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Processes Polymer Processing Blow Molding Injection Molding Metal Injection Molding Thermoforming Metal Casting Centrifugal Casting Die Casting Investment Casting Permanent Mold Sand Casting Shell Mold Casting Machining Milling Turning Hole-making Drill Size Chart Tap Size Chart Sheet Metal Fabrication Forming Cutting with shear Cutting without shear Gauge Size Chart Additive Fabrication SLA FDM SLS DMLS 3D Printing Inkjet Printing Jetted Photopolymer LOM Materials Metals Plastics Case Studies Cost Analysis Part Redesign Product Development Resources Curriculum Resources Glossary

Sand Casting

Contents

1. Capabilities 2. Process Cycle 3. Equipment 4. Tooling 5. Materials 6. Possible Defects 7. Design Rules 8. Cost Drivers Sand casting, the most widely used casting process, utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy. Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting typically has a low production rate. The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mold. The metal is melted in the furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand mold separates along a parting line and the solidified casting can be removed. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section.

Sand casting overview

Sand casting is used to produce a wide variety of metal components with complex geometries. These parts can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to several tons. Some smaller sand cast parts include components as gears, pulleys, crankshafts, connecting rods, and propellers. Larger applications include housings for large equipment and heavy machine bases. Sand casting is also common in producing automobile components, such as engine blocks, engine manifolds, cylinder heads, and transmission cases.

Return to top Capabilities

Shapes:

Part size: Materials:

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Thin-walled: Flat Complex Thin-walled: Solid: Cylindrical Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Thin-walled: Cubic Solid: Complex Weight: 1 oz - 450 ton Metals Lead Alloy Steel Tin Carbon Steel Titanium Cast Iron Zinc Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Magnesium Nickel 300 - 600 in 125 - 2000 in 0.03 in. 0.015 in. 0.125 - 5 in. 0.09 - 40 in. 1 - 1000 1 - 1000000 Days Hours Can produce very large parts Can form complex shapes Many material options Low tooling and equipment cost Scrap can be recycled Short lead time possible Poor material strength High porosity possible Poor surface finish and tolerance Seondary machining often required Low production rate High labor cost Engine blocks and manifolds, machine bases, gears, pulleys

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top
Process Cycle The process cycle for sand casting consists of six main stages, which are explained below.

1.

Mold-making - The first step in the sand casting process is to create the mold for the casting. In an expendable mold process, this step must be performed for each casting. A sand mold is formed by packing sand into each half of the mold. The sand is packed around the pattern, which is a replica of the external shape of the casting. When the pattern is removed, the cavity that will form the casting remains. Any internal features of the casting that cannot be formed by the pattern are formed by separate cores which are made of sand prior to the formation of the mold. Further details on mold-making will be described in the next section. The mold-making time includes positioning the pattern, packing the sand, and removing the pattern. The mold-making time is affected by the size of the part, the number of cores, and the type of sand mold. If the mold type requires heating or baking time, the mold-making time is substantially increased. Also, lubrication is often applied to the surfaces of the mold cavity in order to facilitate removal of the casting. The use of a lubricant also improves the flow the metal and can improve the surface finish of the casting. The lubricant that is used is chosen based upon the sand and molten metal temperature.

2.

Clamping - Once the mold has been made, it must be prepared for the molten metal to be poured. The surface of the mold cavity is first lubricated to facilitate the removal of the casting. Then, the cores are positioned and the mold halves are closed and securely clamped together. It is essential that the mold halves remain securely closed to prevent the loss of any material.

3.

Pouring - The molten metal is maintained at a set temperature in a furnace. After the mold has been clamped, the molten metal can be ladled from its holding container in the furnace and poured into the mold. The pouring can be performed manually or by an automated machine. Enough molten metal must be poured to fill the entire cavity and all channels in the mold. The filling time is very short in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal.

4.

Cooling - The molten metal that is poured into the mold will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The mold can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed. The desired cooling time can be estimated based upon the wall thickness of the casting and the temperature of the metal. Most of the possible defects that can occur are a result of the solidification process. If some of the molten metal cools too quickly, the part may exhibit shrinkage, cracks, or incomplete sections. Preventative measures can be taken in designing both the part and the mold and will be explored in later sections.

5.

Removal - After the predetermined solidification time has passed, the sand mold can simply be broken, and the casting removed. This step, sometimes called shakeout, is typically performed by a vibrating machine that shakes the sand and casting out of the flask. Once

removed, the casting will likely have some sand and oxide layers adhered to the surface. Shot blasting is sometimes used to remove any remaining sand, especially from internal surfaces, and reduce the surface roughness.

6.

