2 module

Basic psychological process

 Perception meaning

• The ability to see, hear, or become aware of

something through the senses.

• The way in which something is regarded,

understood, or interpreted
 What is perception????
• “It is process by which individuals interpret &
organize their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment”.
• perception is equated with reality for
most practical purposes and guides human
behavior in general.
 Why perception is important in the
study of OB?????
• “People’s behavior is based on their
perception of wht reality is, not on reality
itself”. The world as it is perceived is the
world that is behaviorally important.
 Factors that influence perception
• External factors
• Internal factors
 External factors

External factors are related to environment

• Size
• Intensity
• Repetition
• Novelty & familiarity
• Contrast
• Motion
 Internal factors

Related to individuals complex psychological make

up
• Self concept
• Beliefs
• Expectations
• Inner needs
• Response disposition
• Response Salience
• Perceptual defence
 Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
Factors in the situation • Experiences
• Time • Expectations
• Work setting
• Social setting
perception

Factors in the target

• Novelty
• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
 Attribution theory

• It explains the ways in which we judge people

differently depending on the meaning we attribute
to a given behavior.

• “Attribution theory is an attempt to determine

whether an individual's behavior is internally
or externally caused”.
 Continu……….
• Determination depends on three factors

I. Distinctiveness:- whether an individual displays different

behaviors in different situations.

II. Consensus:-if everyone who faces similar situation responds in

the same way, we can say the behavior shows consensus.

III. Consistency:-person’s action. Does the person respond the same

way over time?
 Fundamental attribution error
• Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to
underestimate the influence of external factors &
overestimate the influence of internal factors when
making judgments abt the behavior of others .

• Self serving bias:-the tendency for the individuals to

attribute their own successes to internal factors & put
the blame for failures on external factors
Frequently used shortcuts in judging others

• Selective perception:- the tendency to selectively interpret wht one

sees on the basis of one’s interests ,background, experience &
attitudes.
• Halo effect:- the tendency to draw a general impression abt an an
individual on the basis of a single characteristic.
• Contrast effects:- evaluation of a person's characteristics that is
affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered
who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics
• Stereotyping:- judging someone on the basis of
one’s perception of the group to which that
person belongs.
• Profiling:-a form of stereotyping in which a
group of individuals is singled out-typically on the
basis of race or ethnicity-for intensive
inquiry,scrutiny,or investigation
 Specific applications of shortcuts in
org
• Employment interview

• Performance expectations

• Performance evaluations
• Self- fulfilling prophecy:-a situation in which
a person inaccurately perceives a second
person,& the resulting expectations cause the
second person to behave in ways consistent
with the original perception
 Link b/w perception & individual
decision making
• Decisions:- choice made from among two or
more alternatives.

• Problem:-a discrepancy b/w the current state

of affairs & some desired state
 Learning
• Learning is defined as “any relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of practice
and experience”. This definition has three important
elements.
• a. Learning is a change in behavior—better or worse.
• b. It is a change that takes place through practice or
experience, but changes due to growth or maturation
are not learning.
• c. This change in behavior must be relatively
permanent, and it must last a fairly long time.
• All learning involves activities. These activities
involve either physical or mental activities. They
may be simple mental activities or complex,
involving various muscles, bones, etc. So also the
mental activities may be very simple involving
one or two activities of mind or complex which
involve higher mental activities.
• What activities are learned by the individual refer
to types of learning. For example, habits, skills,
facts, etc.
 Learning
• Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential
behavior as a result of direct or indirect experience. There are two primary elements
in this definition:

• the change must be relatively permanent. This means that after "learning" our
behavior must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behavior prior
to this learning experience. For example you "learn" to drive a car or have learned
how to use a computer. this change must occur due to some kind of experience or
practice.

• This learning is not caused by biological maturation. For example a child does not
learn to walk, it is a natural biological phenomenon. We do not learn to eat or drink.
 Learning defined
• Relatively enduring change in the behavior
brought abt as a consequence of experience.

• Measurable and relatively

permanent change in behavior through experience
, instruction, or study.
• Stephen P Robbins - "Learning is any
relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of experience".
 Types of Learning

• Motor learning:
• Verbal learning
• Concept learning
• Discrimination learning
• Learning of principles
• Problem solving
• Attitude learning
• Motor learning: Most of our activities in our day-to-days life refer
to motor activities. The individual has to learn them in order to
maintain his regular life, for example walking, running, skating,
driving, climbing, etc. All these activities involve the muscular
coordination.

• Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the language

we speak, the communication devices we use. Signs, pictures,
symbols, words, figures, sounds, etc., are the tools used in
such activities. We use words for communication.
• Concept learning: It is the form of learning which requires higher
order mental processes like thinking, reasoning, intelligence, etc. we
learn different concepts from childhood. For example, when we see
a dog and attach the term ‘dog’, we learn that the word dog refers to
a particular animal. Concept learning involves two processes, viz.
abstraction and generalization. This learning is very useful in
recognizing, identifying things.
• Discrimination learning: Learning to differentiate between
stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is
called discrimination learning. Example, sound horns of
different vehicles like bus, car, ambulance, etc.
• Learning of principles: Individuals learn certain principles
related to science, mathematics, grammar, etc. in order to
manage their work effectively. These principles always show
the relationship between two or more concepts. Example:
formulae, laws, associations, correlations, etc.
• Problem solving: This is a higher order learning process. This
learning requires the use of cognitive abilities-such as
thinking, reasoning, observation, imagination, generalization,
etc. This is very useful to overcome difficult problems
encountered by the people.
• Attitude learning: Attitude is a predisposition which determines
and directs our behavior. We develop different attitudes from our
childhood about the people, objects and everything we know. Our
behavior may be positive or negative depending upon our
attitudes. Example: attitudes of nurse towards her profession,
patients, etc.
• the motivation of the learner; the more learners are motivated,
the more they will learn(reason or purpose for learning)
• the right stimulus (in the form of knowledge, skills, or attitudes)
presented in an engaging and interactive manner (teaching)
• opportunities to test your learning (application of learning)
• feedback on the performance, including guidance for wrong
responses and reinforcement of the right responses (feedback and
reinforcement to complete the learning cycle)
• rewards for mastering the subject by passing a final exam (extrinsic
rewards that improve motivation)
 DETERMINANTS OF LEARNING
• Motive
• Stimuli
• Generalization
• Discrimination
• . Responses
• Reinforcement
• Retention
 Motive
• Motives also called drives, prompt people to
action. They are primary energizers of behavior..
They are largely subjective and represent the
mental feelings of human beings. They are
cognitive variables. They arise continuously and
determine the general direction of an individual's
behavior without motive learning cannot occur.
• Stimuli: Stimuli are objects that exist in the environment in which a
person lives. Stimuli increase the probability of eliciting a specific
response from a person.
• 3. Generalization: The principle of generalization has important
implications for human learning. Generalization takes place when
the similar new stimuli repeat in the environment. When two stimuli
are exactly alike, they will have probability of eliciting specific
response. It makes possible for a manager to predict human behavior
when stimuli are exactly alike.
• Discrimination: What is not generalization is
discrimination. In case of discrimination, responses vary to
different stimuli.

• . Responses: The stimulus results in responses - be these in

the physical form or in terms of attitudes or perception or in
other phenomena. However, the responses need to be
operationally defined and preferably physically observable.
• Reinforcement: Reinforcement is a fundamental conditioning of learning.
Reinforcement can be defined as anything that both increases the strength
of response and tends to induce repetitions of behavior that preceded the
reinforcement. No measurable modification of behavior can take place
without reinforcement.

• Retention: Retention means remembrance of learned behavior overtime.

Converse is forgetting. Learning which is forgotten over time is called
"extinction". When the response strength returns after extinction without
only intervening reinforcement it is called "spontaneous recovery".
 Theories of Learning

• Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why

they learn. They have conducted many experiments on animals
and children and come to certain definite conclusions which
explain the modes of learning.
 THEORIES OF LEARNING

• Classical conditioning theory

• Operant conditioning theory

• Cognitive learning theory

• Social learning theory

 Learning by Conditioning

• In literal sense, conditioning means ‘getting

used’ to, or ‘adjusted ‘to a new situation, or a
stimulus. It is a process of substituting the
original stimulus by a new one and connecting
the response with it. There are two types of
conditioning theories:
• Classical conditioning:
• Operant conditioning
 Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is one of the simplest

