Notes help the instructor recall details of the lesson, and the learner can get a copy
to refer to later.

Objective: Have only one correct answer (e.g., who, what, when, or where).

Open-Ended: Statements that implicitly ask for completion (e.g., why or how).

• Center on one idea.

• Present a challenge.
• Apply to the subject of instruction.
• Are brief and concise, but also clear.
• Are adapted to the learner’s abilities and experiences.

• “Yes” or “No”: Questions that require a short answer.

• Toss-Up: Questions with two viable options.
• Puzzling: Questions with many parts (puzzle pieces) that must be assembled before they
can be understood.
• Oversize: Questions that are too broad.
• Bewildering: Questions that are hard to read or understand.

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• Trick: Questions that are designed to be misleading.

• Irrelevant: Questions that are unrelated to the learning objective.

The building-block concept means that new learning is based on existing knowledge and
experience. Learners progressively combine, or “stack,” new knowledge and skills.

The building-block concept can be implemented in three steps:

1. Determine the training objectives.

2. Identify blocks of learning within the training objectives.
3. Arrange the blocks of learning in a logical sequence.

A training syllabus can:

• Ensure that training is accomplished in a logical sequence.

• Act as a checklist to ensure that the required training has been completed.
• Help in the development of lesson plans.

A lesson plan can:

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• Keep the instructor on track.

• Give inexperienced instructors con�dence.
• Ensure that important points are not overlooked.
• Organize content in an e�cient learning sequence.
• Promote consistent instruction.
• Be useful for recordkeeping.

FIRCUPS

• Flexibility: Adaptable.
• Instructional Steps: Fits the four steps of the teaching process.
• Relation to Course of Training: Clearly re�ects the overall training goals.
• Content: Contains new material and a review.
• Unity: Has a limited number of connected objectives.
• Practicality: Planned for the situation.
• Scope: Covers the right amount of material.

A good scenario:

• Has a clear set of objectives.

• Appeals to the learner (it involves something the learner would do when training is
complete).
• Incorporates as many training tasks as possible.
• Has more than one correct answer.
• Does not have an obvious solution.
• Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
• Requires the learner to make decisions.

To be realistic, a �ight scenario must have:

• A purpose (reason to go).

• Consequences if the mission is not completed.

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1. Identify the learning objectives (preferably decision-based).

2. Decide on a format (ground or �ight).
3. Devise a situation (a script) that leads to the desired learning outcomes.
4. Incorporate as many training tasks as possible.
5. Incorporate a problem that the learner will need to resolve.
�. Identify the trigger event (beginning of the scenario).
7. Plan transitions between the scenario and traditional learning and vice-versa.
�. Identify decision points and key areas for feedback and learner re�ection.
9. Identify positive and negative outcomes (success and failure).

• Helping Learners Learn:

◦ Make Learning Enjoyable
◦ Make Learning Bene�cial
◦ Make Learning Interesting
◦ Set Measurable Standards
• Providing Adequate Instruction:
◦ Tailored Instruction
◦ Slow and Fast Learners
◦ Awareness of Errors
◦ Instructor Development
• Demanding Standards of Performance:
◦ Minimal Testing Standards
◦ Striving for Excellence
• Emphasizing the Positive:
◦ Instructor’s In�uence
◦ Make First Lessons Enjoyable
◦ Introduce Emergency Procedures with Care
◦ Be Flexible with Instructional Methods
• Minimizing Learner Frustrations:

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◦ Motivate Learners
◦ Keep Learners Informed
◦ Approach Learners as Individuals
◦ Give Credit when Due
◦ Criticize Constructively
◦ Be Consistent
◦ Admit Errors
• Ensuring Aviation Safety:
◦ Role-Models

• Physiological Obstacles for Flight Learners:

◦ Unfamiliar Environments and Sensations
◦ Motion Sickness
• Ensuring Learner Skill Set:
◦ Skill Requirements for Solo Flight
◦ Limitations on Instructors Authorizing Solo Flight
◦ Presolo Written Exams
◦ Limitations on Solo Flight Privileges
• Endorsements and Recommendations:
◦ Knowledge Tests
◦ Practical Test Recommendations
◦ Retesting After Failure
◦ Endorsements
• Evaluation of Learner Piloting Ability:
◦ Demonstrated Ability
◦ Keep Learners Informed
• Emphasizing Safety of Flight Practices:
◦ See and Avoid Responsibility
◦ Proper Checklist Usage

Professionalism:

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• Is an attitude.
• Exists only when a service is performed.
• Is based on study and research.
• Demands a code of conduct/ethics.
• Is achieved only after extended training and preparation.
• Requires the ability to make good judgment decisions and reason logically.

