EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION

Contents
Topic Page No.
Defination of Excretion 02 - 02
Human Excretory System 03 - 05
Urine Formation 06 - 06
Counter-current Mechanism 07 - 07
Regulation of Kidney Function 07 - 09
Disorders of The Excretory System 09 - 09

Additional Excretory Organs 09 - 09

Syllabus
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS AND THEIR ELIMINATION
Defination of Excretion, Human Excretory System, Urine Formation, Counter-current
Mechanism, Regulation of Kidney Function, Disorders of The Excretory System,
Additional Excretory Organs

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ZOOLOGY
19 - Excretory Products and Their Elimination
CLASS : XI
Introduction.
Metabolic reactions occurring in animal body produce certain materials which are of no use in the cells. These are
called waste materials. They become toxic if allowed to accumulate in the body. Therefore these materials must be removed
from the body for healthy life.
Definition of Excretion.
The process of removal of non-gaseous nitrogenous waste substances like ammonia, uric acid, urea etc. in the form
of water, harmful substances, salts, pigments is known as excretion. It is mainly a process of removal of harmful substances
from the body along with water balance.
Excretory orangs in various phyla.
Protozoa – Plasma membrane (contractile vacuole).
Porifera – Absent-(All the cells contribute equally by water vascular system).
Coelenterata – Excretion of water substances through water canal system.
Platyhelminthes – Protonephridia, flame cells.
Nematoda – Excretory canal.
Annelida – Nephridia
Arthropoda
Crustacea – Green gland or Antennal gland.
Insecta – Malpighian tubules.
Arachnida – Coxal gland.
Mollusca – Organ of Bojanus or Kidney.
Echinodermata – Absent-Water vascular system.
Chordata
Cephalochordata – Solenocyte.
Cyclostomes larva – Protonephric kidney.
Amphibia – Mesonephric kidney.
Reptiles, Birds and Mammals – Metanephric kidney
Classification of animals on the basis of excretory product.
(i) Ammonotelic : They excrete ammonia e.g., Helminthes, Molluscs, Echinoderms fishes, Protozoans,
Poriferans, Annelid, Aquatic Arthropods, Tadpoles of Amphibia, Turtles, Crocodile etc.
(ii) Ureotelic : These organisms excrete urea e.g., Cartilagenous fishes, Adult amphibia, Mammals etc.
(iii) Uricotelic : Excrete uric acid e.g., Insects, Some gastropods, Lizards, Snakes, Birds etc.
Excretory products.
(i) Amino acids – Molluscs (Unio, Limnea).
(ii) Urea – In Arginase enzyme containing animals.
(iii) Ammonia – All aquatic animals.
(iv) Uric acid – In animals which lack large quantity of water.
(v) Trimethylamine oxide – Marine elasmobranch
(vi) Guanine – Spiders

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Ornithine Cycle :- It is also termed as the Kreb-Henseleit cycle. In this cycle, 2 molecules of NH3 react with 1 molecule of
CO2, resultants a molecule of urea is formed. The formation of urea through this cycle takes place by the following steps -

1. Firstly - 2 molecule of NH3, 1 molecule of CO2 combine to form carbamyl - Phosphate. This reaction is
catalysed by the carbamyl-phosphate synthetase enzyme. 2 ATP's are used in this reaction.
2. In next step - carbamyl-phosphate reacts with ornithine amino-acid to form the Citrulline amino-acid.
3. In next Step - Citrulline reacts with Aspartic acid to form Argino-succinic acid. This reaction is catalysed by
Argino-succinic synthetase. 1 molecule of ATP is used in this process.
4. In next step - Argino-succinic acid converts into Arginine and Fumaric-acid in the presence of Argino-succinase
enzyme.
5. Arginine, now dissociates into ornithine and urea in presence of Arginase enzyme. Ornithine again enters the
cycle.
HUMANEXCRETORY SYSTEM
Excretory organ are also termed as organs of homeostasis.
The main excretory organ in humans is kidney.
Other excretory organs are skin, liver, lungs & large intestine.
Human excretory system consists of :
– Two kidneys & their blood supplies.
– A pair of ureters.
– urinary bladder
– Urethra
Human excretory system
 Excretion is the removal or elimination of waste products of metabolism from the body in order to regulate the
composition of the body fluids and tissues. Human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters,
urinary bladder and urethra.

