Voice (phonetics) Voice or voicing is a term used in phonetics and phonology to characterize speech sounds, with sounds described

as either voiceless (unvoiced) or voiced. The term, however, is used to refer to two separate concepts. Voicing can refer to the articulatory process in which the vocal cords vibrate. This is its primary use in phonetics to describe phones, which are particular speech sounds. It can also refer to a classification of speech sounds that tend to be associated with vocal cord vibration but need not actually be voiced at the articulatory level. This is the term's primary use in phonology when describing phonemes, or in phonetics when describing phones. At the articulatory level, a voiced sound is one in which the vocal cords vibrate, and a voiceless sound is one in which they do not. Voicing is the difference between the pairs of sounds that are associated with the English letters "s" and "z". The two sounds are transcribed as [s] and [z] to distinguish them from the English letters, which have several possible pronunciations depending on context. If one places the fingers on the voice box (i.e. the location of the Adam's apple in the upper throat), one can feel a vibration when one pronounces zzzz, but not when one pronounces ssss. (For a more detailed, technical explanation, see modal voice and phonation.) In most European languages, with a notable exception being Icelandic, vowels and other sonorants (consonants such as m, n, l, and r) are modally voiced. When used to classify speech sounds, voiced and unvoiced are merely labels used to group phones and phonemes together for the purposes of classification. We return to this below. Contents Notation The International Phonetic Alphabet has distinct letters for many voiceless and voiced pairs of consonants (the obstruents), such as [p b], [t d], [k ], [q ]. In addition, there is a diacritic for voicedness: . Diacritics are typically used with letters for prototypically voiceless sounds. In Unicode, the symbols are encoded U+032C COMBINING CARON BELOW (HTML: ̬) and U+0325 COMBINING RING BELOW (HTML: ̥). English examples The distinction between the articulatory use of voice and the phonological use rests on the distinction between phone (represented between square brackets) and phoneme (represented between slashes). The difference is best illustrated by a rough example. The English word nods is made up of a sequence of phonemes, represented symbolically as /n dz/, or the sequence of /n/, / /, /d/, and /z/. Each of these symbols is an abstract representation of a phoneme. This awareness is an inherent part of speakers' mental grammar that allows them to recognize words. However, phonemes are not themselves sounds. Rather, phonemes are, in a sense, converted to phones before being spoken. The /z/ phoneme, for instance, can actually be pronounced as either

the [s] phone or the [z] phone because /z/ is frequently devoiced in fluent speech, especially at the end of an utterance. The sequence of phones for nods might be transcribed as [n ts] or [n dz], depending on the presence or strength of this devoicing. While the [z] phone has articulatory voicing, the [s] phone does not. What complicates the matter is that, for English, consonant phonemes are classified as either voiced or voiceless even though this is not the primary distinctive feature between them. Still, the classification is used as a stand-in for phonological processes, such as vowel lengthening that occurs before voiced consonants but not before unvoiced consonants or vowel quality changes (i.e. the sound of the vowel) in some dialects of English that occur before unvoiced but not voiced consonants. These processes allow English speakers to continue to perceive difference between voiced and voiceless consonants when the devoicing of the former would otherwise make them sound identical to the latter. English has four pairs of fricative phonemes which can be divided into a table by place of articulation and voicing. The voiced fricatives can readily be felt to have voicing throughout the duration of the phone, especially when occurring between vowels. Voicing contrast in English fricatives Articulation Voiceless Voiced Pronounced with the lower lip against the teeth: [f] (fan) [v] (van) Pronounced with the tongue against the teeth: [ ] (thin, thigh) [] (then, thy) Pronounced with the tongue near the gums: [s] (sip) [z] (zip) [ ] (pressure) [ ] (pleasure) Pronounced with the tongue bunched up: However, in the class of consonants called plosives or stops, such as /p, t, k, b, d, /, the contrast is more complicated for English. The "voiced" sounds do not typically feature articulatory voicing throughout the sound. The difference between the unvoiced plosive phonemes and the voiced plosive phonemes is not just a matter of whether articulatory voicing is present or not. Rather, it includes when voicing starts (if at all), the presence of aspiration (airflow burst following the release of the closure), the duration of the closure and aspiration. English voiceless plosives are generally aspirated at the beginning of a stressed syllable while, in the same context, their voiced counterparts are only voiced partway through. In more narrow phonetic transcription, these the voiced symbols are may be used only to represent the presence of articulatory voicing while aspiration is represented with a superscript h. Voicing contrast in English stops Articulation Pronounced with the lips closed: Pronounced with the tongue near the gums: Pronounced with the tongue bunched up:

Unvoiced Voiced [p] (pin) [b] (bin) [t] (ten) [d] (den) [t ] (chin) [d ] (gin)

Pronounced with the back of the tongue against the palate: [k] (con) [ ] (gone)

When these consonants come at the end of a syllable, however, what distinguishes them is quite different; voiceless phonemes are typically unaspirated, glottalized and the closure itself may not even be released, making it sometimes difficult to hear the difference between, for example, light and like. However, auditory cues remain to distinguish between voiced and voiceless sounds, such as what has been described above, e.g. the length of the preceding vowel. Other English sounds, the vowels and sonorants, are normally fully voiced. However, they may be devoiced in certain positions, especially after aspirated consonants, as in Copernicus, tree, and play, where the voicing is delayed to the extent of missing the sonorant or vowel altogether. Degrees of voicing There are two variables to degrees of voicing: intensity (discussed under phonation), and duration (discussed under voice onset time). When a sound is described as "half voiced" or "partially voiced", it is not always clear whether that means that the voicing is weak (low intensity), or if the voicing only occurs during part of the sound (short duration). In the case of English, it is the latter. Voice and tenseness There are languages with two sets of contrasting obstruents that are labelled /p t k f s x / vs. /b d v z / even though there is no involvement of voice (or voice onset time) in that contrast. This happens for instance in several Southern German dialects such as Alsatian or Swiss German. Since voice is not involved, this is explained as a contrast in tenseness, called a fortis and lenis contrast. There is a hypothesis that the contrast between fortis and lenis consonants is related to the contrast between voiceless and voiced consonants, a relation based on sound perception as well as on sound production, where consonant voice, tenseness and length are but different manifestations of a common sound feature.

Voiced and Voiceless Consonants One problem that many students face in pronunciation is whether a consonant is voiced or voiceless. This guide should help you understand the differences and give you some simple rules. To help you I've recorded this voiced and voiceless consonant page so you can listen to the examples. (Suggestion: open the sound file in another page or tab so you can read along while you listen) What is Voiced? A simple explanation of voiced consonants is that they use the voice. This is easy to test by putting your finger on your throat. If you feel a vibration the consonant is voiced. Here is a list of

some voiced consonants. Pronounce each consonant sound (not the letter) and feel the vibration of your vocal chords. b d th v l r z j (as in Jane) What is Voiceless? Voiceless consonants do not use the voice. They are percussive and use hard sounds. Once again, you can test if a consonant is voiceless by putting your finger on your throat. You will feel no vibration in your throat, just a short explosion of air as you pronounce. Pronounce each of these consonant sounds and feel NO vibration in your throat. p t k s sh ch th (as in thing) Careful! Some Consonants Voiced, but are Voiceless When consonants are put in groups they can change the voiced or voiceless quality of the consonant that follows. A great example of this is the past simple form of regular verbs. As you know, regular verbs add -ed to the end of the verb in the past simple. play wash live - lived etc. played washed

(as

in

then)

These past simple verbs all end in '-ed'. However, some of the verbs are pronounced with a voiceless 't' sound and some are pronounced with the voiced 'd' sound. Why? Here are the rules:
y y y

If -ed is preceded by a voiceless consonant sound (p, k, sh, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiceless 't'. Remember that the 'e' is silent. If -ed is preceded by a voiced consonant sound (d, b, v, etc.) -ed sounds as a voiced 'd'. Remember that the 'e' is silent. If -ed is preceded by a vowel sound (often 'ay') -ed sounds as a voiced 'd' because vowels are always voiced. Remember that the 'e' is silent.