forms of learning yet it has a powerful effect
on our attitudes, likes and dislikes, and
emotional responses. We have all learned to
respond in specific ways to a variety of words
and symbols.
• This method of conditioning got its name from
the fact that, it is a kind of learning situation
that existed in the early classical experiments
of Ivan P Pavlov (1849-1936), Russian
physiologist who was awarded Nobel Prize, in
1904 for his experiments
• Pavlov designed an apparatus to measure the quantity of
saliva produced in response to food (meat power). At the
beginning of his experiment Pavlov noted that no saliva
flowed when he rang the bell. He then trained the dog by
sounding the bell, and shortly afterwards presenting food.
• After the sound of the bell had been paired with food a
few times, he tested the effects of the training by
measuring the amount of saliva that flowed when he rang
the bell and did not present food. He found that some
saliva was produced in response to the sound of the bell
alone. He then resumed the training-paired presentation of
bell and food a few times and then tested again with the
bell alone.
• As the training continued, the amount of saliva on
tests with the bell alone increased. Thus, after
training the dog’s mouth watered-salivated-
whenever the bell was sounded. This is what was
learned; it is the conditioned response.
• This theory states that CS (bell) becomes a
substitute after pairing with UCS (food) and
acquires the capacity to elicit a response. It is
because the association (conditioning) is formed
between CS and UCS
 Sub-principles of Classical
Conditioning:
• Extinction and spontaneous recovery: Extinction means
cessation of a response. The strength of the CS gradually
decreases when it is presented alone and not followed by UCS
for a number of trails. This process is called ‘extinction’. In
this experiment when only bell is presented without food for a
number of trials, the dog stopped salivation gradually.
• But when the CS (bell) was paired again with UCS (food) for
some trials, the CR (salivation) recovered. This is known as
‘spontaneous recovery’. In spontaneous recovery the dog
required less number of trials than the first time, because the
association between CS and UCS still existed in the brain of
the animal.
 Stimulus generalization:
• A tendency to respond to a stimulus which is
similar to original one is called stimulus
generalization, the greater the similarity, the
more the generalization. In this experiment, the
dog started salivating even for the sound of a
buzzer which was similar to bell.
 Stimulus discrimination
• When there is much difference between two
stimuli, the animal can discriminate between
the two. For example, if the dog is conditioned
to salivate at the signal of red light, it will not
salivate when green light is presented.
 Higher order conditioning:
• If a ‘light’ is presented followed by bell and then by food for a
number of trials, the dog will start salivating to light itself.
This phenomenon is called higher order condition.
• All these principles are very useful in behavior therapy.
Conditioning is not confined only to the laboratory.
• In our day-to- day’s life we come across many instances of
such learning. For example, a small child who does not know,
touches a burning candle, it gives him a painful experience and
withdraws his hand. Later this experience will make him
withdraw from burning objects and avoid them all together.
 The Elements and Processes in
Classical Conditioning
• Reflex: A reflex is an involuntary response to a
particular stimulus. There are two kinds of reflexes:
• (i) Conditioned Reflex: This is a "learned" reflex rather
than a naturally occurring one.
• (ii) Unconditioned Reflex: This is a "unlearned" reflex.
Example, Salivation in response to food. Unconditioned
reflex are built into the nervous system.
 UNCONDITIONED REFLEXES
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US UN CONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR)
Food Salivation
Onion Juice Tears
Heat Sweating

Light in Eye Contraction of Pupil

Touching hot stove Hand withdrawal
 Operant Conditioning

• This method of conditioning was developed by an

American psychologist BF Skinner. This theory is

also known as ‘Instrumental conditioning’,

because the animals use certain operations or

actions as instruments to find solution.

• Skinner conducted his famous experiment by placing a
hungry rat in a box called after his name ‘Skinner box’.
This box was containing a lever and a food tray in a
corner of the box. It was so arranged, that the animal
was free to move inside the box, but the pressing of the
lever would get the animal a pallet of food in the tray as
reinforcement.
• Arrangement was also made to record the number of
pressings of the lever by a mechanical device. It was
found in the beginning that the rat pressed the lever
occasionally and used to get food as reinforcement for
each pressing.
• Gradually, as the animal learnt the pressing of
lever would give some food, it repeated the
responses very rapidly. This rapid increase in
pressing the lever is the indication of the animal
conditioned to get food.
• In day-to-day’s life also, much learning takes
place in animals as well as in human beings by
this method. The reinforcement will be the
motivating factor. It will make the organism to
repeat its action.
• It is on the basis of these experiments, Skinner made
his famous statement “Rewarded behavior is repeated”.
Instrumental conditioning involves more activity by the
learner than classical conditioning.
• Reinforcement which is the most important aspect of
this experiment is divided into two types: positive
reinforcement is used in reward training. Negative
reinforcement-like punishment is used to stop undesired
responses or behaviors. Operant conditioning is useful
in shaping undesirable behavior and also in
modification of behavior.
 Factors Influencing Operant
Conditioning
• The first factor is the magnitude of
reinforcement. In general, as magnitude of
reinforcement increases, acquisition of a
response is greater. For example, workers
would be motivated to work harder and faster,
if they were paid a higher salary.
• The second factor affecting operant conditioning
is the immediacy of reinforcement. Responses
are conditioned more effectively when
reinforcement is immediate. As a rule, the longer
the delay in reinforcement, the more slowly a
response is acquired.
• The third factor influencing conditioning is the
level of motivation of the learner. If you are
highly motivated to learn to play football you will
learn faster and practice more than if you have no
interest in the game. Skinner found that when
food is the rein forcer, a hungry animal would
learn faster than an animal with a full stomach.
 Difference between Classical
Conditioning and Operant Conditioning
CLASSICAL
CLASSICALCONDITIONING
CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING