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 The kidney is covered by a layer of fibrous
connective tissue, the renal capsule. Outside the
capsule, is a layer of fat, the adipose capsule,
followed by a fibrous membrane, the renal fascia.
The renal capsule, adipose capsule and renal
fascia constitute the protective coats of kidneys.
Towards the centre of the inner concave surface
of the kidney is a notch called hilus or hilum.
Blood vessels, lymph vessels, nerves and ureters
enter or leave the kidney through hilus. Ureters
carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder. Urinary bladder stores urine temporarily.
Urethra in males carries both urine and semen, in
females it carries only urine. Longitudinal section of mammalian kidney
 There are two distinct zones in kidney– an outer,
darker, renal cortex and an inner, lighter renal
Medulla which is made of 15-16 conical subdivisions called renal pyramids. The lateral boundary of each renal
pyramid is delineated by renal columns of Bertini.
 Nephrons or uriniferous tubules are morphological and physiological units of kidneys. A nephron consists of two
parts – an initial filtering component, the renal corpuscle or Malpighian corpuscle and a long tubule, the renal
tubule.
 The renal corpuscle filters out large solutes from the blood, and delivers water and small solutes to the renal tubule
for modification. The renal
corpuscle is composed of a
capillary network called
glomerulus and a Bowman's
capsule or glomerular capsule
 Bowman's capsule consists of
two layers– outer parietal layer
(consists of simple squamous
epithelium) and inner visceral
layer (consists of specialised
epithelial cells called podocytes
containing filtration slits through
which filtrate filters).
 Glomerulus is a capillary network
within the Bowman's capsule.
Blood enters glomerular
capillaries through afferent
arterioles and leaves through
efferent arterioles. The efferent
arteriole divides to form
peritubular capillary network
around convoluted tubules of
nephrons. This network gives rise
to vasa recta which extend in
A mammalian nephron
medulla.
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 Attached to each Bowman's capsule is a long, thin renal tubule with three distinct regions – proximal convoluted
tubule (PCT), loop of Henle and distal convoluted tubule (DCT).
 Distal convoluted tubule continues into a short straight terminal part called collecting tubule. Collecting tubules
of many nephrons open into larger tubes called collecting ducts which join to form still larger ducts called ducts of
Bellini that open into renal pelvis through medullary pyramids in the calyces.
 Smooth muscle cells of both afferent and efferent arterioles are called juxtaglomerular cells. The epithelial cells of
DCT in contact with afferent arterioles are collectively called macula densa. The 1G cells together with macula
densa form juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA).
 Nephrons are of two types : (i) Cortical nephrons (about 80-90% of total nephrons) are superficial and originate
in cortex and have relatively short loops of Henle. They deal with the control of blood volume. (ii) Juxtamedullary
nephrons (10-20% of total nephrons) are present at the junction between cortex and medulla and have long loops
of Henle & Vasa Recta. They deal with increased water retention, when water is in short supply.