Exception: If -ed is preceded by 't' pronounce a voiced -id. In this case, the 'e' is pronounced.

This pattern can also be found with plural forms. If the consonant preceding the 's' is voiced, 's' will sound as voiced 'z': chairs machines bags If the consonant preceding the 's' is voiceless, 's' will sound as voiceless 's': bats parks pipes Connected Speech Finally, when speaking in sentences the ending consonant sounds can change based on the following words. This is often referred to as 'connected speech'. Here is an example of a change from a voiced 'b' in the word 'club' to a voiceless 'p' because of the voiced 't' of 'to' of the following word: We went to the club to meet some friends. Here is an example of a change from a voiced 'd' past simple verb changed to voiceless 't': We played tennis yesterday afternoon. Exercise: Take this list of words and decide if the final consonants are voiced or voiceless. Once you have made your decision, click on the link to check the answers (or, if you are listening, I will provide the answers in the audio): washed traveled coats gloves shells watched started changed books wheels lived

dreams seats dropped exchanged globes phones carts listened organized

Airstream and Articulation 1 1 English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 1.1 Airstream and Articulation Speech sounds are made by modifying an airstream. The airstream we will be concerned with in this book involves the passage of air from the lungs out through the oral and nasal cavities (see figure 1). There are many points at which that stream of air can be modified, and several ways in which it can be modified (i.e. constricted in some way). The first point at which the flow of air can be modified, as it passes from the lungs, is in the larynx (you can feel the front of this, the Adams apple, protruding slightly at the front of your throat; see figure 1), in which are located the vocal folds (or vocal cords). The vocal folds may lie open, in which case the airstream passes through them unimpeded. Viewed from above, the vocal folds, when they lie open, look like this: Open vocal folds The vocal folds may be brought together so that they are closed, and no air may flow through them from the lungs: English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 2 Closed vocal folds One way in which the outgoing stream of air may be modified is by applying a certain level of constant muscular pressure sufficient to close the vocal folds along their length, but only just; the buildup of air pressure underneath this closure is sufficient, given the degree of muscular pressure, to force that closure open, but the air pressure then drops, and the muscular pressure causes the folds to close again. The sequence is then repeated, very rapidly, and results in what is called vocal fold vibration. You should be able to feel this vibration if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce the sound which is written as <z> in the word hazy (although you will

probably also feel vibration elsewhere in your head). Sounds which are produced with this vocal fold vibration are said to be voiced sounds, whereas sounds produced without such vibration are said to be voiceless. To transcribe speech sounds, phoneticians use the International Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA: see figure 2); the IPA symbol for the sound written <z> in hazy is [z]. You should be able to feel the presence of vibration in [z] if you put your fingers to your larynx and produce [z], then [s] (as in miss), then [z] again: [z] is voiced, whereas [s] is voiceless. This distinction will constitute the first of three descriptive parameters by means of which we will describe a given consonantal speech sound: we will say, for any given consonant, whether it is voiced or voiceless. 1.2 Place of Articulation We will refer to the points at which the flow of air can be modified as places of articulation. We have just identified the vocal folds as a place of articulation; since the space between the vocal cords is referred to as the glottis, we will refer to sounds produced at this place of articulation as glottal sounds. There are many other places of articulation; we will identify a further seven. Firstly, sounds in which the airflow is modified by forming a constriction between the lower lip and the upper lip are referred to as bilabial sounds. An example is the first sound in pit. English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 3 A bilabial sound: the first sound in pit Secondly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the lower lip and the upper teeth are referred to as labio-dental sounds. An example is the first sound in fit. A labio-dental sound: the first sound in fit Thirdly, sounds in which there is a constriction between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth are referred to as dental sounds. An example is the first sound in thin. English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 4 A dental sound: the first sound in thin For the remaining places of articulation, let us distinguish between the tip, the blade of the tongue, the front of the tongue and the back of the tongue (as in figure 1). Let us also distinguish various points along the upper part of the mouth. We will identify four different areas: the alveolar ridge (the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth; see figure 1), the hard palate (the hard, bony part of the roof of the mouth; see figure 1), the palato-alveolar (or post-alveolar) region1 (the area in between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate), and the velum (the soft part at the back of the roof of the mouth, also known as the soft palate; see figure 1).

Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade or tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge are called alveolar sounds. An example is the first sound in sin. Sounds in which there is a constriction between the blade of the tongue and the palato-alveolar (or post-alveolar) region are called palato-alveolar sounds. An example is the first sound in ship. English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 5 An alveolar sound: the first sound in sin Sounds in which there is a constriction between the front of the tongue and the hard palate are called palatal sounds. An example is the first sound in yes (although this may be less obvious to you; we will return to this sound below). A palato-alveolar sound: the first sound in ship Sounds in which there is a constriction between the back of the tongue and the velum are called velar sounds. An example is the first sound in cool. English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 6 1.3 Manner of Articulation: Stops, Fricatives and Approximants We have now identified eight places of articulation: glottal, bilabial, labio-dental, dental, alveolar, palato-alveolar, palatal and velar. For A velar sound: the first sound in cool A palatal sound: the first sound in yes any given sound we will say whether it is voiced or voiceless, and what its place of articulation is. But to distinguish between the full range of speech sounds, we will require a third descriptive parameter: manner of articulation. To identify the manner in which a sound is articulated, we will identify three different degrees of constriction (complete closure, close approximation and open approximation), and thus three different categories of consonant: stops, fricatives and approximants. 1.3.1 Stops The articulators in question may form a stricture of complete closure; this is what happens when one produces the first sound in pit. Here the lower and upper lips completely block the flow of air from the lungs; that closure may then be released, as it is in pit, and may then produce a sudden outflow of air. Sounds which are produced with complete closure are referred to as stops (or plosives). We may describe the first sound in pit as a voiceless bilabial stop (transcribed as [p]) and we will henceforth identify all consonants with three-term labels of this sort. The consonant in abbey is also a bilabial stop, but differs from that in pit: it is voiced. This consonant (transcribed as [b]) is a voiced bilabial stop. The first sound in tin is a voiceless alveolar stop; it is transcribed