Trimming - During cooling, the material from the channels in the mold solidifies attached to the part. This excess material must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. A larger casting will require a longer trimming time. The scrap material that results from this trimming is either discarded or reused in the sand casting process. However, the scrap material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled metal and reused. Return to top Equipment Mold In sand casting, the primary piece of equipment is the mold, which contains several components. The mold is divided into two halves - the cope (upper half) and the drag (bottom half), which meet along a parting line. Both mold halves are contained inside a box, called a flask, which itself is divided along this parting line. The mold cavity is formed by packing sand around the pattern in each half of the flask. The sand can be packed by hand, but machines that use pressure or impact ensure even packing of the sand and require far less time, thus increasing the production rate. After the sand has been packed and the pattern is removed, a cavity will remain that forms the external shape of the casting. Some internal surfaces of the casting may be formed by cores. Cores are additional pieces that form the internal holes and passages of the casting. Cores are typically made out of sand so that they can be shaken out of the casting, rather than require the necessary geometry to slide out. As a result, sand cores allow for the fabrication of many complex internal features. Each core is positioned in the mold before the molten metal is poured. In order to keep each core in place, the pattern has recesses called core prints where the core can be anchored in place. However, the core may still shift due to buoyancy in the molten metal. Further support is provided to the cores by chaplets. These are small metal pieces that are fastened between the core and the cavity surface. Chaplets must be made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than that of the metal being cast in order to maintain their structure. After solidification, the chaplets will have been cast inside the casting and the excess material of the chaplets that protrudes must be cut off. In addition to the external and internal features of the casting, other features must be incorporated into the mold to accommodate the flow of molten metal. The molten metal is poured into a pouring basin, which is a large depression in the top of the sand mold. The molten metal funnels out of the bottom of this basin and down the main channel, called the sprue. The sprue then connects to a series of channels, called runners, which carries the molten metal into the cavity. At the end of each runner, the molten metal enters the cavity through a gate which controls the flow rate and minimizes turbulence. Often connected to the runner system are risers. Risers are chambers that fill with molten metal, providing an additional source of metal during solidification. When the casting cools, the molten metal will shrink and additional material is needed. A similar feature that aids in reducing shrinkage is an open riser. The first material to enter the cavity is allowed to pass completely through and enter the open riser. This strategy prevents early solidification of the molten metal and provides a source of material to compensate for shrinkage. Lastly, small channels are included that run from the cavity to the exterior of the mold. These channels act as venting holes to allow gases to escape the cavity. The porosity of the sand also allows air to escape, but additional vents are sometimes needed. The molten metal that flows through all of the channels (sprue, runners, and risers) will solidify attached to the casting and must be separated from the part after it is removed.

Sand Mold - Opened

Sand

Sand Mold - Closed

The sand that is used to create the molds is typically silica sand (SiO2) that is mixed with a type of binder to help maintain the shape of the mold cavity. Using sand as the mold material offers several benefits to the casting process. Sand is very inexpensive and is resistant to high temperatures, allowing many metals to be cast that have high melting temperatures. There are different preparations of the sand for the mold, which characterize the following four unique types of sand molds. Greensand mold - Greensand molds use a mixture of sand, water, and a clay or binder. Typical composition of the mixture is 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay or binder. Greensand molds are the least expensive and most widely used. Skin-dried mold - A skin-dried mold begins like a greensand mold, but additional bonding materials are added and the cavity surface is dried by a torch or heating lamp to increase mold strength. Doing so also improves the dimensional accuracy and surface finish, but will lower the collapsibility. Dry skin molds are more expensive and require more time, thus lowering the production rate. Dry sand mold - In a dry sand mold, sometimes called a cold box mold, the sand is mixed only with an organic binder. The mold is strengthened by baking it in an oven. The resulting mold has high dimensional accuracy, but is expensive and results in a lower production rate. No-bake mold - The sand in a no-bake mold is mixed with a liquid resin and hardens at room temperature. The quality of the sand that is used also greatly affects the quality of the casting and is usually described by the following five measures: Strength - Ability of the sand to maintain its shape.

Permeability - Ability to allow venting of trapped gases through the sand. A higher permeability can reduce the porosity of the mold, but a lower permeability can result in a better surface finish. Permeability is determined by the size and shape of the sand grains. Thermal stability - Ability to resist damage, such as cracking, from the heat of the molten metal.

 Collapsibility - Ability of the sand to collapse, or more accurately compress, during solidification of the casting. If the sand can not compress, then the casting will not be able to shrink freely in the mold and can result in cracking. Reusability - Ability of the sand to be reused for future sand molds. Packing equipment

There exists many ways to pack the sand into the mold. As mentioned above, the sand can be hand packed into the mold. However, there are several types of equipment that provide more effective and efficient packing of the sand. One such machine is called a sandslinger and fills the flask with sand by propelling it under high pressure. A jolt-squeeze machine is a common piece of equipment which rapidly jolts the flask to distribute the sand and then uses hydraulic pressure to compact it in the flask. Another method, called impact molding, uses a controlled explosion to drive and compact the sand into the flask. In what can be considered an opposite approach, vacuum molding packs the sand by removing the air between the flask and a thin sheet of plastic that covers the pattern. The packing of the sand is also automated in a process known as flask-less molding. Despite the name of the process, a flask is still used. In conventional sand casting, a new flask is used for each mold. However, flask-less molding uses a single master flask in an automated process of creating sand molds. The flask moves along a conveyor and has sand blown against the pattern inside. This automated process greatly increases the production rate and also has many benefits to the castings. Flask-less molding can produce uniform, high density molds that result in excellent casting quality. Also, the automated process causes little variation between castings. Return to top Tooling The main tooling for sand casting is the pattern that is used to create the mold cavity. The pattern is a full size model of the part that makes an impression in the sand mold. However, some internal surfaces may not be included in the pattern, as they will be created by separate cores. The pattern is actually made to be slightly larger than the part because the casting will shrink inside the mold cavity. Also, several identical patterns may be used to create multiple impressions in the sand mold, thus creating multiple cavities that will produce as many parts in one casting. Several different materials can be used to fabricate a pattern, including wood, plastic, and metal. Wood is very common because it is easy to shape and is inexpensive, however it can warp and deform easily. Wood also will wear quicker from the sand. Metal, on the other hand, is more expensive, but will last longer and has higher tolerances. The pattern can be reused to create the cavity for many molds of the same part. Therefore, a pattern that lasts longer will reduce tooling costs. A pattern for a part can be made many different ways, which are classified into the following four types: Solid pattern - A solid pattern is a model of the part as a single piece. It is the easiest to fabricate, but can cause some difficulties in making the mold. The parting line and runner system must be determined separately. Solid patterns are typically used for geometrically simple parts that are produced in low quantities.

Solid pattern
Split pattern - A split pattern models the part as two separate pieces that meet along the parting line of the mold. Using two separate pieces allows the mold cavities in the cope and drag to be made separately and the parting line is already determined. Split patterns are typically used for parts that are geometrically complex and are produced in moderate quantities.