(a) Juxtamedullar y nephron (b) Cor tical nephron

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Urine formation
 It includes glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion.
Physiology of urination or Urine formation.
Urination occurs in 3 stages.
(i) Ultrafiltration
(ii) Selective reabsorption
(iii) Secretion
(i) Ultrafiltration : Urine formation is a bio-physical process in which through kidney, inorganic salts, urea, creatine,
harmful drugs, urobillin, heamatoporphyrin etc are excreted by the process of filtration. In this process, first of all
blood enters into glomerulus, through renal arteriole, from here non-protein substances of blood enter Bowman’s
capsule due to glomerular hydrostatic pressure.
EFP = GHP – (BCOP + CHP)
(a) GHP = 75 mm Hg. (due to narrower ERA)
(b) BCOP = 30 mm Hg.
(Blood colloidal osmotic pressure due to plasma protein)
(c) CHP = 20 mm Hg.
(Capsular hydrostatic pressure, due to fluid pre occupying the Bowman’s capsule)
Note -
Total exerted force in opposite direction (b +c) 30+20 = 50 mm Hg.
EFP (Effective Filtration Pressure) = GHP – (BCOP + CHP) = 75 – (30 + 20)
EFP = 10 to 25 mm Hg
(ii) Selective reabsorption : Many useful substances also enter Bowman’s capsule (in the filtrate) which are essential
for the body. They are reabsorbed by selective reabsorption. Among these glucose, amino acid, Na  , K  etc. are
absorbed actively, in presence of ATP by microvilli of proximal convoluted tubule. Here 80% filtrate is absorbed.
About 80% of water is reabsorbed in PCT and loop of Henle. This is called obligatory water reabsorption. In DCT,
Cl– is reabsorbed by diffusion. Water reabsorption in DCT mediated by ADH is called facultative water reabsorption.
(iii) Secretion : Selective process involving both passive and active transport. Creatinine and foreign substances
from interstitial fluid are secreted actively into the filtrate in PCT. Hydrogen, potassium, NH 4 & HCO 3 are
secreted into the filtrate in DCT by active transport. Urea enters the filtrate passively by diffusion in the ascending
limb of Henle’s loop.
 The quantity of glomerular filtrate formed each minute in all the nephrons of both the kidneys is called the
glomerular filtration rate (GFR). In the normal person, GFR is about 125 mL per minute.
 Sodium and potassium are reabsorbed by primary active transport. Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by
secondary active transport. Water is reabsorbed by osmosis. Chloride ions, urea and other solutes are reabsorbed
by diffusion. The filtrate is isotonic to blood plasma.
 In descending limb of loop of Henle, water is reabsorbed due to increasing osmolality of interstitial fluid. Sodium
and other solutes are not reabsorbed here. The filtrate becomes hypertonic to blood plasma. Ascending limb of
loop of Henle is impermeable to water but permeable to K+, Cl– and Na+ and partially permeable to urea so the
filtrate becomes hypotonic to blood plasma.
 In distal convoluted tubules, there is active reabsorption of sodium ions from the filtrate under the influence of
aldosterone. Water is reabsorbed here under the influence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by posterior
lobe of pituitary gland. This makes the filtrate isotonic to blood plasma.
 In collecting duct, further reabsorption of water takes place. Now, the filtrate becomes hypertonic to blood plasma.
Sodium is reabsorbed in the collecting duct under the influence of aldosterone. The filtrate is now called urine.
Thus, urine is hypertonic to blood plasma.
 The expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder is called micturition. It is a reflex process, but in grown up children
and adults, it can be controlled voluntarily to some extent.
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Counter-current mechanism
 The counter-current means that the fluid flows in opposite direction in the two sides of the loop, down one side
and up the other. It helps to maintain a concentration gradient in the medullary interstitial fluid which helps in an
easy absorption of water from the filtrate present in the collecting duct so that the concentration of the filtrate
(urine) is increased.
 The proximity between the loop of Henle and vasa recta, as well as the counter current in them help in maintaining
an increasing osmolarity towards the inner medullary interstitial fluid. This gradient is mainly caused by NaCI and
urea. NaCI is transported by the ascending limb of loop of Henle which is exchanged with the descending limb of
vasa recta. NaCI is returned to the medullary interstitial fluid by the ascending portion of vasa recta. Similarly, small
amounts of urea enter the thin segment of the ascending limb of loop of Henle which is transported back to the
medullary interstitial fluid by the collecting duct.

Proximal tubule Distal tubule

100
300 Collecting duct

Cortex

Vein
Artery

300
320
300

100
Vasa recta H2O H2O
200 NaCl
400
400 400 400 400
H2O Outer Medulla
NaCl H2O

600 600 600

600 NaCl
NaCl
Descending limb of loop H2O
800 800 NaCl
H2O H2O
800
Ascending limb of loop 800 800
NaCl Inner Medulla
NaCl
H2O H2O

1200 1200 NaCl 1200

Urea
1400 1400 1400 H2O

Regulation of kidney function

 As blood pressure decreases, the cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus release the enzyme renin and activate the
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I. Angiotensin
converting enzyme (ACE) then converts angiotensin I into angiotensin II, a peptide hormone that is the active
form. Angiotensin II increases the synthesis and release of aldosterone, raises blood pressure directly by constricting
blood vessels and stimulates sodium reabsorption by the proximal convoluted tubule. Aldosterone is a hormone

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secreted by the cortex of adrenal glands. When aldosterone is present in the blood, all the Nat in the filtrate is
reabsorbed by the epithelial cells of the collecting duct. Retaining Nat, raises the osmotic pressure of the blood
and reduces water loss from the body.