as [t]. Its voiced counterpart is the consonant in ado. This sound, the voiced alveolar stop, is transcribed as [d]. The first sound in cool is a voiceless velar stop; it is transcribed as [k]. Its voiced counterpart, the voiced velar stop, is transcribed as [g]; an example is the consonant in ago. We have now identified bilabial, alveolar and velar stops; stops may be made at many other places of articulation, but we will ignore those, as they are not relevant to the study of English. There is one further stop which we must mention, however, as it is very common in the speech of most speakers of English. This is the glottal stop (transcribed as [?]). It is made by forming a constriction of complete closure between the vocal folds. This is the sound made instead of [t] in many Scottish and Cockney pronunciations of, for example, the word butter. We will see that it is present in the speech of almost every speaker of English, no matter what the accent. English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 7 There is no question of describing the glottal stop as voiced or voiceless, since it is articulated in the glottis itself. 1.3.2 Fricatives Let us now distinguish between complete closure and another, less extreme, degree of constriction: close approximation. Sounds which are produced with this kind of constriction entail a bringing together of the two articulators to the point where the airflow is not quite fully blocked: enough of a gap remains for air to escape, but the articulators are so close together that friction is created as the air escapes. Sounds of this sort are referred to as fricatives. The first sound in fin is created by bringing the lower lip close to the upper teeth in a constriction of close approximation. This sound is a voiceless labio-dental fricative (transcribed as [f]). Its voiced counterpart (the voiced labio-dental fricative, transcribed as [v]) is the consonant in Eva. The first sound in thin is created by bringing the tip of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the upper teeth. This sound is a voiceless dental fricative, transcribed as [T]. Its voiced counterpart, the voiced dental fricative (transcribed as [D]) is, for some speakers, the first sound in the word that.2 The first sound in sin is created by bringing the tip or blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the alveolar ridge. This sound, transcribed as [s], is a voiceless alveolar fricative. Its voiced counterpart, the voiced alveolar fricative (transcribed as [z]) is the consonant in zoo. The first sound in ship is created by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of close approximation with the palato-alveolar region. This sound, transcribed as [S], is a voiceless palato-alveolar fricative. Its voiced counterpart, transcribed as [Z], is the second consonant

in seizure. Fricatives may be articulated at any point of articulation, but many of those sounds are irrelevant to the study of English. However, we will mention three. One is the voiceless velar fricative [x], found in the speech of many Scots, in words such as loch. Another is the voiceless fricative [], again found in the speech of many Scots, as in words like whale (as English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 8 opposed to wail) and which (as opposed to witch; its place of articulation is labial-velar (explained in 1.3.3). A third is the glottal fricative [h], as in the first sound in hit. This sound is produced by bringing the vocal cords into a constriction of close approximation, so that friction is produced. As the vocal cords are not vibrating, we will take it that this is a voiceless sound. 1.3.3 Approximants The least radical degree of constriction occurs when the articulators come fairly close together, but not sufficiently close together to create friction. This kind of stricture is called open approximation. Consonants produced in this way are called approximants. The first sound in yes is an approximant. It is produced by bringing the front of the tongue close to the hard palate. Although the sides of the tongue are in a constriction of complete closure with the upper gums, the air escapes along a central groove in which the front of the tongue is not close enough to the hard palate to create friction. This sound, transcribed as [ j], is a voiced palatal approximant. Approximants are normally voiced, so we will not discuss any voiceless counterparts for these sounds. The first sound in many English speakers pronunciation of rip, rope, rat, etc. is an approximant. It is produced by bringing the blade of the tongue into a constriction of open approximation with the alveolar ridge. This approximant, transcribed as [], is referred to as an alveolar approximant. As with [ j], the sides of the tongue form a constriction of complete closure with the gums at the sides of the mouth, but the air escapes along a central groove without creating friction. For most speakers (and in varying degrees, depending on the accent), the tongue body is somewhat retracted when [] is uttered; it is therefore often referred to as a post-alveolar approximant, but alveolar approximant will suffice for our purposes.3 We will be looking at more English approximants in chapter 2. For the moment, let us identify one further such sound, the sound at the beginning of wet. In producing this sound, the lips form a constriction of open approximation: there is no friction produced. But its articulation is more complicated than that of [ j], the palatal approximant, since it also involves another articulation, between the English Phonetics: Consonants (i)

9 back of the tongue and the velum (i.e. a velar articulation). We will therefore refer to it as a voiced labial-velar approximant; it is transcribed as [w]. Notes 1 Many phonologists and phoneticians use the term palato-alveolar, but the chart of symbols used by the International Phonetics Association uses the term post-alveolar. It will suffice for our purposes if the student takes the two terms to be interchangeable. There are no rigid physiological divisions between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate; the transition from one to the other is a continuum. And the range of articulations which can be made in between the two is relatively varied, leading some phoneticians to distinguish alveo-palatal from palatoalveolar articulations. We will simplify by ignoring these details. 2 Many speakers of English do not have a voiced dental fricative; rather, the sound lacks friction: it is a voiced dental approximant. 3 The articulation of an [] kind of articulation in some American and West Country accents is also referred to by some as retroflex approximant. The term retroflex means that blade and tip of the tongue are curled upwards and backwards to some extent, so that the underside of a part of the tongue forms the relevant articulation. Somewhat inaccurately, we will use [] for these sounds. Exercises 1 Give the appropriate three-term description for each of the following sounds (e.g. [k]: voiceless velar stop): [f] [b] [T] [S] [t] [ j] 2 Give the appropriate phonetic symbol for each of the following sounds: (a) a voiced palato-alveolar fricative (b) a voiced alveolar stop (c) a voiced velar stop English Phonetics: Consonants (i) 10 (d) a voiced dental fricative (e) a voiced labio-dental fricative 3 What phonetic property distinguishes each of the following pairs of sounds (e.g. [p] and [b]: voicing; [s] and [S]: place of articulation; [t] and [s]: manner of articulation)? (a) [k] and [g] (b) [b] and [d] (c) [d] and [z] (d) [z] and [Z] (e) [S] and [Z] (f ) [d] and [g] 4 Which of the following English words begin with a fricative? ship psychology veer round plot philosophy think late xylophone 5 Which of the following English words end with a fricative? stack whale swim epitaph half halve hash haze phase use path cuts pleads

6 Which of the following English words begin with a stop? philanderer plasterer parsimonious ptarmigan psyche charismatic cereal carping kinky ghoulish gruelling guardian thick tickle bin dreary 7 Describe the position and action of the articulators during the production of the following sounds (e.g. [d]: the blade of the tongue forms a constriction of complete closure with the alveolar ridge; the vocal cords are vibrating): [b] [k] [T] [v] English Phonetics: Consonants (i)
Definition:

A speech sound that's not a vowel; a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs. See also:
y y

Consonant Clusters Phonetics

Etymology: From the Latin, "agree" and "sound" Examples and Observations:
y

"There are 21 consonant letters in the written alphabet (B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z), and there are 24 consonant sounds in most English accents. . . . Because of the erratic history of English spelling, there is no neat one-to-one correlation between letters and sounds." (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 2003)

"The 24 usual consonants occur in the following words, at the beginning unless otherwise specified: pale, tale, kale, bale, dale, gale, chain, Jane, fail, thin, sale, shale, hale, vale, this, zoo; (in the middle of) measure, mail, nail; (at the end of) sing, lay, rail, wail, Yale. Not one of these consonants is spelled in a completely consistent way in English, and some of them are spelled very oddly and inconsistently indeed. Note that our alphabet has no single letters for spelling the consonants in chain, thin, shale, this, measure, and sing. Those letters that are commonly used for spelling consonants may be called consonant letters, but calling them consonants is loose and misleading." (R.L. Trask, Mind the Gaffe! Harper, 2006)