Split pattern
Match-plate pattern - A match-plate pattern is similar to a split pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to opposite sides of a single plate. The plate is usually made from wood or metal. This pattern design ensures proper alignment of the mold cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the match plate. Match-plate patterns are used for larger production quantities and are often used when the process is automated.

Match-plate pattern

 Cope and drag pattern - A cope and drag pattern is similar to a match plate pattern, except that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mold halves are made independently. Just as with a match plate pattern, the plates ensure proper alignment of the mold cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the plates. Cope and drag patterns are often desirable for larger castings, where a match-plate pattern would be too heavy and cumbersome. They are also used for larger production quantities and are often used when the process is automated.

Cope and drag pattern

Another piece of tooling used in sand casting is a core-box. If the casting requires sand cores, the cores are formed in these boxes, which are similar to a die and can be made of wood, plastic, or metal just like the pattern. The core-boxes can also contain multiple cavities to produce several identical cores. Return to top Materials Sand casting is able to make use of almost any alloy. An advantage of sand casting is the ability to cast materials with high melting temperatures, including steel, nickel, and titanium. The four most common materials that are used in sand casting are shown below, along with their melting temperatures.

Materials Aluminum alloys Brass alloys Cast iron Cast steel

Return to top Possible Defects

Melting temperature 1220 F (660 C) 1980 F (1082 C) 1990-2300 F (1088-1260 C) 2500 F (1371 C)

Defect Unfilled sections

Causes Insufficient material Low pouring temperature

Porosity

Melt temperature is too high Non-uniform cooling rate Sand has low permeability Non-uniform cooling rate

Hot tearing

Surface projections

Erosion of sand mold interior A crack in the sand mold Mold halves shift

Return to top Design Rules Maximum wall thickness Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Part with thick walls

Part redesigned with thin walls

Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects. A thick section, often referred to as a hot spot, causes uneven cooling and can result in shrinkage, porosity, or cracking.

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 t2)

Corners

Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Sharp corner
Draft

Rounded corner

Apply a draft angle of 2 - 3 to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the mold.

INCORRECT

CORRECT

No draft angle
Machining allowance

Draft angle ()

Add 0.0625 - 0.25 in. (0.16 - 0.64 mm) to part dimensions to allow for machining to obtain a smooth surface. Return to top Cost Drivers Material cost The material cost for sand casting includes the cost of the metal, melting the metal, the mold sand, and the core sand. The cost of the metal is determined by the weight of the part, calculated from part volume and material density, as well the unit price of the material. The melting cost will also be greater for a larger part weight and is influenced by the material, as some materials are more costly to melt. However, the melting cost in typically insignificant compared to the metal cost. The amount of mold sand that is used, and hence the cost, is also proportional to the weight of the part. Lastly, the cost of the core sand is determined by the quantity and size of the cores used to cast the part. Production cost The production cost includes a variety of operations used to cast the part, including core-making, moldmaking, pouring, and cleaning. The cost of making the cores depends on the volume of the cores and the quantity used to cast the part. The cost of the mold-making is not greatly influenced by the part geometry when automated equipment is being used. However, the inclusion of cores will slightly slow the process and therefore increase the cost. Lastly, the cost of pouring the metal and cleaning the final casting are both driven by the weight of the part. It will take longer to pour and to clean a larger and heavier casting.

Tooling cost The tooling cost has two main components - the pattern and the core-boxes. The pattern cost is primarily controlled by the size of the part (both the envelope and the projected area) as well as the part's complexity. The cost of the core-boxes first depends on their size, a result of the quantity and size of the cores that are used to cast the part. Much like the pattern, the complexity of the cores will affect the time to manufacture this part of the tooling (in addition to the core size), and hence the cost. The quantity of parts that are cast will also impact the tooling cost. A larger production quantity will require the use of a tooling material, for both the pattern and core-boxes, that will not wear under the required number of cycles. The use or a stronger, more durable, tooling material will significantly increase the cost. Return to top

Processes Polymer Processing Blow Molding Injection Molding Metal Injection Molding Thermoforming Metal Casting Centrifugal Casting Die Casting Investment Casting Permanent Mold Sand Casting Shell Mold Casting Machining Milling Turning Hole-making Drill Size Chart Tap Size Chart Sheet Metal Fabrication Forming Cutting with shear Cutting without shear Gauge Size Chart Additive Fabrication SLA FDM SLS

DMLS 3D Printing Inkjet Printing Jetted Photopolymer LOM Materials Metals Plastics Case Studies Cost Analysis Part Redesign Product Development Resources Curriculum Resources Glossary

Blow Molding
Blow molding is a manufacturing process that is used to create hollow plastic parts by inflating a heated plastic tube until it fills a mold and forms the desired shape. The raw material in this process is a thermoplastic in the form of small pellets or granules, which is first melted and formed into a hollow tube, called the parison. There are various ways of forming the parison, as explained below. The parison is then clamped between two mold halves and inflated by pressurized air until it conforms to the inner shape of the mold cavity. Typical pressures are 25 to 150 psi, far less than for injection molding. Lastly, after the part has cooled, the mold halves are separated and the part is ejected. Parts made from blow molding are plastic, hollow, and thin-walled, such as bottles and containers that are available in a variety of shapes and sizes. Small products may include bottles for water, liquid soap, shampoo, motor oil, and milk, while larger containers include plastic drums, tubs, and storage tanks. Blow molded parts can be formed from a variety of thermoplastic materials, including the following:

Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET) Polypropylene (PP) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

As mentioned above, there are different methods used to form the parison which distinguish the following three forms of blow molding:

Extrusion blow molding - An extruder uses a rotating screw to force the molten plastic through a die head that forms the parison around a blow pin. The parison is extruded vertically between the two open mold halves, so they can close on the parison and blow pin. Pressurized air flows through the blow pin to inflate the parison. This is the most common type of blow molding and is used to manufacture large quantities of relatively simple parts.