A change in stimulus elicits a particular 1. Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to

A change in stimulus elicits a particular 1. Stimulus serves as a cue for a person to
response emit the response
response emit the response
The strength and frequency of classically 2 The strength and frequency of operantly
conditioned
The strengthbehaviors are determined
and frequency of classically conditioned
2 The strengthbehaviors are determined
and frequency of operantly
mainly by the frequency
conditioned of eliciting
behaviors are determined mainly by thebehaviors
conditioned consequence
are determined
stimulus.
mainly by the frequency of eliciting mainly by the consequence
stimulus.
The stimulus serving as reward is present 3. The reward is presented only if the
every time. serving as reward is
The stimulus organism givesisthe
3. The reward correct response
presented only if the
present every time. organism gives the correct response
Responses are fixed to stimulus 4. Responses are variable both in type
Responses are fixed to stimulus and degree. are variable both in type and
4. Responses
degree.
 Cognitive Learning Theory
• Behaviorists such as Skinner and Watson believed that learning
through operant and classical conditioning would be explained
without reference to internal mental processes. Today, however, a
growing number of psychologists stress the role of mental
processes. They choose to broaden the study of learning to include
such cognitive processes as thinking, knowing, problem solving,
remembering and forming mental representations. According to
cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more
complete, more comprehensive view of learning.
Wolfang Kohler -German scientist
• In one experiment Kohler hung a bunch of bananas
inside the caged area but overhead, out of reach of the
apes; boxes and sticks were left around the cage.
Kohler observed the chimp's unsuccessful attempts to
reach the bananas by jumping or swinging sticks at
them. Eventually the chimps solved the problem by
piling the boxes one on top of the other until they could
reach the bananas.
• Kohler's major contribution is his notion of
learning by insight. In human terms, a solution
gained through insight is more easily learned,
less likely to be forgotten, and more readily
transferred to new problems than solution
learned through rote memorization.
 Edward Tolman
I. He believed that learning could take place
without reinforcing.
• (ii) He differentiated between learning and
performance. He maintained that latent learning
could occur. That is learning could occur without
apparent reinforcement but not be demonstrated
until the organism was motivated to do so.
• The following experiment by Tolman and Honzik (1930) supported this position. The experiment
consisted of three groups of rats that were placed in a maze daily for 17 days. The first group always
received a food reward at the end of the maze. The second group never received a reward, and the
third group did not receive a food reward until the 11th day. The first group showed a steady
improvement in performance over the 17 day period. The second group showed gradual
improvement. The third group, after being rewarded on the 11th day showed a marked improvement
the next day and from then on outperformed the rats that had been rewarded daily. The rapid
improvement of the rats that had been rewarded daily. The rapid improvement of the third group
indicated to Tolman that latent learning has occurred – that the rats had actually learned the maze
during the first 11 days. In later studies, Tolman showed how rats quickly learned to rearrange
learned cognitive maps and find their way through increasingly complex mazes with ease.
 Social Learning
• Albert Bandura contends that many behaviors or responses are
acquired through observational learning. Observational learning,
sometimes called modeling results when we observe the behaviors
of others and note the consequences of that behavior. The person
who demonstrates behavior or whose behavior is imitated is called
models. Parents, movie stars and sports personalities are often
powerful models. The effectiveness of a model is related to his or
her status, competence and power. Other important factors are the
age, sex, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model
• Social learning integrates the cognitive and
operant approaches to learning. It recognizes that
learning does not take place only because of
environmental stimuli (classical and operant
conditioning) or of individual determinism
(cognitive approach) but is a blend of both views.
 Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

• Positive reinforcement or behavior

modification, holds that individuals can be
motivated by proper design of their work
environment and praise for their performance
and that punishment for poor performance
produces negative results.
• Reinforcement a fundamental condition of
learning. Without reinforcement no measurable
modification of behaviour takes place.
• Motivation is an internal explanation of
behaviour whereas reinforcement is an
external explanation of behaviour .
 Types of reinforcement

• Positive & negative

• Extrinsic & intrinsic

• Primary & secondary

• Positive reinforcement:-it strengthens &
increseasbehaviour by the presentation of a desirable
consequence. Eg: giving praise to a employee for accomplishing
the desired task

• Negative reinforcement:-it strengthens & increases one’s

behaviour inorder to avoid undesirable consequence.
Eg:wearing casual dress at workplace, which is not accordance
with official norms,it may be criticized by his superior.
• Punishment weakens & decreases behaviour
that is being punished. Eg; if an employee
breaks org rules for which he is punished with
strong warning & day’s pay-cut,inorder to
avoid similar punishments in future.
• Negative reinforcement is used to avoid negative
consequences,it is also referred to as avoidance .