• Sincerity (Genuineness)
• Acceptance (Warmth)
• Personal Appearance (“Dress for Success”)
• Personal Habits (Tendencies)
• Demeanor (Outward Behaviors)
• Proper Language (No Profanity)

• Make safety the number one priority.

• Develop and exercise good judgment.
• Recognize and manage risk effectively.
• Be accountable for his or her actions.
• Act with responsibility and courtesy.
• Adhere to prudent operating practices.
• Adhere to applicable laws and regulations.

• Continuing Education: Seminars, workshops, and the WINGS program.

• Re�ective Teaching: Self-critiquing teaching practices to increase their effectiveness.
• Library: Current procedures and publications.
• Additional Ratings: Additional category and class ratings or the Gold Seal Flight Instructor
Certi�cate.
• Industry Organizations: Those that provide education, training, or networking opportunities.

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1. Instructor Explanations
2. Instructor Demonstrations
3. Learner Performance and Instructor Supervision
4. Instructor Evaluation

1. Preparation (Instructor Explanations)

2. Instructor Tells–Instructor Does
3. Learner Tells–Instructor Does
4. Learner Tells–Learner Does
5. Learner Does–Instructor Evaluates

The main difference between the demonstration-performance method and the telling-and-doing
technique is step three (learner tells–instructor does).

1. “You have the �ight controls.”

2. “I have the �ight controls.”
3. “You have the �ight controls.”

The sterile cockpit rule (14 CFR 121.542) requires air carrier pilots to refrain from nonessential
activities during critical phases of �ight.

GA pilots can adopt the rule for safety. Critical phases of �ight for light aircraft can be de�ned
as 2,500′ AGL or at any altitude within 10 minutes of landing.

To provide training for in�ight distractions, instructors can:

• Discuss a topic unrelated to the �ight that the learner enjoys.

• Ask the learner to obtain an in�ight weather update through onboard electronics.
• Ask the learner to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
• Ask the learner to identify a �eld suitable for a forced landing.

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Distractions should not be used during the initial stages of learning a new skill.

Integrated �ight instruction occurs when learners are taught to perform �ight maneuvers both
by outside (visual) and inside (instrument) references from the �rst time each maneuver is
introduced.

At least 90% of the pilot’s attention should be devoted to outside visual references and tra�c
scanning.

Assessment determines how well a learner is progressing. A well-designed assessment

provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build.

First Solo Flight

To endorse a student for solo �ight, the instructor must determine that the learner is quali�ed
and pro�cient in all maneuvers and procedures required by 14 CFR 61.87. The instructor bases
this assessment on the learner’s ability to demonstrate consistent pro�ciency in the �ight
maneuvers.

Demonstrated Ability

The assessment of aeronautical skills is based on established performance standards, suitably

modi�ed to �t the learner’s experience level and stage of training.

Correction of Learner Errors

Correction of learner errors does not include the practice of taking over from learners
immediately when a mistake is made. When safety permits, it is better to let learners progress
part of the way into the mistake and �nd a way out.

Keeping Learners Informed

Flight instructors should keep learners informed of their progress. This may be done as each
procedure or maneuver is completed or summarized during post�ight critiques.

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ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine
the best course of action in response to a given set of circumstances.

Analytical: Requires time to evaluate options. The DECIDE model is one method.

Automatic (Naturalistic): Requires a quick decision at the cost of accuracy. It is typically used
during emergencies.

1. De�ne the problem.

2. Choose a course of action.
3. Implement the decision and evaluate the outcome.

• Anti-Authority: “Follow the rules. They are usually right.”

• Impulsivity: “Not so fast, think �rst.”
• Invulnerability: “It could happen to me.”
• Macho: “Taking chances is foolish.”
• Resignation: “I’m not helpless. I can make a difference.”

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