 Injection blow molding - The molten plastic is injection molded around a core inside a parison mold to form the hollow parison. When the parison mold opens, both the parison and core are transferred to the blow mold and securely clamped. The core then opens and allows pressurized air to inflate the parison. This is the least commonly used method because of the lower production rate, but is capable of forming more complicated parts with higher accuracy. Injection blow molding is often preferred for small, complex bottles, such as those in medical applications. Stretch blow molding - The parison is formed in the same way as injection blow molding. However, once transferred to the blow mold, it is heated and stretched downward by the core before being inflated. This stretching provides greater strength to the plastic. Stretch blow molding is typically used to create parts that must withstand some internal pressure or be very durable, such as soda bottles.

Extrusion Blow Molding Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Thin-walled: Complex Part size: Envelope: Up to 105 ft

Feasible

Materials: Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Thermoplastics 250 - 500 in 250 - 500 in 0.04 in. 0.01 in. 0.015 - 0.125 in. 0.01 - 0.24 in. 100000 - 1000000 1000 - 1000000 Days Days Can form complex shapes with uniform wall thickness High production rate Low labor cost Little scrap generated Limited to hollow, thin walled parts with low degree of asymmetry Poor control of wall thickness Poor surface finish Few material options High tooling and equipment cost Bottles, containers, ducting

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Injection Molding
Contents 1. Capabilities 2. Process Cycle 3. Equipment 4. Tooling 5. Materials 6. Possible Defects 7. Design Rules 8. Cost Drivers Injection molding is the most commonly used manufacturing process for the fabrication of plastic parts. A wide variety of products are manufactured using injection molding, which vary greatly in their size, complexity, and application. The injection molding process requires the use of an injection molding

machine, raw plastic material, and a mold. The plastic is melted in the injection molding machine and then injected into the mold, where it cools and solidifies into the final part. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section.

Injection molding overview

Injection molding is used to produce thin-walled plastic parts for a wide variety of applications, one of the most common being plastic housings. Plastic housing is a thin-walled enclosure, often requiring many ribs and bosses on the interior. These housings are used in a variety of products including household appliances, consumer electronics, power tools, and as automotive dashboards. Other common thin-walled products include different types of open containers, such as buckets. Injection molding is also used to produce several everyday items such as toothbrushes or small plastic toys. Many medical devices, including valves and syringes, are manufactured using injection molding as well. Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Flat Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Thin-walled: Complex Part size: Envelope: 0.01 in - 80 ft

Feasible

Typical Weight: 0.5 oz - 55 lb Materials: Thermoplastics

Feasible

Composites Elastomer Thermosets 1 - 32 in

Surface finish - 4 - 16 in Ra: Tolerance: 0.008 in. Max wall 0.03 - 0.25 in. thickness: Quantity: 10000 - 1000000 Lead time: Months

0.002 in. 0.015 - 0.5 in.

1000 - 1000000 Weeks

Advantages: Can form complex shapes and fine details Excellent surrface finish Good dimensional accuracy High production rate Low labor cost Scrap can be recycled Disadvantages: Limited to thin walled parts High tooling and equipment cost Long lead time possible Applications: Housings, containers, caps, fittings Compare with: Go

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top
Process Cycle

The process cycle for injection molding is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 2 minutes, and consists of the following four stages:

1. Clamping - Prior to the injection of the material into the mold, the two halves of the mold must first
be securely closed by the clamping unit. Each half of the mold is attached to the injection molding machine and one half is allowed to slide. The hydraulically powered clamping unit pushes the mold halves together and exerts sufficient force to keep the mold securely closed while the material is injected. The time required to close and clamp the mold is dependent upon the machine - larger machines (those with greaterclamping forces) will require more time. This time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine.

2. Injection - The raw plastic material, usually in the form of pellets, is fed into the injection molding
machine, and advanced towards the mold by the injection unit. During this process, the material is melted by heat and pressure. The molten plastic is then injected into the mold very quickly and the buildup of pressure packs and holds the material. The amount of material that is injected is referred to as the shot. The injection time is difficult to calculate accurately due to the complex and changing flow of the molten plastic into the mold. However, the injection time can be estimated by the shot volume, injection pressure, and injection power.

3. Cooling - The molten plastic that is inside the mold begins to cool as soon as it makes contact with
the interior mold surfaces. As the plastic cools, it will solidify into the shape of the desired part. However, during cooling some shrinkage of the part may occur. The packing of material in the injection stage allows additional material to flow into the mold and reduce the amount of visible shrinkage. The mold can not be opened until the required cooling time has elapsed. The cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the plastic and the maximum wall thickness of the part.

4. Ejection - After sufficient time has passed, the cooled part may be ejected from the mold by the
ejection system, which is attached to the rear half of the mold. When the mold is opened, a mechanism is used to push the part out of the mold. Force must be applied to eject the part because during cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the mold. In order to facilitate the ejection of the part, a mold release agent can be sprayed onto the surfaces of the mold cavity prior to injection of the material. The time that is required to open the mold and eject the part can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine and should include time for the part to fall free of the mold. Once the part is ejected, the mold can be clamped shut for the next shot to be injected. After the injection molding cycle, some post processing is typically required. During cooling, the material in the channels of the mold will solidify attached to the part. This excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the part, typically by using cutters. For some types of material, such as thermoplastics, the scrap material that results from this trimming can be recycled by being placed into a plastic grinder, also called regrind machines or granulators, which regrinds the scrap material into pellets. Due to some degradation of the material properties, the regrind must be mixed with raw material in the proper regrind ratio to be reused in the injection molding process.

Injection molded part Return to top Equipment Injection molding machines have many components and are available in different configurations, including a horizontal configuration and a vertical configuration. However, regardless of their design, all injection molding machines utilize a power source, injection unit, mold assembly, and clamping unit to perform the four stages of the process cycle.

