9
UNDERGROUND MINE
DEVELOPMENT
a1 NATURE AND SCOPE OF THE TASK
9.1.1 Role of
Underground Mining
If the appeal of surface
mining lies in its mass
capabilities, then the production and
of ore deposits that attraction of underground mining stems minimal-cost
can be mined and the from the
conditions that cannot be approached versatility of its methods tovariety
bysurface mining. Underground mining meet
cannot compete withsurlace
production. mining today in its cost or share of
Reviewing
5% of metals and Table 6.2. we see that in terms of ore U.S. mineral
nonmetals, and less than 39% of all coaltonnage, less than
underground mines. Thus, underground mining is
is produced in
the United relegated
for many to a secondary role
commodities. However, States
underground mining for most of its supply of lead, potash,depends heavily on
addition, much of its coal, gold, trona, and zinc. In
underground mines. molybdenum, salt, and silver come from
Predicting underground production in upcoming years is
Many analysts argue that most of the near-surface deposits havequite ditieult.
mìned. 1n addition, they point out the great already been
mental requirements on the surface. expense of meeting all environ
However, the
the greater ease ever-increasing productivity
o! surfaCe mining equipment and
with which surface mining
cquipment can be upsized and automated makes it more likely that
mining will continue to increase as a surface
percentage of our
Whether it increases or decreases. it is safe to assume that total production.
will underground
continue to play an important role in supplying mineral resourcesmining
future. in the
267
UNDERGROUND AMINE DEVELOPMENT
268
Mining
9.1.2 Uniqueness of Underground
Anumber of development steps are required
these are
for
outlined
underground mining that are
in
not necesSsury in surface mining, Section 4.2. A
the governing factors indicates that there is less concern for
locationreview of
(climate, in particular, is less a factor) and environmental factors
most critica! factors are ore and rock
strength, the
presence of consequences. Thc
and the rock temperature gradient in the locality. The social, groundwatquiteer.
political., and environmental factors in underground economic,
mining are often
skilled labor
diferent from those in surface mining. A more force may
required. 'ìnancing may be more difficult because of increased
be
subsidence may become the most important environmental concern risk, and
The extent of access development required is also quite different. In surfaee
mining, removal ef significant amounts of overburden may complicate devel.
opment. On the other hand, limited excavation and relatively small openinee
are necessary for most underground mines. However. the development open-
ings may be considerably more costly on a tonnage basis, and more types of
excavations may be required. In addition, underground mines normally must
be provided with an artificial atmosphere as a means of ensuring that the
quantity and quality of air are always adequate.
On occasion, underground development openings double for exploration
purposes. and vice versa. Those openings driven in advance of mining can
provide valuable exploration information and afford suitable sites for addi.
tional exploration drilling and sampling. Likewise, openings driven for exnlo.
ration purposes can be utilized to develop the deposit. For example, the
exploration shaft and drifts shown in Figure 3.6 would almost certainly serve
subsequently to open up the deposit.
9.1.3 Types of Underground Openings
Underground deveiopment openings can be ranked in three categories by
order of importance in the overall layout of the mine:
1. Primary: Main openings (e.g, shaft, slope)
2. Secondary: Level or zone openings (e.g., drift, entry)
3. Tertiary: Lateral or panel openings (e.g., ramp, crosscut)
Generally, the openings are driven in this order; that is, from maindevelop
ment openings to secondary level or zone openings, to tertiary openings like
laterai or panelopenings. Howeve, many variations exist with dilferent mining
methods. For example, in coal mining, the entries and the associated crosscuts
are always driven at the same time, regardless of the category of the entries. It
should also be noted that underground mining often employs a distinctive
nomenclature. The following lists defhne a number of the terms commonly used
to describe underground workings and other aspects of upderground mining
NATIJAE ANG SCOPE OF HE TAGY 259
Other sources that can be consultedIfor terminology of rnining include Gregory
(1980), Hamrin (1982), and American Gcological Institute (1997).