• Withdrawal of a positive reinforcement is used to

weaken particular behaviour of employees which
was desirable at one point of time but no longer
desirable. . This is known as Extinction
• Extrinsic reinforcement:- reinforcer has no direct
relationship with the behaviour & it is artificial &
often arbitrary such as payment of money to
employees for new ideas.
• Intrinsic :- create a psychologicallyexpected
relationship to the behaviour itself,aquistionof
new skill,assuming more responsibility.
• Primary reinforcement:-innately satisfying to the
person & such reinforces are independent of past
experiances. It is an unlearned reward for the person.
Eg;food,shelter etc which satisfy physiological needs.
• Secondary reinforcement:-depend on the individual &
past reinforcement history. These are learned ones.
eg:;praise,recognition etc.
 PROCESSES
• Attention Process: People can learn from their models provided
they recognize and pay attention to the critical features. In practice,
the models that are attractive, repeatedly available or important to us
tend to influence us the most.
• Retention Process: A model's influence depends on how well the
individual can remember or retain in memory the behavior/action
displayed by him when the model is no longer readily available.
• Motor Reproduction Process: Now, the
individual needs to convert the model's action into
his action. This process evinces how well an
individual can perform the modeled action.
• Reinforcement Process: Individuals become
motivated to display the modeled action if
incentive and rewards are provided to them.
• Central to Bundura's social learning theory is the notion of
self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an individual's belief and
expectancies about his or her ability to accomplish a
specific task effectively. Individuals with high self-efficacy
believe that they have the ability to get things done, that
they are capable of putting forth the effort to accomplish the
task, and that they can overcome any obstacles to their
success.
 A
SELF-EFFICACY EXPECTATIONS AS
FOLLOWS
1 Performance accomplishments (just do it!)
2. Vicarious experiences (watch someone else do
it)
3. Verbal persuasion (be convinced by someone
else to do it) or
4. Emotional arousal (get excited about doing it)
 Using learning concepts for self
management
• Behaviorism :- a theory that argues that
behavior follows stimuli in a relatively
unthinking manner.
• Shaping behavior:- systematically reinforcing
each successive step that moves an individual
closer to the desired response.
 Methods of shaping behavior

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Punishment

• extinction
 Schedules of reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement:- reinforcing a desired
behavior each time it is demonstrated.
• Intermittent reinforcement:- reinforcing a desired
behavior often enough to make the behavior worth
repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.
• Fixed –interval schedule:- spacing rewards at uniform
time intervals.
• Variable –interval schedule:- distributing
rewards in time so that reinforcements are
unpredictable.
• Fixed ratio schedule:- initiating rewards after a
fixed or constant number of responses.
• Variable-ratio schedule:-varying the reward
relative to the behavior of the individual.
 WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

• Derived from Latin word, ‘movere’, meaning

“to move”.

• Motivation is a general term applying to the

entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes,
and similar forces .
What is motivation?

Motivation is a Latin word, which means to move.

It is the willingness of an individual to respond to

organizational requirements.

Koontz O’Donnell defines it as “ a general term applying to the

entire class of drives, desires, needs wishes & similar forces
that induce an individual or a group of people at work.”
 Nature of motivation
• Motivation is a psychological phenomena
which generates within an individual. A person
feels the lack of certain needs, to satisfy which
he feels working more. The need satisfying
ego motivates a person to do better than he
normally does.
 Nature of motivation
• 1. Motivation is an inner feeling which energizes a person to work more.

• 2. The emotions or desires of a person prompt him for doing a particular

work.

• 3. There are unsatisfied needs of a person which disturb his equilibrium.

• 4. A person moves to fulfill his unsatisfied needs by conditioning his

energies.

• 5. There are dormant energies in a person which are activated by

channelizing them into actions.
MOTIVATION CAN BE….

EITHER POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE

 Positive Motivation:

• Positive motivation or incentive motivation is

based on reward. The workers are offered
incentives for achieving the desired goals. The
incentives may be in the shape of more pay,
promotion, recognition of work, etc. The
employees are offered the incentives and try
to improve their performance willingly.
 Negative Motivation

• Negative or fear motivation is based on force or fear.