Injection unit

The injection unit is responsible for both heating and injecting the material into the mold. The first part of this unit is the hopper, a large container into which the raw plastic is poured. The hopper has an open bottom, which allows the material to feed into the barrel. The barrel contains the mechanism for heating and injecting the material into the mold. This mechanism is usually a ram injector or a reciprocating screw. A ram injector forces the material forward through a heated section with a ram or plunger that is usually hydraulically powered. Today, the more common technique is the use of a reciprocating screw. A reciprocating screw moves the material forward by both rotating and sliding axially, being powered by either a hydraulic or electric motor. The material enters the grooves of the screw from the hopper and is advanced towards the mold as the screw rotates. While it is advanced, the material is melted by pressure, friction, and additional heaters that surround the reciprocating screw. The molten plastic is then injected very quickly into the mold through the nozzle at the end of the barrel by the buildup of pressure and the forward action of the screw. This increasing pressure allows the material to be packed and forcibly held in the mold. Once the material has solidified inside the mold, the screw can retract and fill with more material for the next shot.

Injection molding machine - Injection unit

Clamping unit

Prior to the injection of the molten plastic into the mold, the two halves of the mold must first be securely closed by the clamping unit. When the mold is attached to the injection molding machine, each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the mold, called the mold cavity, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the nozzle of the injection unit. The rear half of the mold, called the mold core, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides along the tie bars. The hydraulically powered clamping motor actuates clamping bars that push the moveable platen towards the stationary platen and exert sufficient force to keep the mold securely closed while the material is injected and subsequently cools. After the required cooling time, the mold is then opened by the clamping motor. An ejection system, which is attached to the rear half of the mold, is actuated by the ejector bar and pushes the solidified part out of the open cavity.

Injection molding machine - Clamping unit

Machine specifications

Injection molding machines are typically characterized by the tonnage of the clamp force they provide. The required clamp force is determined by the projected area of the parts in the mold and the pressure with which the material is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as shot capacity, clamp stroke, minimum mold thickness, and platen size. Injection molded parts can vary greatly in size and therefore require these measures to cover a very large range. As a result, injection molding machines are designed to each accommodate a small range of this larger spectrum of values. Sample specifications are shown below for three different models (Babyplast, Powerline, and Maxima) of injection molding machine that are manufactured by Cincinnati Milacron.

Babyplast 6.6 0.13 - 0.50 4.33 1.18 2.95 x 2.95 330 8 - 34 23.6 7.9

Powerline 4400

Maxima

Clamp force (ton)

Shot capacity (oz.)

413 - 1054 133.8 31.5 122.0 x 106.3

Clamp stroke (in.)

Min. mold thickness (in.)

Platen size (in.)

40.55 x 40.55

Injection molding machine Return to top Tooling The injection molding process uses molds, typically made of steel or aluminum, as the custom tooling. The mold has many components, but can be split into two halves. Each half is attached inside the injection molding machine and the rear half is allowed to slide so that the mold can be opened and closed along the mold's parting line. The two main components of the mold are the mold core and the mold cavity. When the mold is closed, the space between the mold core and the mold cavity forms the part cavity, that will be filled with molten plastic to create the desired part. Multiple-cavity molds are sometimes used, in which the two mold halves form several identical part cavities.

Mold overview

Mold base

The mold core and mold cavity are each mounted to the mold base, which is then fixed to the platens inside the injection molding machine. The front half of the mold base includes a support plate, to which the mold cavity is attached, the sprue bushing, into which the material will flow from the nozzle, and a locating ring, in order to align the mold base with the nozzle. The rear half of the mold base includes the ejection system, to which the mold core is attached, and a support plate. When the clamping unit separates the mold halves, the ejector bar actuates the ejection system. The ejector bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box, which in turn pushes the ejector pins into the molded part. The ejector pins push the solidified part out of the open mold cavity.

Mold base

Mold channels

In order for the molten plastic to flow into the mold cavities, several channels are integrated into the mold design. First, the molten plastic enters the mold through the sprue. Additional channels, called runners, carry the molten plastic from the sprue to all of the cavities that must be filled. At the end of each runner, the molten plastic enters the cavity through a gate which directs the flow. The molten plastic that solidifies inside these runners is attached to the part and must be separated after the part has been ejected from the mold. However, sometimes hot runner systems are used which independently heat the channels, allowing the contained material to be melted and detached from the part. Another type of channel that is built into the mold is cooling channels. These channels allow water to flow through the mold walls, adjacent to the cavity, and cool the molten plastic.

Mold channels

Mold design

In addition to runners and gates, there are many other design issues that must be considered in the design of the molds. Firstly, the mold must allow the molten plastic to flow easily into all of the cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified part from the mold, so a draft angle must be applied to the mold walls. The design of the mold must also accommodate any complex features on the part, such as undercuts or threads, which will require additional mold pieces. Most of these devices slide into the part cavity through the side of the mold, and are therefore known as slides, or side-actions. The most common type of side-action is a side-core which enables an external undercut to be molded. Other devices enter through the end of the mold along the parting direction, such as internal core lifters, which can form an internal undercut. To mold threads into the part, an unscrewing device is needed, which can rotate out of the mold after the threads have been formed.