"In a phonetic description, we distinguish vowels from consonants in terms of how they are articulated in the vocal tract, and the associated patterns of acoustic energy." (David Crystal, How Language Works, Overlook Press, 2006)

"Our B represents probably the same sound carried by the analogous letter in Near Eastern alphabets of 30 or 40 centuries ago. "It is a consonant sound. Therefore, B is a consonant letter, the first in alphabetical sequence of our 21. If asked at a dinner party to define the word 'consonant,' someone might venture, 'Well, I know it's not a vowel . . .' and that actually is the best starting point. Whereas vowels are pronounced from the vocal cords with minimal shaping of expelled breath, consonant sounds are created through obstruction or channeling of the breath by the lips, teeth, tongue, throat, or nasal passage, variously combined. Some consonants, like B, involve the vocal cords; others don't. Some, like R or W, flow the breath in a way that steers them relatively close to being vowels." (David Sacks, Letter Perfect, Broadway Books, 2003)

"Lost Consonants is a text and image word play series which illustrates a sentence from which a vital letter has been removed, altering its meaning. Welcome to a world where children have leaning difficulties and youth can become addicted to rugs; where firemen wear fame-resistant clothing, and footballers get camp in their legs; where dogs start baking and horses start catering, and where, after several days without water, everyone is really thirty." (Graham Rawle, "Lost Consonants")

Definition:

A speech sound that's not a vowel; a letter of the alphabet that represents a speech sound produced by a partial or complete obstruction of the air stream by a constriction of the speech organs. See also:
y y

Consonant Clusters Phonetics

Etymology: From the Latin, "agree" and "sound"

Examples and Observations:

y

"There are 21 consonant letters in the written alphabet (B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z), and there are 24 consonant sounds in most English accents. . . . Because of the erratic history of English spelling, there is no neat one-to-one correlation between letters and sounds." (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 2003)

"The 24 usual consonants occur in the following words, at the beginning unless otherwise specified: pale, tale, kale, bale, dale, gale, chain, Jane, fail, thin, sale, shale, hale, vale, this, zoo; (in the middle of) measure, mail, nail; (at the end of) sing, lay, rail, wail, Yale. Not one of these consonants is spelled in a completely consistent way in English, and some of them are spelled very oddly and inconsistently indeed. Note that our alphabet has no single letters for spelling the consonants in chain, thin, shale, this, measure, and sing. Those letters that are commonly used for spelling consonants may be called consonant letters, but calling them consonants is loose and misleading." (R.L. Trask, Mind the Gaffe! Harper, 2006)

"In a phonetic description, we distinguish vowels from consonants in terms of how they are articulated in the vocal tract, and the associated patterns of acoustic energy." (David Crystal, How Language Works, Overlook Press, 2006)

"Our B represents probably the same sound carried by the analogous letter in Near Eastern alphabets of 30 or 40 centuries ago. "It is a consonant sound. Therefore, B is a consonant letter, the first in alphabetical sequence of our 21. If asked at a dinner party to define the word 'consonant,' someone might venture, 'Well, I know it's not a vowel . . .' and that actually is the best starting point. Whereas vowels are pronounced from the vocal cords with minimal shaping of expelled breath, consonant sounds are created through obstruction or channeling of the breath by the lips, teeth, tongue, throat, or nasal passage, variously combined. Some consonants, like B, involve the vocal cords; others don't. Some, like R or W, flow the breath in a way that steers them relatively close to being vowels." (David Sacks, Letter Perfect, Broadway Books, 2003)

"Lost Consonants is a text and image word play series which illustrates a sentence from which a vital letter has been removed, altering its meaning. Welcome to a world where children have leaning difficulties and youth can become addicted to rugs; where firemen wear fame-resistant

clothing, and footballers get camp in their legs; where dogs start baking and horses start catering, and where, after several days without water, everyone is really thirty." (Graham Rawle, "Lost Consonants")

voice, also called Full Voice, in phonetics, the sound that is produced by the vibration of the vocal cords. All vowels are normally voiced, but consonants may be either voiced or voiceless (i.e., uttered without vibration of the vocal cords). The liquid consonant l and the nasal m, n, ng (as in sing ) are normally voiced in English, and the stops, fricatives, and affricates characteristically possess both voiced and voiceless forms. In English, for example, b is a voiced bilabial stop, whereas p is a voiceless bilabial stop. Of the other stops, fricatives, and affricates, v, d, th (as in this ), z, zh (the sound of the s in pleasure ), j (as in jam ), and g are normally all voiced sounds; while f, t, th (as in thin ), s, sh, ch, and k are all voiceless sounds. See also vocal fry; whisper.

Consonant voicing and devoicing

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In phonology, voicing (or sonorization) and devoicing are sound changes, whereby a consonant changes its type of voicing from voiceless to voiced, or vice versa, due to the influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is caused because of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with specific vowel. For example, English suffix -s is pronounced [s] when it follows a voiceless phoneme (cats), and [z] when it follows a voiced phoneme (dogs).[1] This type of assimilation is called progressive, where the second consonant assimilates to the first; regressive assimilation goes in the opposite direction, as can be seen in have to [hft ].

English
English no longer has a productive process of voicing stem-final fricatives when forming nounverb pairs or plural nouns.
y y y y y y

belief - believe life - live proof - prove strife - strive thief - thieve ba[ ] - ba[]e

y y y y y y y

brea[ ] - brea[]e mou[ ] (n.) - mou[] (vb.) shea[ ] - shea[]e wrea[ ] - wrea[]e choi[s]e - choo[z]e hou[s]e (n.) - hou[z]e (vb.) u[s]e (n.) - u[z]e (vb.)

Synchronically, the assimilation at morpheme boundaries is still productive, such as in:[2] :

y y y y

cat + s > cats dog + s > do[ z] miss + ed > mi[st] whizz + ed > whi[zd]

The voicing alternation found in plural formation is losing ground in the modern language,[citation needed] , and of the alternations listed below many speakers retain only the [f-v] pattern, which is supported by the orthography. This voicing is a relic of Old English, the unvoiced consonants between voiced vowels were 'colored' with voicing. As the language became more analytic and less inflectional, final vowels/syllables stopped being pronounced. For example, modern knives is a one syllable word instead of a two syllable word, with the vowel 'e' not being pronounced. However, the voicing alternation between [f] and [v] still occurs.
y y y y

knife - knives leaf - leaves wife - wives wolf - wolves

The following mutations are optional[citation needed]:

y y y y y y

ba[ ] - ba[]s mou[ ] - mou[]s oa[ ] - oa[]s pa[ ] - pa[]s you[ ] - you[]s hou[s]e - hou[z]es

Sonorants (/l r w j/) following aspirated fortis plosives (that is, /p t k/ in the onsets of stressed syllables unless preceded by /s/) are devoiced such as in please, crack, twin, and pewter.[3]

Initial voicing
Initial voicing is a process of historical sound change where voiceless consonants become voiced at the beginning of a word. For example, modern German sagen [ za n], Yiddish [ z n], and Dutch zeggen [ z ] (all "say") all begin with [z], which derives from [s] in an earlier stage of Germanic, as still attested in English say, Swedish sga [ s ja], and Icelandic

segja [ sei ja]. Some English dialects were affected by this as well, but it is rare in Modern English. One example is fox (with the original consonant) compared to vixen (with a voiced consonant).