Fear causes employees to act in a certain way. In case,
they do not act accordingly then they may be punished
with demotions or lay-offs. The fear acts as a push
mechanism. The employees do not willingly co-
operate, rather they want to avoid the punishment.
• Though employees work up-to a level where
punishment is avoided but this type of motivation
causes anger and frustration. This type of motivation
generally becomes a cause of industrial unrest.
 MAJOR TYPES OF MOTIVATION
THEORIES
• CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

• PROCESS THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

 Content theories

• Content theories are also called needs theories,

because they are generally associated with a view
that concentrates on the importance of
determining 'what' motivates us. In other words
they try to identify what our 'needs' are and relate
motivation to the fulfilling of these needs.
 PROCESS THEORIES

• The process theories address more the issues

relating to how the process works and sustains
itself over time, such as factors that determine
the degree of effort, the continuation of effort,
the modification of effort, etc.
CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

• Views motivation a result if INTERNAL

DRIVES that force an individual to take
ACTION.

• Focuses on INNER FACTORS that boost and

direct behavior
 The Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Maslow concluded that when one set of

needs is satisfied, this kind of need ceases to
be a motivator.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED: FOOD
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED: SHELTER
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEED: CLOTHING
SECURITY NEED
BELONGING NEED
ESTEEM NEED
SELF ACTUALIZATION NEED
MASLOWS HEIRACHY THEORY OF NEEDS
Individuals needs live within a hierarchy of physiological
needs.

Physiological needs are necessity factors for SURVIVAL.

Lower level needs like security and physiological needs

required to be met before upper level needs.
 Herzberg's two-factor theory:

The psychologist Frederick Herzberg extended the work

of Maslow and propsed a new motivation theory
popularly known as Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene
(Two-Factor) Theory. Herzberg conducted a widely
reported motivational study on 200 accountants and
engineers employed by firms in and around Western
Pennsylvania.
• He asked these people to describe two
important incidents at their jobs
• (1) When did you feel particularly good about
your job, and
• (2) When did you feel exceptionally bad about
your job? He used the critical incident method
of obtaining data.
Reported good feelings were generally associated with
job satisfaction, whereas bad feeling with job
dissatisfaction. Herzberg labelled the job satisfiers
motivators, and he called job dissatisfies hygiene or
maintenance factors. Taken together, the motivators
and hygiene factors have become known as
Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation.
According to Herzberg, motivational factors are
responsible for job satisfaction; and Hygiene or
Maintenance factors are responsible for job
dissatisfaction.
Motivators Hygiene factors

Achievement Co. policy & admn.

Work itself Interpersonal relations
Recognition Supervision
Responsibility Money
Advancement Job security
Possibility of growth Status
Working conditions
• According to Herzberg, the opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction. The underlying reason, he says, is that
removal of dissatisfying characteristics from a job does
not necessarily make the job satisfying. He believes in the
existence of a dual continuum. The opposite of
‘satisfaction’ is ‘no satisfaction’ and the opposite of
‘dissatisfaction’ is ‘no dissatisatisfaction’.
• According to Herzberg, today’s motivators are
tomorrow’s hygiene because the latter stop influencing
the behavior of persons when they get them. Accordingly,
one’s hygiene may be the motivator of another.
 McGregor’s Participation Theory

• Douglas McGregor formulated two distinct

views of human being based on participation
of workers. The first basically negative,
labeled Theory X, and the other basically
positive, labled Theory Y.
Douglas Mc Gregor’s X & Y theory

Theory X :

This theory assumes that most people prefer to be

directed, are not interested in assuming
responsibility & want safety above all.
Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to
structure, control & closely supervise their subordinates.

Theory Y:

This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy &
unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at
work, if properly motivated.
 Theory X Theory Y
1. Workers dislike to work by
1. Workers feel that work is
themselves. as natural as play.
2. Workers are not ready to
2. Workers are ready to
accept responsibility. accept responsibility if
proper motivation is
available to them.
3. Workers prefer to be 3. Workers are directed by
directed by others. themselves.
 Theory X
4. Workers are unambitious.
5. Workers by nature resist
change & want security.
6. Workers lack creativity &
fail to solve organizational
problems.
Theory Y
4. Workers are ambitious.
5. Workers are ready to cope
up with changes.
6. Workers have a high
degree of creativity &
succeed in solving
organizational problems.
 Theory X Theory Y
7. Focus is on the lower level 7. Focus is on both the lower
needs of workers i.e. level needs & higher level
physiological & safety needs of workers i.e. social,
esteem & self- actualisation.
8. Strict control is necessary 8. Workers exercise self-
to achieve organizational control & self-direction to
objectives. achieve organizational
objectives.
 Theory X Theory Y
9. Authority is not 9. Authority is delegated.
delegated.
10. Autocratic leadership 10. Democratic leadership
is followed. is followed.
• What McGregor tried to dramatise through his
theory X and Y is to outline the extremes to draw
the fencing within which the organisational man
is usually seen to behave. The fact remains that
no organisational man would actually belong
either to theory X or theory Y. In reality, he/she
shares the traits of both. What actually
happens is that man swings from one set or
properties to the other with changes in his
mood and motives in changing .environment.
 McClelland’s Need Theory
• McClelland’s need-theory is closely associated
with learning theory, because he believed that
needs are learned or acquired by the kinds of
events people experienced in their environment
and culture.
• He found that people who acquire a particular
need behave differently from those who do not
have. His theory focuses on Murray’s three needs;
achievement, power and affiliation. In the
literature, these three needs are abbreviated “n
Ach”, “n Pow”, and “n Aff” respectively’.
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs
• Need for Achievement
• Need for Power
• Need for Affiliation
 Need for The Theory
Achievement
(nAch) of Needs