Drop in blood
pressure Liver

Angiotensinogen
(453 amino acids long)

Angiotensin I
(10 amino acids long)
Angiotensin-converting enzyme

Angiotensin II
(8 amino acids long)

Cardiovascular
Hypothalamus system Adrenal
cortex
Aldosterone

Kidney

Vasoconstriction

Thirst and drinking Salt and water retention

Elavated blood
pressure

Juxtaglomerular apparatus : Juxtaglomerular cells + Macula densa + Lacis / Polkisen / mesangial cell.

Juxtaglomerular cells

Macula densa

Afferent arteriole

Distal convoluted tubule

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 When water content in the body is low, the posterior pituitary secretes ADH, which increases the reabsorption of
water in DCT and collecting ducts by making them more permeable to water. Therefore, small amount of hypertonic
urine is eliminated.
 There is another hormone, a peptide called Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF), which opposes the regulation by
RAAS. This factor can cause vasodilation and thereby decrease the blood pressure.
 Thus RAAS, ADH and ANF regulate the functions of kidneys. They control body fluid osmolarity, salt concentration,
blood pressure and blood volume.
Composition of human urine
Water – 95%, Salts – 2%, Urea 2.6%, Uric acid – 0.3%
Colour – Pale yellow, due to pigment urochrome.
pH – Ranges from 5.0 to 7.8, average pH 6.0, slightly acidic.
Odour – Aromatic, but become ammonia like upon standing.
Volume – 1 to 2 litres in 24 hours but varies to a considerable extent.
Disorders of the excretory system
(1) Anuria : The failure of kidney to secrete urine
(2) Albuminuria : Presence of albumin in urine
(3) Bright’s disease : Inflammation of kidney (Glomerulo-nephritis)
(4) Cystitis : Inflammation of urinary bladder
(5) Dysuria : Painful urination
(6) Enuresis : Bed-wetting
(7) Glycosuria : Presence of sugar in urine. A pathological glycosuria results from diabetes mellitus
(8) Haematuria : Presence of RBCs in urine
(9) Haemodialysis : Removal of accumulated wastes like urea from blood by artificial kidney
(10) Ketosis : Presence of ketone or acetone bodies (aceto-acetic acid, b-hydroxybutyric acid and acetone) in urine
(Acetonuria)
(11) Gout : High level of uric acid in the blood
(12) Polyuria : Excessive urine
(13) Pyuria : WBCs or pus in the urine
(14) Oliguria : Scanty urine
(15) Kidney stone (Renal calculus) – formed by precipitation of uric acid or oxalate. It causes severe colic pain in the
back, spreading down to thighs. Stone may pass into the ureter or urinary bladder, may grow and result in severe
pain or blockade. (16) Glomerulonephritis – inflammation of glomeruli due to injury, bacterial toxins, drugs, etc.
(17) Uremia – accumulation of urea in blood due to malfunctioning of kidney. Highly harmful and usually a consequence
of kidney/renal failure. In such patients, urea can be removed by haemodialysis.
(18) Kidney/Renal failure is a medical condition in which the kidneys fail to adequately filter the waste products from
the blood. Haemodialysis should be started after diagnosis is done. In haemodialysis, blood is drained from an
artery into a dialysing unit which contains cellophane tube surrounded by a fluid of same composition as plasma
except nitrogenous waste. Cellophane membrane allows passage of molecules based on concentration gradient.
Nitrogenous wastes, hence, freely move out and cleared blood is pumped back to the body through vein.
Additional excretory organs.
(i) Skin : Mammalian skin secretes two fluids: Sweat from sweat glands & sebum from sebaceous glands. Sweat
consists of water, NaCl, urea & lactic acid. Sebum contains some lipids such as waxes, sterols, hydrocarbons &
fatty acids.
(ii) Lungs : Remove CO 2 & some water as vapour in the expired air..
(iii) Liver : Excretes cholesterol, steroid hormones, bile pigments, certain vitamins & drugs via bile.
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