Final devoicing
Main article: Final-obstruent devoicing

Final devoicing is a systematic phonological process occurring in languages such as German, Dutch, Polish, and Russian, among others. In these languages, voiced obstruents in the syllable coda or at the end of a word become voiceless.

References
1. ^ Grijzenhout (2000:3) 2. ^ Grijzenhout (2000:9) 3. ^ Roach (2004:240)

In phonology, voicing (or sonorization) and devoicing are sound changes, whereby a consonant changes its type of voicing from voiceless to voiced, or vice versa, due to the influence of its phonological environment. Most commonly, the change is caused because of sound assimilation with an adjacent sound of opposite voicing, but it can also occur word-finally or in contact with specific vowel. For example, English suffix -s is pronounced when it follows a voiceless phoneme (cats), and when it follows a voiced phoneme (dogs). This type of assimilation is called progressive, where the second consonant assimilates to the first; regressive assimilation goes in the opposite direction, as can be seen in have to.

English
English no longer has a productive process of voicing stem-final fricatives when forming nounverb pairs or plural nouns.
y y y y y y y y y

belief - believe life - live proof - prove strife - strive thief - thieve ba - bae brea - breae mou (n.) - mou (vb.) shea - sheae

y y y y

wrea - wreae choie - chooe houe (n.) - houe (vb.) ue (n.) - ue (vb.)

Synchronically, the assimilation at morpheme boundaries is still productive, such as in: :

y y y y

cat + s > cats dog + s > do miss + ed > mi whizz + ed > whi

The voicing alternation found in plural formation is losing ground in the modern language,, and of the alternations listed below many speakers retain only the pattern, which is supported by the orthography. This voicing is a relic of Old English, the unvoiced consonants between voiced vowels were 'colored' with voicing. As the language became more analytic and less inflectional, final vowels/syllables stopped being pronounced. For example, modern knives is a one syllable word instead of a two syllable word, with the vowel 'e' not being pronounced. However, the voicing alternation between and still occurs.

Larynx
The larynx is a special part of the body that functions as an airway to the lungs as well as providing us with a way of communicating (vocalizing). These functions are all possible because of the skeletal components and the muscles that act on them. Before learning the details, memorize the various parts of the skeleton so that you can then visually place the muscles in the correct places and appreciate how they do their jobs.

Skeleton of the Larynx

The skeleton of the larynx is made up of the hyoid bone and several cartilages.

The thyroid cartilage is made up of two laminae that fuse anteriorly for form the laryngeal prominence (Adam's apple). The angle that they make is usually more acute in males and therefore, is more prominent. The inferior horns articulate with the sides of the cricoid cartilage and form the cricothyroid joint where the thyroid cartilage rocks back and forth at this point. The cricoid cartilage is the only complete cartilage of the larynx. Anteriorly is the cricoid arch. The arch expands as you trace it posteriorly where it forms a square-shaped lamina. The arytenoid cartilages sit on top of the cricoid lamina, posteriorly and articulate there at the cricoarytenoid joints. The arytenoid cartilages slide medially and laterally, anteriorly and posteriorly and rotate at these joints. The cartilage is pyramidal in shape with the base being triangular in shape with 3 processes. The vocal process extends anteriorly, the muscular process lies laterally and third process is not well defined. The vocal ligament (cord) extends from the vocal process to the back side of the thyroid cartilage. You can appreciate that any movement of the arytenoid cartilage will have an effect on the placement of the vocal cords (making them loose or taut, bring them together or spreading them apart). The epiglottis is attached inferiorly to the thyroid cartilage by a small stem. Its lateral and superior borders are free. The superior border can be seen through the oral cavity.
Anterolateral View

Posterior View

Various parts of the larynx area closed by connective tissue membranes. The thyrohyoid membrane was seen in the study of the neck and is pierced by the internal laryngeal nerve and superior laryngeal artery. It extends from the upper border of the thyroid cartilage to the greater wing of the hyoid bone. The quadrangular membrane is free at the top and bottom but attached posteriorly to the arytenoid cartilage and anteriorly to the side of the epiglottis. The lower free margin forms the false vocal cord (or vestibular fold). The cricothyroid membrane (or conus elasticus) extends from the upper margin of the cricoid cartilage to attach to the back of the thyroid cartilage anteriorly and the arytenoid cartilage posteriorly. Its upper free margin is the vocal ligament (true vocal cord).

Muscles of the Larynx

The muscles of the larynx can be difficult to clean and identify. They consists of muscles that change the opening of the glottis as well as the tenseness of the vocal cord, thereby keeping it open for respiration and helps us vocalize. The cricothyroid muscle lies anterior and external to the larynx and was identified in the study of the muscular triangle of the neck. It arises from the cricoid cartilage and attaches into the inferior horn and lower margin of the thyroid cartilage. When it contracts, it pulls the thyroid cartilage forward, increasing the distance between the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages and tensing the vocal cord. It is supplied by the external laryngeal branch of the superior laryngeal nerve (X).

By removing one lamina of the thyroid cartilage, you can see the lateral cricoarytenoid muscle. As can be seen in the diagram, this muscle arises from the upper border of the cricoid cartilage and inserts onto the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilage.

The remainder of the major muscles can be seen from the back of the larynx. Located in the upper part of the aryepiglottic fold is the aryepiglottic muscle. It is attached to the lateral border of the epiglottis and becomes the oblique arytenoid which then attaches into the arytenoid cartilage. This muscle works as a purse string to close the opening of the larynx when swallowing, protecting the larynx. Running from arytenoid to arytenoid cartilages is the transverse arytenoideus muscle. This muscle pulls the arytenoids together when they contract. Lastly, we have the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles. They arise from the expanse of the cricoid lamina and insert into the muscular process of the arytenoid cartilages. These are the only muscles that open the space between the vocal cords (abduct). Another muscle, not shown, is the thyroarytenoideus. This muscle extends from the back of the thyroid cartilage to the front side of the arytenoid cartilage. It pulls the arytenoid cartilage forward when it contracts, thus loosening the vocal ligament. The deep upper part of this muscle is the vocalis muscle. This muscle can change the tenseness of small segments of the vocal cord in order to vary tonal qualities of our voice.

Actions of Laryngeal Muscles

I consider that the major function of the larynx is to keep the airway open. This means keeping the space between the vocal cords (rima glottidis) open. If it isn't open, we don't breathe so the second function doesn't matter. The second important function is vocalization and this is a very complicated procedure that requires a variety of parts of the body to function together. Figure 1 points out the parts of the larynx involved in breathing and vocalization.
y

arytenoid cartilage o vocal process o muscular process

Figure 2 shows the movements that take place between the arytenoid and cricoid cartilages

(cricoarytenoid joints). The dot in the arytenoid cartilage is the vertical axis around which the arytenoid cartilage rotates. The movements include:
y y y y

adduction (AD) abduction (AB) anterior-posterior sliding (AP) medial-lateral sliding (ML)

Figure 3 shows the action of the transverse arytenoideus muscle. The arytenoid cartilages are pulled towards each other, thus closing the rima glottidis.