Need for
Power
(nPow)

Need for David

Affiliation McClelland
(nAff)
THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT (N-ACH)

This is the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set

of standard, and to strive to succeed. In other words,
need for achievement is a behaviour directed toward
competition with a standard of excellence. McClelland
found that people with a high need for achievement
perform better than those with a moderate or low need
for achievement, and noted regional / national
differences in achievement motivation.
Characteristics of high-need achievers

• 1. High-need achievers have a strong desire to

assume personal responsibility for performing
a task for finding a solution to a problem.
• 2. High-need achievers tend to set moderately
difficult goals and take calculated risks.
• 3. High-need achievers have a strong desire for
performance feedback.
 Need for Power

• The need for power is concerned with making an

impact on others, the desire to influence others,
the urge to change people, and the desire to
make a difference in life. People with a high need
for power are people who like to be in control of
people and events. This results in ultimate
satisfaction to man..
 People who have a high need for
power are characterized by
• 1. A desire to influence and direct somebody
else.
• 2. A desire to exercise control over others.
• 3. A concern for maintaining leader-follower
relations.
 Need for Affiliation

The need for affiliation is defined as a desire to

establish and maintain friendly and warm relations
with other people’. The need for affiliation, in many
ways, is similar to Maslow’s social needs.
 characteristics
• 1. They have a strong desire for acceptance
and approval from others.
• 2. They tend to conform to the wishes of those
people whose friendship and companionship
they value.
• 3. They value the feelings of others.
 Alderfer's ERG Theory

• ERG theory has three categories:

• Existence needs,

• Relatedness needs,

• Growth needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence Growth

Relatedness
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

• People will be highly motivated if they are made

to believe that if they behave in a particular way,
they will receive a certain type of outcome
according to their personal preference. There are
three variable’s in Vroom’s model given in the
form of an equation. Since the model is a
multiplier, all the three variables must have high
positive value to imply motivated performance
choices. If any of the variable is zero, the
probability of motivated performance tends to be
zero.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Vroom’s Expectancy theory:

The model is built around the concepts of valence,

instrumentality & expectancy & is commonly called VIE
theory.

By valence, Vroom means the strength of an individual’s

preference for a particular outcome.
 Valence

• Valence means the attraction (or repulsion) of an outcome to the

individual. Whenever an individual has preference for a reward
valence is the strength of that preference. The valence is something
subjective and varies from person to person. Valence is deemed to
be positive for an individual if he prefers attaining the outcome to
not attaining it. Valence is zero, if the individual is indifferent
towards the outcome and the valence will be negative if the
individual prefers not attaining the outcome to attaining it.
• In simple words we can say that the worker must value the reward as
desired and satisfactory. It is not the actual value of the reward, but
the perceived value of the reward in the mind of the worker which is
important. For example, a person who is more interested in getting
recognition for the hard work, will not have any valence for cash
reward.
 Expectancy

• Expectancy is also referred to as the Effort-

Performance Probability. It refers to the extent to which
the person believes his efforts will lead to the first level
outcome i.e., completion of the task. Expectancy is the
probability that a particular action will lead to the
outcome, it is the perception in the mind of the
individual of the likelihood that a particular action or
behavior will lead to a certain outcome. Since it is an
association between effort, and performance, its value
can range between 0 and 1. If the individual feels that
the probability of achieving an outcome is zero, he will
not even try. On the other hand, if probability is higher,
he will put more efforts to achieve the desired outcome.
Instrumentality (Performance-Reward
Probability)
• In simple words, instrumentality refers to the belief and
expectation of a person that his performance will lead to a
particular desired reward. For example, if an individual wants
a promotion and feels that superior
• performance is very important in receiving the promotion.
• Superior performance is the first level outcome and the
promotion is the second level outcome. Superior performance
(First level outcome) will be instrumental in obtaining the
desired promotion (Second level outcome). The value of
instrumentality also varies between 0 to 1 as it is also the
probability of achieving the desired outcome
 Force = Valence x Expectancy

• Force is the strength of a person's motivation.