Deposit and Spatial Terms
Ruck: Roof, top, or overlying surface of an underground excavation
Bottom: Floor or underlying surface of an underground excavation
Capping: Waste material overlying the mineral deposit
Country rock: Waste material adjacent to a mineral dcposit
Crown pillar: Portion of the deposit overlying an excavation and left in place
as a pillar
Dip: Angle of inclination of a deposit, measured from the horizontal: also
pitch or uttitude
Cloor: Bottom or underlying surface of an underground excavation
Footwall: Wall rock under the deposit
Gob: Broken, caved, and mined-out portion of the deposit
Hanging wal: Wall rock above a deposit
Pillar: Unmined portion of the deposit, providing support to the roof or
hanging wall
Rib: Side wall of an excavation; als0 rib pillar
Roof: Back, top. or overlying surface of an excavation
Sill pillar: Portion of the deposit underiying an excavation and left in place
as a pillar
Strike: Horizontal bearing of a tabuiar deposit at its surface intersection
Wall rock: Country rock boundary adjacent to a deposit
Directional Terms
Breast: Advancing in a near-horizontal direction; also the working face of
an opening*
Inby: Toward the working face, away from the mine entrance
Outby: Away from the working face, toward the entrance
Overhand: Advancing in an upward direction*
Underhand: Advancing in a downward direction*
Excavation Terms
Adit: Main horizontal or ncat-horizontal underground opening, with single
access to the surface
Bell: Funnel-shaped excavation formed at the top of a raise to move bulk
material by gravity from a stope to a drawpoint
*Customarily used to modiíy stopiny or mining.
270 UNDERGROJND MINE DEVELOPMENT
Bleeder: Exhaust ventilation lateral
Chute: Opening from a drawpoint, utilizing gravity flow to
material Irom a bell or orepass to load a conveyance direct bulk
Crosseut: Tertiary horizontal opening, often connecting
drifts,
rooms: oriented perpendicularly to the strike of a pitching entries, or
breukthrouyh deposit; also
Decline: Secondary inclined opening. driven downward to connect
levels.
sometines on the dip of adeposit: also declined shuft
Drawpoint: Loading point beneath a stope, utilizing gravity to move
material downward and into a conveyance, by a chute or bulk
machine:, also boxhole loading
Drift: Primary or secondary horizontal or near-horizontal opening: orientn3
parallel to the strike of a pitching deposit
Entry: Secondary horizontal or near-horizontal opening: usually driven in
multiples
Finger raise: Verticalor near-vertical opening used to transfer bulk materia!
from a stope to a drawpoint; often an interconnected set of raisee
Grizzly: Coarse screening or scalping device that prevents oversized bulk
material from entering a material transfer system; constructed of rais
bars, beams, etc.
Haulugeway: Horizontal opening used primarily for materials handling
Incline: Secondary inclined opening, driven upward to connect levels.
sometimes on the dip of a deposit; also inclined shaft
Laterul: Secondary or tertiary horizontal opening, often parallel or at an
angle to a haulageway, usually to provide ventilation or some auxiliary
Service
Level: System of horizontal openings connected to a shaft; constitutes an
operating horizon of a mine
Louding pocket: Transfer point at a shaft where bulk material is loaded by
bin, hopper, and chute into a skip
Longwall: Horizontal exploitation opening several hundred feet (meters) in
length, usually in a tabular deposit
Manway: Compartment of a raise or a vertical or near-vertical opening
intended for personnel travel between two levels
Orepass.: Vertical or near-vertical opening through which bulk material
flows by gravity
Portal: Opening or connection to the surface from an underground excava
tIOn
Raise: Secondary or tertiary vertical or near-vertical opening. driven upward
from one level to another
271
Rump: Secondary or tertiary inclined opening, driven to connect levels.
usually in a downward direction, and used for haulage
Room: Horizontal exploitation opening, usually in a bedded deposit
Shuft: Primary vertical or near-vertical opening, connecting the surface with
underground workings; also vertical shuft
Slone: Primary inclined opening, usually a shaft, connecting the surface with
underground workings
Slot: Narrow vertical or inclined opening excavated in a deposit at the end
of a stope to provide a bench face
Stupe: Large exploitation opening, usually inclined or vertical, but may also
be horizontal
Sublevel: Secondary or intermediate level between main levels or horizons,
usually close to the exploitation area
Transfer point: Location in the materials-handiing system, either haulage or
hoisting, where bulk material is transferred betwecn conveyances
Tunnel: Main horizontal or near-horizontal opening, with access to the
surface at both ends
Undercut: Low horizontal opening excavated under a portion of a deposit,
usually a stope, to induce breakage and caving of the deposit; also a
narrow kerf cut in the face of a mineral deposit to facilitate breakage
Winze: Secondary or tertiary vertical or near-vertical opening, driven
downward from one level to another
may be utilized
Figure 9.I illu_trates a number of development openings that
openings or a
in a metal mine. Figure 9.2 shows some of the types of main mines
in coal are much
coal mine. Note that ramps in metal mines and slopes
enable the use the most
of
more prevalent today than in the past, because they
efficient transport equipment.