Figure 4 shows that the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles adduct the arytenoid cartilages to close the rima glottidis. Figure 5 demonstrates that the thyroarytenoideus muscle pulls the arytenoid cartilages forward, thereby loosening the vocal cord. Figure 6 shows the only abductor, the posterior cricoarytenoideus muscle. This muscle rotates the arytenoid cartilages laterally (abduct), causing the vocal cords to separate from one another, opening the rima glottidis. Figure 7 shows the cricothyroid muscle. As mentioned before, this muscle is external to the larynx and can be seen in the muscular triangle of the neck. This muscle rotates the thyroid cartilage forward around an axis through the cricothyroid joint. This action stretches the vocal cord, thereby tensing it. Figure 1. Figure 2.

Figure 3. 4.

Figure

Figure 5. Figure 6

Figure 7.
Consideration of All of the Structures That Take Part In Vocalization In considering the process of speech, you must first understand that sounds are produced by blowing air past the vocal cords. The air produces vibrations in the vocal cords, forming the sounds that come out of the mouth. The air is pushed out of the lungs by relaxing the diaphragm and contracting muscles of the abdominal wall. The abdominal muscles are supplied by the lower intercostal nerves.

The tonal and pitch variations occur when the vocal cord is made more tense or looser. Tense cords produce higher pitch, loose cords form lower pitch. The muscles involved are supplied by the recurrent laryngeal and external laryngeal nerves. Also changing the vocal cords, we have the stylopharyngeus muscles that pull the pharynx and larynx upward. This serves to shorten the tubal length of the air passage between the base of the skull (body of sphenoid) and the vocal cords. As found in an organ, longer pipes are low pitch and shorter pipes are high pitch. The stylopharyngeus are supplied by the glossopharyngeal nerves. The suprahyoid muscles (digastrics, geniohyoid) pull the hyoid bone up and the larynx follows it. The anterior digastric is supplied by the nerve to mylohyoid. The posterior belly of the digastric is supplied by the facial nerve. The geniohyoid muscle is supplied by C1. The infrahyoid muscles (sternothyroid, omohyoid) pull the larynx down. They are supplied by branches of the ansa cervicalis (C1-C3). The tongue is used to add various inflections to our voice by varying its surface contour (intrinsic muscles) supplied by the hypoglossal nerve. Muscles of facial expression, especially around the mouth and cheeks, are also used to vary the quality of our speech, facial nerve. Finally, if you notice what must move when we speak, the mandible moves up and down by contraction of the muscles of mastication, mandibular division of trigeminal nerve. This description of speech production is an oversimplification, but gives you an idea of just how many nerves and muscles are involved in providing us with the ability to speak.

Another function of the muscles of the larynx is protection of the airway. The major muscle that performs this protection is the aryepiglottic muscle. When you swallow, the aryepiglottic muscle closes off the entrance to the larynx through a purse-string action. It pulls the sides of the epiglottis back and narrows the inlet to the larynx. Muscle responsible is supplied by the recurrent laryngeal nerve. To help in this protection, all muscles that adduct or tense the vocal cord can also narrow the rima glottidis protecting the trachea and lungs.

The cough reflex is also designed to protect the air way. Should something get into the vestibule of the larynx, sensory fibers from the internal laryngeal nerve carries a signal to the central nervous system and from there an impulse is sent to the abdominal muscles which then force a blast of air through the larynx which expels the foreign object.

Sagittal Section Through Larynx

The sagittal view of the larynx reveals relationships that aren't otherwise seen. The aryepiglottic folds form the borders of the opening to the larynx. You can see that they extend from the epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilages. The first space in the larynx is called the vestibule which extends down to the vestibular fold (false vocal cord). Just beneath the vestibular fold is the ventricle which extends laterally and is connected anteriorly to a small sac called the saccule. The saccule has special secretory cells that produce a secretion to keep the vocal cords moist. Beneath the ventricle is the true vocal cord that extends from the vocal process of the arytenoid cartilage to the back side of the thyroid cartilage. The thin space between the left and right vocal cords is called the rima glottidis through which air must pass in order to vocalize and breathe. The area below rima glottidis is called the infraglottic cavity. Below the infraglottic cavity is the trachea.

Innervation of the Larynx

Motor innervation 1. external laryngeal (X) 2. recurrent laryngeal (X) Sensory innvervation 1. internal laryngeal (X) sensory above the false vocal cords 2. recurrent laryngeal (X) sensory below the false vocal cords Oral Cavity, Oropharynx, Tonsil

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Voiceless Plosives
Overview of The Plosives
The plosives are unique among phoneme categories in English in that they involve three distinct phases which are sequential in time, in addition to coarticulation effects on preceding and following segments. We shall see, however, that not all phases occur in all allophonic realizations of the plosives. The three phases are the following: 1. Silence - The articulators totally block the airstream. There may be some underlying voicing activity during part of this phase. The air pressure increases just behind the obstruction.

2. Plosion - The articulators quickly move away from each other. An explosive burst of air rushes through the opening, involving energy in most or all of the audible spectrum. 3. Aspiration - The articulators are now further apart, and the air pressure at the site of the obstruction has fallen so that the speech sound is no longer a burst with energy in all frequencies, but bands of aspiration which are more narrowly concentrated and which move toward the formant values in the next phoneme. This multiple personality of the plosives is responsible for the two different names which are traditionally used for this phoneme category: the term stop refers to the first or silence phase, while the term plosive refers to the second or explosive phase. These two phases will also be called closure and release in what follows; this terminology conforms to Worldbet notation in which each plosive is divided into a silent phase and a explosive phase and a separate symbol is used for each phase.

Details of the Plosives

In English there are six plosives: three voiceless and three voiced. It happens that in English the voiceless plosives are normally aspirated, while the voiced plosives are not. Therefore, Worldbet adds the letter `h' to the symbols used for the voiceless plosives, but not for the voiced plosives. This distribution of voicing and aspiration is not universal; the classic example to the contrary is Sanskrit and its modern descendents in India where all four combinations of voiceless/voiced versus aspirated/unaspirated occur. In French and Italian there is much less aspiration in the voiceless plosives than in English. In other languages there are additional plosives at different places of articulation, such as palatal and uvular plosives. Moreover, phonemes equivalent to English plosives may be made at different places of articulation; for example, /th/ is a dental plosive rather than an alveolar plosive in many languages. The six English plosives can be subdivided into a voiceless-voiced pair at each of three places of articulation: bilabial, alveolar, and velar. Note that these are the same places as for the nasals in English. Also remember that each plosive has two symbols in Worldbet, so that we have a total of twelve symbols for the plosives. 1. Bilabial - Voiceless /pc/ and /ph/, voiced /bc/ and /b/. Locus: low and greatly dependent on the preceding and succeeding phonemes. Shape to look for: bilabial rounding. 2. Alveolar - Voiceless /tc/ and /th/, voiced /dc/ and /d/. Loci: 1800 and 2800 Hz. Shape to look for: alveolar flags. 3. Velar - Voiceless /kc/ and /kh/, voiced /gc/ and /g/. Loci: Depends on preceding and succeeding phonemes. Shape to look for: velar pinch or triangle where F2 and F3 come together then move apart. Burst may be multiple. The voiceless stops are usually easier to recognize than the voiced stops, because: 1. There is little or no voicing during the silence phase, while voiced stops by definition are supposed to have some voicing even during their silence phase. This greater silence in the voiceless plosives allows the explosion to stand out more clearly.