Mold - Closed

Mold - Exploded view Return to top Materials There are many types of materials that may be used in the injection molding process. Most polymers may be used, including all thermoplastics, some thermosets, and some elastomers. When these materials are

used in the injection molding process, their raw form is usually small pellets or a fine powder. Also, colorants may be added in the process to control the color of the final part. The selection of a material for creating injection molded parts is not solely based upon the desired characteristics of the final part. While each material has different properties that will affect the strength and function of the final part, these properties also dictate the parameters used in processing these materials. Each material requires a different set of processing parameters in the injection molding process, including the injection temperature, injection pressure, mold temperature, ejection temperature, and cycle time. A comparison of some commonly used materials is shown below (Follow the links to search the material library).

ial name

Abbreviati Trade names on

Description

Applications

POM

Strong, rigid, excellent fatigue resistance, excellent creep resistance, Celcon, Delrin, chemical resistance, moisture Hostaform, Lucel resistance, naturally opaque white, low/medium cost

Bearings, cams, gears, handle plumbing components, rollers rotors, slide guides, valves

PMMA

Rigid, brittle, scratch resistant, Display stands, knobs, lenses Diakon, Oroglas, transparent, optical clarity, low/medium housings, panels, reflectors, s Lucite, Plexiglas cost shelves, trays Cycolac, Magnum, Novodur, Terluran Dexel, Cellidor, Setilithe

nitrile ene Styrene

ABS

Strong, flexible, low mold shrinkage Automotive (consoles, panels (tight tolerances), chemical resistance, vents), boxes, gauges, housin electroplating capability, naturally inhalors, toys opaque, low/medium cost Tough, transparent, high cost Handles, eyeglass frames

se Acetate

CA

mide 6 (Nylon) PA6

High strength, fatigue resistance, Akulon, chemical resistance, low creep, low Ultramid, Grilon friction, almost opaque/white, medium/high cost High strength, fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, low creep, low friction, almost opaque/white, medium/high cost

Bearings, bushings, gears, rol wheels

mide 6/6 )

PA6/6

Kopa, Zytel, Radilon

Handles, levers, small housin ties

mide 11+12 )

PA11+12

High strength, fatigue resistance, chemical resistance, low creep, low Rilsan, Grilamid friction, almost opaque to clear, very high cost Calibre, Lexan, Very tough, temperature resistance,

Air filters, eyeglass frames, sa masks

rbonate

PC

Automotive (panels, lenses,

Makrolon

consoles), bottles, containers dimensional stability, transparent, high housings, light covers, reflect cost safety helmets and shields

ter oplastic

PBT, PET

Celanex, Crastin, Rigid, heat resistance, chemical Lupox, Rynite, resistance, medium/high cost Valox

Automotive (filters, handles, pumps), bearings, cams, elec components (connectors, sen gears, housings, rollers, switc valves Valves

her Sulphone PES

Victrex, Udel

Tough, very high chemical resistance, clear, very high cost Strong, thermal stability, chemical resistance, abrasion resistance, low moisture absorption Heat resistance, flame resistance, transparent (amber color)

heretherketon

PEEKEEK

Aircraft components, electrica connectors, pump impellers, s

herimide

PEI

Ultem

Electrical components (conne boards, switches), covers, she surgical tools

hylene - Low y

LDPE

Lightweight, tough and flexible, Alkathene, excellent chemical resistance, natural Escorene, Novex waxy appearance, low cost Eraclene, Hostalen, Stamylan Noryl, Thermocomp, Vamporan Tough and stiff, excellent chemical resistance, natural waxy appearance, low cost Tough, heat resistance, flame resistance, dimensional stability, low water absorption, electroplating capability, high cost Very high strength, heat resistance, brown, very high cost

Kitchenware, housings, cover containers

hylene - High HDPE y

Chair seats, housings, covers containers

enylene

PPO

Automotive (housings, panels electrical components, housin plumbing components

enylene de

PPS

Ryton, Fortron

Bearings, covers, fuel system components, guides, switches shields

opylene

PP

Lightweight, heat resistance, high Automotive (bumpers, covers Novolen, Appryl, chemical resistance, scratch resistance, bottles, caps, crates, handles Escorene natural waxy appearance, tough and housings stiff, low cost. Lacqrene, Brittle, transparent, low cost Styron, Solarene Cosmetics packaging, pens

rene al purpose

GPPS

rene - High

HIPS

Polystyrol, Kostil, Polystar

Impact strength, rigidity, toughness, dimensional stability, naturally translucent, low cost Tough, flexible, flame resistance, transparent or opaque, low cost Tough, flexible, flame resistance, transparent or opaque, low cost

Electronic housings, food con toys

yl Chloride PVC sed UPVC

Welvic, Varlan Polycol, Trosiplast

Electrical insulation, housewa medical tubing, shoe soles, to Outdoor applications (drains, fittings, gutters)

yl Chloride -

e Acrylonitrile SAN

Stiff, brittle, chemical resistance, heat Luran, Arpylene, resistance, hydrolytically stable, Starex transparent, low cost Hytrel, Santoprene, Sarlink

Housewares, knobs, syringes

oplastic mer/Rubber

TPE/R

Tough, flexible, high cost

Bushings, electrical compone seals, washers

Return to top Possible Defects

Defect

Causes Injection pressure too high Clamp force too low Non-uniform cooling rate Injection temperature too high Too much moisture in material Non-uniform cooling rate Insufficient shot volume Flow rate of material too low Injection pressure too low Non-uniform cooling rate Cooling time too short Ejection force too high

Flash

Warping

Bubbles

Unfilled sections

Sink marks

Ejector marks

Many of the above defects are caused by a non-uniform cooling rate. A variation in the cooling rate can be caused by non-uniform wall thickness or non-uniform mold temperature.

Return to top Design Rules Maximum wall thickness

Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time and cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Part with thick walls

Part redesigned with thin walls

Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 t2)

Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

Corners

Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Sharp corner

Rounded corner

Draft

Apply a draft angle of 1 - 2 to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the mold.

INCORRECT

CORRECT

No draft angle

Draft angle ()

Ribs

Add ribs for structural support, rather than increasing the wall thickness

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Thick wall of thickness t

Thin wall of thickness t with ribs

Orient ribs perpendicular to the axis about which bending may occur

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Incorrect rib direction under load Correct rib direction under load F F

Thickness of ribs should be 50-60% of the walls to which they are attached Height of ribs should be less than three times the wall thickness Round the corners at the point of attachment Apply a draft angle of at least 0.25

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Thick rib of thickness t

Thin rib of thickness t

Close up of ribs

Bosses

Wall thickness of bosses should be no more than 60% of the main wall thickness Radius at the base should be at least 25% of the main wall thickness Should be supported by ribs that connect to adjacent walls or by gussets at the base.