9.2 MINE DEVELOPMENT AND DESIGN
aspects of the overall mine
Mine development must proceed considering allunderground mining, extreme
design. Because of the complexity and expense of development that may also
during
care must be exercised in making decisions (1982, 2001) and Bullock and
affect subsequent production operations. Hamrin
considerations in mine design
Hustrulid (2001)discuss many of the important in the
matters of concern are discussed
and development. The most crucial
following sections.
9.2.1 Mining Method
underground mining, attention is
Once the decision has been made to use method. Development should not
focused on the selection of an exploitation
272 UNDERGROUND MINE DEVELOPMENT
Headfra me
Surface production
verburden
H Fan
Open pit
Crown pil Ventilation shaft
exploitation
Sublevel I Auxiliary level
Underground
Stope Ramp
Sublevel l1
Orepass
Main shatt
Haulege drift exploitation
Main level l
Waste for
pass development
Ore body Orepass
Manway raise
Under
Main level Il
Water basin
Footwal Underground crusher
Hangins wall Pump station
Dip Exploration
Skip
Ore bin
Winze
Core
Drift expioration Skip loading pocket
drilling
Sump
FIQURE .1. Layout of an underground noncoal mine identfying openings, working placos, and
stages in the lite of the mine. A surtace mine that underwent transition to underground is also
shown. (After Hamin, 1982. By perrisSion from the Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Expiorat1on, inc.. Littietor, CO.)
sURFACE
TRAMSPR PAEAAATIO#
-COAL SE AM PLANT
MAIN CONVE YOR 9ELT
PREAAAT IQM
PLANT
SURFACe
-SLOPE cONVEYOR
9ELT
COAL SEAM
PREPARATION HEADFRAME
PLANT
HOIST
HOUSE sURFACE
SKIP
SHAF
cCAR DUMP
cOAL SE AM7
$TORA6 iN
FIGURE 9.2. Layouts of main access openings for an underground coal mune (Top) Dr
(Cente) Slope. (Bottom) Shat. (After Stefanko and Bise, 1983. By permission Irom the Society
for Mining, Metallurgy. and Expioration, inc., Litteton, CO.)
proceed untila mine production plan has been adopted, and the first step is C
decide which class of underground method is most suitable unsupported
supported, or caving. Note also that solution mining, although not common
is still a choice for an underground deposit (see Section 84). As dscussed .n
Section 4.8, selection of a mining method hinges on natural and geolog:c
Ont calot to themincral deposit. on certain cconomic
ment lciw And on other factors that may and
have a bearing on the enviton-
deNelotcd
1he reason that the chocc of a mcthod is so crucial is that
it
specific
and pluenent of the pimary
the surface duc to subsidencc
largely governs
development openings 1f disturbane
Is anticipatcd
nethods and poss1ble with other
he wated outsde the zone of methods then all the access
- nevitablc with cav1ng
ntegt
Iracture bounded by the angle ofopeningS
the ground overlying the draw, If must
the
tle active mining arca can be ensured for
he mine then the prmary the
the deposit openngs can be locatcd morc centrally above
9.2.2 Production Rate and Mine Life
Avanetr of geologic and
economic cond1tions determine the optimum rate of
production from a mineral depos1t of known reserves and, hencc, the life of the
mine These include market conditions and sell1ng price of the commodity.
mineral grade. development time, mining costs,
ment support and taxation pobcies, and a numbermcans of hnancing, govern
of other factors.