2. There is more energy in the explosive phase for the voiceless stops. We can often miss the signs of plosion for voiced stops unless we look at low dB values. 3. There is aspiration after a voiceless stop in some allophones of the voiceless plosives, but almost never in the voiced case. This period of aspiration, if present, again sets the plosion off and allows easy recognition. Look at Figures 3 through 5 for some good examples of voiceless plosives, along with their voiced counterparts for comparison. See Figure 6 for an example of all three voiceless plosives in different contexts within a single word. Notice the more or less clear division into the three phases of silence, plosion, and aspiration in these voiceless sounds. Given the proper context, the three contrasting shapes which define the plosives will occur both preceding and following the plosive burst. Remember that the same shapes are also useful in distinguishing the nasals, which are formed at the same three places of articulation. There are three allophones of the voiceless plosives: 1. The three-phase plosive. This allophone occurs primarily in syllable-initial position in stressed syllables. It includes all three of the regulation phases: silence, burst, and aspiration. We use the closure labels /pc/, /tc/ and /kc/ followed by the release labels /ph/, /th/, and /kh/. 2. The two-phase plosive. This allophone lacks the aspiration component. In voiceless plosives, it occurs after /s/ and in unstressed syllable-initial position. We still use the closure labels /pc/, /tc/, and /kc/ and the release labels /ph/, /th/, and /kh/ if we are doing phonemic labelling. If we are doing phonetic labelling, we use the unaspirated equivalents /p/, /t/, and /k/ for the release. 3. The one-phase plosive. This allophone lacks both the plosive and aspiration components. It thus includes only silence, and is called an unreleased plosive. This allophone occurs in syllable-final position, or in multi-plosive strings as discussed below. We use only the closure labels /pc/, /tc/, and /kc/. See Figure 7 for examples of unreleased voiceless plosives. How does the silence of /tc/ differ from that of /pc/ or /kc/? It does not; the phoneme /tc/ is in a sense a fiction, but it corresponds to the reality of coarticulation. In order to distinguish between these three sorts of silence, it is necessary to look at the voiced sound which precedes the closure. If the formants are all moving down toward lower frequencies in a rounded fashion, it is bilabial rounding. If the formants F2 and F3 are at 1800 and 2800 Hz on parallel paths, they constitute the alveolar flags. If the formants F2 and F3 are coming together in a triangular pattern, it is the velar triangle -- or velar pinch. In all three cases, the very end of the preceding voiced sound is often characterized by glottalization, that is, increased time between successive glottal pulses and exaggerated formants. See Figure 8 for an example of glottalization. English has many examples of two or more contiguous plosives; they may occur in the same word or across word boundaries. An example phrase is talk to, in Worldbet notation /tc th A kc kh tc th u/. In fluent speech we economize on the number of articulatory gestures in order to speak faster; in this case we omit the burst for the first plosive and the silence for the second; we

thus get the abbreviated phoneme string /tc th A kc th u/. This is extremely common in English. So be on the lookout for conflicting signals before and after the burst. In such cases the time interval spanned by the two plosives is longer than that normally spanned by a single plosive. Plosives combine easily with other consonants to form consonant clusters, as in the initial clusters in the following words: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. /s/ + plosive -- spout, stout, Scout. plosive + /w/ -- tweezer, quorum, square. plosive + /j/ -- pew, cue, skew. [/s/] + plosive + /l/ -- play, splay, clay, sclerosis. [/s/] + plosive + /9r/ -- pray, spray, tray, stray, Cray, scrape.

In cases with a preceding /s/, we have seen that the plosive will be unaspirated. In the aspirated allophones, the aspiration will be used to begin the sketch of the following glide or liquid formants rather than moving toward those of the succeeding vowel. Such approximants can be labelled as devoiced (Worldbet _0). When a plosive is followed immediately by a fricative, particularly /s/ or /z/, the burst will tend to merge into the frication and thus will not be easily recognizable. Example words are very common in English, since /s/ or /z/ is the mark of the plural. See Figure 9 for some plurals involving voiceless plosives.

Plosives
A plosive is formed by the complete obstruction of the vocal tract by the articulators. This obstruction is then released, allowing the air to "explode" out of the mouth. When the air is blocked by the articulator, it begins to raise in pressure. Then, when the air is released, the high pressure air rushes out into the lower pressure area beyond the blockage. This results in a burst of air, signifiying a plosive. In the following diagram, the dots represent the pressure of the air. The higher pressure area have more dots per area, while the lower pressure areas have fewer dots per area.

Fricatives
A fricative is formed by a constriction in the vocal tract by the articulators, such as the tongue or the lips. However, unlike stops, the occlusion (blockage) in the vocal tract is not complete. Some of the air is allowed to come through a very narrow opening. This air becomes turbulent, because of the friction between the airflow and the narrow passage. Fricatives happen in two ways. One way is simply for the air to flow through a narrow opening, like in the sound . Another ways is for the air to be sped up through a narrow passage and then forced across another area, like the teeth, which is the way the sound is formed. In the following diagram, the dots represent moving air particles. The air behind the occlusion is relatively slow, but the air that is forced between the tongue and the roof of the mouth is much faster and more turbulent.

Affricates
An affricate combines the manners of articulation for the plosive and the fricative. Like a stop, the articulation of the affricate begins with a complete closure of the vocal tract by an articulator. However, when the closure is released, the release is somewhat gradual, providing a narrow space between the articulator and the mouth for the airflow to move through. This narrow space creates an environment similar to a fricative, in that the airflow moving out becomes turbulent for a brief period until full release of the closure. Examples of affricates in English are , .

In the next section, you will be introduced to the nasal manner of articulation.

Nasals
A nasal is formed by the obstruction of the vocal tract and the lowering of the velum. This lowering of the velum alows the airflow to flow out through the nasal cavity, rather than through the oral cavity.

Approximant
An approximant is formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no obstruction in the vocal tract. Therefore, no turbulent airflow, as in a fricative. Instead, the air is allowed to flow freely through the vocal tract. Examples of approximants in English are , , , .

The sound is also known as a lateral approximant, since the articulators do touch at a central point, but the air is allowed to flow through one or both sides of the contact point.

Other Articulations
There are two other articulations in varieties of English that should be noted here: the tap and the trill. A tap is formed by a quick contact between an articulator and the vocal tract. In Standard American English, for example, there is the tap , which can be found in the middle of words such as ladder, and butter.

A trill is formed by the rapid vibration of the tongue tip against the roof of the mouth. This vibration is caused by the motion of a current of air. This sound, represented by , is found, for example, in varieties of British and Scots English. It is also known as a "rolled r".