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Isolated boss

Isolated boss with ribs (left) or gussets (right)

If a boss must be placed near a corner, it should be isolated using ribs.

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Boss in corner

Ribbed boss in corner

Undercuts

Minimize the number of external undercuts oExternal undercuts require side-cores which add to the tooling cost oSome simple external undercuts can be molded by relocating the parting line

Simple external undercut

Mold cannot separate

New parting line allows undercut

oRedesigning a feature can remove an external undercut

Part with hinge

Hinge requires side-core

Redesigned hinge

New hinge can be molded

Minimize the number of internal undercuts oInternal undercuts often require internal core lifters which add to the tooling cost oDesigning an opening in the side of a part can allow a side-core to form an internal undercut

Internal undercut accessible from the side

oRedesigning a part can remove an internal undercut

Part with internal undercut

Mold cannot separate

Part redesigned with slot

New part can be molded

Minimize number of side-action directions oAdditional side-action directions will limit the number of possible cavities in the mold

Threads

If possible, features with external threads should be oriented perpendicular to the parting direction. Threaded features that are parallel to the parting direction will require an unscrewing device, which greatly adds to the tooling cost. Return to top Cost Drivers Material cost The material cost is determined by the weight of material that is required and the unit price of that material. The weight of material is clearly a result of the part volume and material density; however, the part's maximum wall thickness can also play a role. The weight of material that is required includes the material that fills the channels of the mold. The size of those channels, and hence the amount of material, is largely determined by the thickness of the part. Production cost The production cost is primarily calculated from the hourly rate and the cycle time. The hourly rate is proportional to the size of the injection molding machine being used, so it is important to understand how the part design affects machine selection. Injection molding machines are typically referred to by the tonnage of the clamping force they provide. The required clamping force is determined by the projected area of the part and the pressure with which the material is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force, and hence a more expensive machine. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as clamp stroke, platen size, and shot capacity. The cycle time can be broken down into the injection time, cooling time, and resetting time. By reducing any of these times, the production cost will be lowered. The injection time can be decreased by reducing the maximum wall thickness of the part and the part volume. The cooling time is also decreased for lower wall

thicknesses, as they require less time to cool all the way through. Several thermodynamic properties of the material also affect the cooling time. Lastly, the resetting time depends on the machine size and the part size. A larger part will require larger motions from the machine to open, close, and eject the part, and a larger machine requires more time to perform these operations. Tooling cost The tooling cost has two main components - the mold base and the machining of the cavities. The cost of the mold base is primarily controlled by the size of the part's envelope. A larger part requires a larger, more expensive, mold base. The cost of machining the cavities is affected by nearly every aspect of the part's geometry. The primary cost driver is the size of the cavity that must be machined, measured by the projected area of the cavity (equal to the projected area of the part and projected holes) and its depth. Any other elements that will require additional machining time will add to the cost, including the feature count, parting surface, side-cores, lifters, unscrewing devices, tolerance, and surface roughness. The quantity of parts also impacts the tooling cost. A larger production quantity will require a higher class mold that will not wear as quickly. The stronger mold material results in a higher mold base cost and more machining time. One final consideration is the number of side-action directions, which can indirectly affect the cost. The additional cost for side-cores is determined by how many are used. However, the number of directions can restrict the number of cavities that can be included in the mold. For example, the mold for a part which requires 3 side-action directions can only contain 2 cavities. There is no direct cost added, but it is possible that the use of more cavities could provide further savings. Return to top

Metal Injection Molding

Metal Injection Molding (MIM) is a variation on traditional plastic injection molding that enables the fabrication of solid metal parts utilizing injection molding technology. In this process, the raw material, referred to as the feedstock, is a powder mixture of metal and polymer. For this reason, MIM is sometimes referred to as Powder Injection Molding (PIM). Using a standard injection molding machine, the powder is melted and injected into a mold, where it cools and solidifies into the shape of the desired part. Subsequent heating processes remove the unwanted polymer and produce a high-density metal part. Metal injection molding is best suited for the high-volume production of small metal parts. As with injection molding, these parts may be geometrically complex and have thin walls and fine details. The use of metal powders enables a wide variety of ferrous and non ferrous alloys to be used and for the material properties (strength, hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, etc.) to be close to those of wrought metals. Also, because the metal is not melted in the MIM process (unlike metal casting processes), high temperature alloys can be used without any negative affect on tool life. Metals commonly used for MIM parts include the following:

Low alloy steels Stainless steels High-speed steels Irons Cobalt alloys Copper alloys Nickel alloys Tungsten alloys

Titanium alloys

Metal parts manufactured from the MIM process are found in numerous industries, including aerospace, automotive, consumer products, medical/dental, and telecommunications. MIM components can be found in cell phones, sporting goods, power tools, surgical instruments, and various electronic and optical devices. The metal injection molding process consists of the following steps:

Feedstock preparation - The first step is to create a powder mixture of metal and polymer. The powder metals used here are much finer (typically under 20 microns) than those used in traditional powder metallurgy processes. The powder metal is mixed with a hot thermoplastic binder, cooled, and then granulated into a homogenous feedstock in the form of pellets. The resulting feedstock is typically 60% metal and 40% polymer by volume.

MIM Feedstock Preparation Injection molding - The powder feedstock is molded using the same equipment and tooling that are used in plastic injection molding. However, the mold cavities are designed approximately 20% larger to account for the part shrinkage during sintering. In the injection molding cycle, the feedstock is melted and injected into the mold cavity, where it cools and solidifies into the shape of the part. The molded "green" part is ejected and then cleaned to remove all flash.