The most common goa! in modern mine
planning is to optimize the net
present traluc. that is, to mine the depoSit so that the maximum internal rate of
return s achieved (Arrouet. 1992). One way of
the production rate on the lcases of the net accompl1shing this is to select
fows present value of the after-tax cash
Ail other things being equal, the higher the
mine I:fe Formerly, mine life spans were often production rate, the shorter the
higher cost of borrowed money and greater measured decades. With the
in
now oftcn limited 10 a few years. investment rsks, mine lives are
Although many low-grade, high-tonnage
operations are still ffnanced with a life expectancy of 15 to 30
yearS, it is not
uncommon for a high-grade, low-tonnage operation to be designed with a two
Lo four-year life span (Glanville, 1984).
Because
labor and borrowed money. however, the trend in the
of the relatively high cost of
large mines and high production rates. Nilsson industry is still toward
and corncludes that such trends are likely to
(1982a) explores the reasons
continue.
9.2.3 Main Access Openings
A number of initial decisions related to the
amine must be made early in the mine
primary development openings of
planning stage. They concern the lype,
number, shape, and size of the main openings. By necessity, these
decisions are
ordinarily made at the time when the primary
choser Factor: infiuencing the decisions include materials-handling system is
the depth, shape, and size of
the deposit, surface topography; natural and geologic
conditions of the ore
body and surrounding rock; mining method, and production rate. Wise
decisions made at the outset avoid later changes in development openings,
changes that are always discupt1Ve and ct penave 5uch ch.aiges c om
In mines with grcat iongevity but should not occur in short ived operatin
9.2.3.1 Types of Openings. In rezard to ty pes of openings ther ats
three Common choces that are used with regularity tl) shults lvertal
ncar vertical), (2) declines (slopes or ramps). and 3 dts or drlts Veria
shafts have always been among the most common ypes ot openings or leT
mines However. neurly all shafts are now vertical becaue ncarserical shalt
more costly and dilficult to develop
arc
Decl1nes have been amnong the fastest growing primarr deveiogment vpen
ings because ot their associatton with principal materials-handang systems I
coal mines, these openings are called slopes (see Figure 9 2) and are assocated
with the belt conveyor transport of Coal out of the mine EX Cept in vey deD
mines. these openings provide for low-cost primary transportation of the coa
out of the minc. eliminating the need for a hotstung system The slopes in a coa
mine are generally driven at an angle of about 15 For this reason, &siope
usually 3.6 times as long as 2 vertiCal shalt and Costs more than Ashait
Howevcr, a slope will pay for the extra cost 1n a teN years Nith the savin2s t
be obtained by substituting a bcit conveyor for 1 hotst S1milar ogic can br
applied to a rump in 2 metal mune These opcnings are ordinariiy driven t0
allow free access to any level i of the mine with diesel-powered equipment The
can be driven in a spiral form (see Figure 9l) or in d rectangular form. wth
lincar sections alternating with curved sections to chieve the desired access to
each level of the mine. In cach case the idea is o provide a Means of uttirzing
mobile equipment throughout the mine without limitation. Ranps are not
ordinarily used tor primary haulageways, bu: rather as neuessary development
onenings to facilitate use of diesel equipment in the mine.
Drifts or udits are used in coal, nonmeta., and industral minerals operations
. nny situation where the deposit can be casily accessec
through entries or
odits of ahorizontal type (see Figure 92). The proper situation wouid normally
occur in coal or nonmetal depos1ts, but can be read:iy lound in metal denossts
located in mountainous regions. Cleariy, thLS methcd of developmunt can appi.
10 many deposits and is otten a cost-eilective method of develup1ng a mine f
the possib1l1ty exISts.
9.2.3.2 Standard Development Practices. In the deveiopnet of any
given mine, the mine planner ordinarily utilizes the ty pes, sizes, and numbcr ot
openings that are optimal lor the mining cunditons of the deposit. Thesc
factors vary, depending on the production rate of the mine, the depth of the
deposit, the type of equipment to be utilized in the muning system, and ihe
primary method of removing the mineral product rom the mne In dnft and
adit m1nes, the slandard practce is to valual the cqipment s2e And
production rate of the mine to determune the sSIZe and number ul open4ng
needed. Coal mines are required to have a number of opennngs, and this m4y
result n more enries being driven into thc dcposit than arc necessary ilh 4