Summary
In this lesson, you have been introduced to several manners of articulation. These are listed below:
y y y

Plosive
o Formed by a blockage of the vocal tract, followed by an explosive release of air Fricative o Formed by slight contact between articulators, allowing turbulent airflow Affricate o Formed by a blockage of the vocal tract, like plosive, followed by a gradual release of turbulent air, like a fricative Nasal o Formed by the lowering of the velum, allowing air to flow through the nasal cavity Approximant o Formed by the constriction of the vocal tract, but with no blockage of the airflow Tap o Formed by a quick contact between articulators Trill o Formed by the rapid vibration of the tongue tip by a current of air

y y y

In the next lesson, you will be introduced to the classification of vowel sound

Wednesday, October 7, 2009

The English Plosive Sounds

Definition Plosive (also known as stops, mutes, occlusives, explosives) sounds are formed by the air being completely blocked in the mouth and then suddenly released. A plosive is a consonant articulation with the following characteristics: One articulator is moved against another, or two articulators are moved against each other, so as to form a stricture that allows no air escape from the vocal tract. The stricture is, then, total. After the stricture has been formed and air has been compressed (held) behind it, it is released; that is, air is allowed to escape.

If the air behind the stricture is still under pressure when the plosive is released, it is probable that the escape of air will produce noise loud enough to be heard. This noise is called plosion. There may be voicing during part or all of the plosive articulation. Classification We have 6 Plosive sounds in English: /p/b/t/d/k/g/. The Plosive consonant sounds are generally described on three bases: 1. Manner of articulation : The manner of articulation is concerned with airflow i.e. the paths it takes and the degree to which it is impeded by vocal tract constrictions. In other words, manner of articulation describes how the sound is produced. In the articulation of the plosive sounds, four phases can be distinguished: (i) Closing phase: In this stage the two organs move very close to one another and create a complete closure or blockade. (ii) Hold/occlusion/compression phase: In this stage the air is held behind the closure. (iii) Release or burst: The two organs move away from one another (closure is opened) and the air goes out and the released airflow produces a sudden impulse causing an audible sound (hence the name plosive). (iv) Post Release phase: The articulators are now further apart, and the air pressure at the site of the obstruction has fallen so that the speech sound is no longer a burst with energy in all frequencies, but bands of aspiration which are more narrowly concentrated and which move toward the formant values in the next phoneme. 2. Place of articulation: The place of articulation refers to where the sound is produced. The plosives have different places of articulation. For example, /p/ and /b/ are bilabial since the lips are pressed together; /t/ and /d/ are alveolar since the tongue blade is pressed against the alveolar ridge; the plosives /k/ and /g/ are velar sounds since the back of the tongue is pressed against the area where the hard palate ends and the soft palate begins (velum). 3. Voicing: Voicing refers to whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating. The plosives /p/t/k/ are always voiceless. On the other hand, /b/d/g/ are sometimes fully voiced and sometimes voiceless. On the basis of breathe force these 6 plosives can be divided into two groups: (i) Fortis (ii) Lenis Some phoneticians opine that the degree of breath and muscular effort involved in the articulation between the groups voiceless and voiced are not the same. According to them voiceless (/p/t/k/) English consonants tend to be articulated with a strong degree of breath and muscular effort. They produce strong or forceful vibration in the vocal cord. For their strong nature they are called fortis.

Voiced (/b/d/g/) English consonants tend to be articulated with a weak degree of breath and muscular effort. They produce less vibration in the vocal cord since they need less force. For their weak nature they are called lenis. Thus the terms fortis and lenis allow one to describe in more precise terms than 'voiced and unvoiced' the articulation of English consonants. They refer to a bundle of articulatory features which have different distributions in different languages. The most important of those is perhaps aspiration, a type of sound which could be pronounce with an extra puff of air for which we may hair a h like sound. Distribution The following discussion gives a detailed description of the distribution of the plosive sounds. All six plosives can occur initially, medially and finally.

1. Initial Position: The closing phase for /p/ t/ k/ and /b/d/g/ takes place silently. During the hold phase of there is no voicing in /p/t/k/, but in /b/d/g/, on the other hand, we normally very little voicing. The release phase of /p/t/k/ is followed by an audible plosion, that is, a burst of noise. There is then, in the post-release phase, a period during which air escapes through the vocal folds, making a sound like h . This is called aspiration. For example: pin, tin, kin. The release of /b/d/g/, on the other hand, is followed by weak plosion. 2. Medial position: The pronunciation of /p/t/k/ and /b/d/g/ in medial position depends to some extent on whether the syllables preceding and following the plosive are stressed (both depend on the context). In general we can say that a medial plosive may have the characteristics either of final or initial plosives. 3. Final Position: The final /b/d/g/ have little voicing. /p/t/k/ are voiceless. The plosion for both is non audible. The difference is that the vowels preceding /p/t/k/ are shorter than the ones preceding /b/g/d/

References Roach, Peter. English Phonetics and Phonology: A self-contained, comprehensive pronunciation course. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2000. Varshney, Dr. R.L. An Introduction of Linguistics & Phonetics. Dhaka: BOC, n.d. 87-90. Yule, George. The Study of Language. 2nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996. 40-47

Fortis/lenis
The fortis-lenis distinction is usually thought of as the voiced/voiceless distinction in consonants. This is the distinction between the initial sounds in pit- bit, to-do, few-view, sue-zoo, etc. In English, there are eight fortis-lenis pairs:

Voicing (=phonation) is of course an important aspect of this distinction; so important that generative linguists often mark the distinction with the feature [+/-voice]. But voicing is not the only feature of the distinction, and in some cases it does not figure at all. In Icelandic, for instance, both lenis and fortis stops (plosives) are unvoiced. In English, lenis stops can be half-voiced or even unvoiced at the ends of words. If we compare the stops in English, Icelandic and French, we find something like the following:

(Note in this table that the Icelandic lenis stops [p t k] are written b,d,g in spelling.)

Many languages further afield use all three of these possibilities, and some even more, adding ejectives or implosives.

Five features of the fortis/lenis distinction in R.P.

Voicing (phonation) Voicing an important feature of the distinction in fricatives: few-view (f - v) face-phase (s-z) bath - bathe ( - ) and in medial plosives (= plosives with vowels on either side of them): later - lady super cubic

Length Fortis consonants are generally speaking longer than lenis consonants. This is true of them all. One of the effects of this phenomenon is that fortis consonants tend to shorten or 'clip' the sounds they follow (see clipping). Postaspiration This applies to the stops (plosives) and to a lesser extent the afficates. The fortis stops p,t,k are postaspirated (most authorities use the term "aspirated") when they occur at the beginning of stressed syllables. Examples: pot, top, cot - p t, t p, k t but not in: spot, stop, Scot, where the stops do not begin the syllable. Glottalization Many RP speakers introduce a glottal stop ( ) in front of fortis stops in medial or final postions, particularly when thes stops begin a group (or 'cluster') of consonants. This also occurs before the fortis affricate . Examples: rucksack / r ksk/, stopwatch / st pw /

Force All four features discussed above can be represented by the idea that fortis consonants are produced with more force than lenis ones - remember that 'fortis' and 'lenis' are Latin for 'strong' and 'weak'. Some people find this concept intuitively satisfying, but it hasn't ever really been demonstrated with any certainty. I include it for what it's worth.

The following table summarizes these five points. "+" shows that the feature in question has relevance for the consonant-types in the heading, and "(+)" means that the feature is optional or variable). Where there is a blank, the feature does not occur for that type of consonant.

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