• Valence is the strength of an individual's

preference for an outcome.

• Expectancy is the probability that a particular

action will lead to a desired outcome
Valence is positive when a person prefers attaining the outcome
to not attaining it.

Valence is zero when the individual is indifferent towards the

outcome.

Valence is negative when a person prefers not attaining the

outcome to attaining it.
• (i) The expectancy model is highly useful in understanding
organizational behavior. It can improve the relationship between
the individual and the organisational goals. This model explains how
individual’s goals influence his efforts and like need-based models
reveal that individual behavior is goal oriented.
• (ii) The expectancy theory is a cognitive theory, which values human
dignity. Individuals are considered rational human beings who can
anticipate their future on the basis of their beliefs and expectations.
• (iii) This theory helps the managers in looking beyond what Maslow
and Herzberg implied. According to him motivation does not mean
satisfying the unsatisfied needs. The managers must make it
possible for an employee to see that effort can result in appropriate
need satisfying rewards. This level of expectations will improve the
motivation to work.
 Equity Theory
Ratio Employee’s
Comparison* Perception
Outcomes A < Outcomes B Inequity (Under-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A = Outcomes B Equity
Inputs A Inputs B
Outcomes A > Outcomes B Inequity (Over-Rewarded)
Inputs A Inputs B

*Where A is the employee, and B is a relevant other or referent.

 Equity Theory
– Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes
with those of others and then respond so as to
eliminate any inequities.

– Equity theory recognizes that individuals are

concerned not only with the absolute amount of
rewards for their efforts, but also with the
relationship of this amount to what others receive.
 Equity theory
• Workers compare their job inputs and outcomes with others. There are three
possible perceptions: inequity due to being under-rewarded, equity, or inequity due
to being over-rewarded. Equity theory proposes that inequity creates tension, and
that this tension can cause an employee to seek fairness. There are four referents
that an employee can use: (1) Self-inside: an employee’s experiences in a different
position inside the organization. (2) Self-outside: an employee’s experiences in a
position outside of the organization. (3) Other-inside: an employee’s perception of
persons inside the organization. (4) Other-outside: an employee’s perception of
persons outside of the organization.
• Workers who perceive an inequity will react in one of the six following ways:
change inputs, change outcomes, distort perceptions of self, distort perceptions of
others, choose a different referent, or leave the field.

• Equity theory establishes four propositions relating to inequitable pay. First, given
payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than those paid
equitably. Second, given payment by quantity of production, over-rewarded
employees will produce fewer, but higher quality units, than will equitably paid
employees. Third, given payment by time, under-rewarded employees will produce
less or poorer quality of output. Fourth, given payment by quantity of production,
under-rewarded employees will produce a large number of low-quality units in
comparison with equitably paid employees.
 Urwick’s Theory Z

• Much after the propositions of theories X and Y by McGregor, the

three theorists Urwick, Rangnekar, and Ouchi-propounded the third
theory labeled as Z theory
• i) Each individual should know the organisational goals precisely
and the amount of contribution through his efforts towards these
goals.
• (ii) Each individual should also know that the relation of
organisational goals is going to satisfy his/her needs positively.
• In Urwick’s view, the above two make people ready to behave
positively to accomplish both organisational and individual goals.
 Theory Z is based on the following
five postulates
1. Trust
• 2. Strong Bond between Organization and
Employees
• 3. Employee Participation and Involvement
• 4. No Formal Organization Structure
• 5. Human Resource Development
 Goal & Goal Setting

• Goal: What an individual is trying to accomplish

through his or her behavior and actions.

• Goal setting: It can operate to enhance both

intrinsic motivation (in the absence of any
extrinsic rewards) and extrinsic motivation (when
workers are given extrinsic rewards for achieving
their goals).
Cognitive Evaluation

Intrinsic Extrinsic
Motivators Motivators
• EXTRINSIC • INTRINSIC
 Pay  Feeling of
 Benefits responsibility
 Promotions  Achievement
 Transfers  Constant learning
 Insurance  Taking challenges
 Goal Setting Theory

A theory that focuses on identifying

the types of goals that are most effective in
producing high levels of motivation and
performance and why goals have these effects.
How Does Goal Setting Motivate?

• Goals:
– Direct attention
– Regulate effort
– Increase persistence
– Encourage the development of strategies and action
plans
 Guidelines for Writing “SMART”
Goals

Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound
 Contingency Factors in
Goal Setting
• Self-efficacy
– An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.