MIM Injection Molding Debinding - This step removes the polymer binder from the metal. In some cases, solvent debinding is first performed in which the "green" part is placed in a water or chemical bath to dissolve most of the binder. After (on in place of) this step, thermal debinding or pre-sintering is performed. The "green" part is heated in a low temperature oven, allowing the polymer binder to be removed via evaporation. As a result, the remaining "brown" metal part will contain approximately 40% empty space by volume.

MIM Debinding Sintering - The final step is to sinter the "brown" part in a high temperature furnace (up to 2500F) in order to reduce the empty space to approximately 1-5%, resulting in a high-density (95-99%) metal part. The furnace uses an atmosphere of inert gases and attains temperatures close to 85% of the metal's melting point. This process removes pores from the material, causing the part to shrink to 75-85% of its molded size. However, this shrinkage occurs uniformly and can be accurately predicted. The resulting part retains the original molded shape with high tolerances, but is now of much greater density.

MIM Sintering After the sintering process, no secondary operations are required to improve tolerance or surface finish. However, just like a cast metal part, a number of secondary processes can be performed to add features, improve material properties, or assemble other components. For example, a MIM part can be machined, heat treated, or welded.

Metal Injection Molding (MIM) Design rules When designing parts to be manufactured using MIM, most of the design rules for plastic injection molding still apply. However, there are some exceptions or additions, such as the following:

Wall thickness - Just as with plastic injection molding, wall thickness should be minimized and kept uniform throughout the part. It is worth noting that in the MIM process, minimizing wall thickness not only reduces material volume and cycle time, but also reduces the debinding and sintering times as well. Draft - Unlike plastic injection molding, many MIM parts do not require any draft. The polymer binder used in the powder material releases more easily from the mold than most injection molded polymers. Also, MIM parts are ejected before they fully cool and shrink around the mold features because the metal powder in the mixture takes longer to cool. Sintering support - During sintering, MIM parts must be properly supported or they may distort as they shrink. By designing parts with flat surfaces on the same plane, standard flat support trays can be used. Otherwise, more expensive custom supports may be required. Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled:

Feasible Flat

Part size: Materials:

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Thin-walled: Complex Weight: Typically < 9 oz. Carbon Steel Ceramics Cast Iron Composites Stainless Steel Copper Nickel Titanium Metals Alloy Steel 25 - 35 in 16 - 80 in 0.005 in. 0.0015 in. 0.04 - 0.25 in. 0.01 - 1.2 in. 10000 - 1000000 1000 - 1000000 Weeks Weeks Can form complex shapes and fine details Good surface finish Good mechanical properties High production rate Limited part size Limited to thin walled parts High tooling and equipment cost Long lead time possible Metal components in electronics, surgical instruments, consumer products

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Thermoforming
Thermoforming describes the process of heating a thermoplastic sheet to its softening point, stretching it over or into a single-sided mold, and holding it in place while it cools and solidifies into the desired shape. The thermoplastic sheet is clamped into a holding device and heated by an oven using either convection or radiant heat until it is softened. The sheet is then held horizontally over a mold and pressed into or stretched over the mold using vacuum pressure, air pressure, or mechanical force. The softened sheet conforms to the shape of the mold and is held in place until it cools. The excess material is then trimmed away and the formed part is released. Excess material can be reground, mixed with unused plastic, and

reformed

into

thermoplastic

sheets.

Thermoforming is commonly used for food packaging, but has many applications from plastic toys to aircraft windscreens to cafeteria trays. Thin-gauge (less than 0.060 inches) sheets are mostly used for rigid or disposable packaging, while thick-gauge (greater than 0.120 inches) sheets are typically used for cosmetic permanent surfaces on automobiles, shower enclosures, and electronic equipment. A variety of thermoplastic materials can be used in this process, including the following:

Acrylic (PMMA) Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) Cellulose Acetate Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Polypropylene (PP) Polystyrene (PS) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

As mentioned above, there are different methods of forcing the thermoplastic sheet to conform to the mold. These types of thermoforming include the following:

Vacuum forming - A vacuum is formed between the mold cavity and the thermoplastic sheet. The vacuum pressure (typically 14 psi) forces the sheet to conform to the mold and form the part shape.

Vacuum Forming Pressure forming - In addition to utilizing a vacuum underneath the sheet, air pressure (typically 50 psi, but up to 100 psi) is applied on the back side of the sheet to help force it onto the mold. This additional force allows the forming of thicker sheets and creating finer details, textures, undercuts, and sharp corners.

Pressure Forming Mechanical forming - The thermoplastic sheet is mechanically forced into or around the mold by direct contact. Typically, a core plug will push the sheet into the mold cavity and force it into the desired shape.

Mechanical Forming Return to top

Capabilities

Shapes:

Part size: Materials: Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Thin-walled: Complex Area: 0.04 in - 300 ft Thermoplastics 60 - 120 in 16 - 120 in 0.04 in. 0.008 in. 0.015 - 0.15 in. 0.002 - 0.25 in. 10 - 1000 1 - 100000 Days Days Can produce very large parts High production rate Low cost Limited shape complexity Limited to thin walled parts Scrap cannot be recycled Trimming is required Packaging, open containers, panels, cups, signs

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal casting, sometimes called rotocasting, is a metal casting process that uses centrifugal force to form cylindrical parts. This differs from most metal casting processes, which use gravity or pressure to fill the mold. In centrifugal casting, a permanent mold made from steel, cast iron, or graphite is typically used. However, the use of expendable sand molds is also possible. The casting process is usually performed on a horizontal centrifugal casting machine (vertical machines are also available) and includes the following steps:

1. Mold preparation - The walls of a cylindrical mold are first coated with a refractory ceramic coating,
which involves a few steps (application, rotation, drying, and baking). Once prepared and secured, the mold is rotated about its axis at high speeds (300-3000 RPM), typically around 1000 RPM.

2. Pouring - Molten metal is poured directly into the rotating mold, without the use of runners or a
gating system. The centrifugal force drives the material towards the mold walls as the mold fills.

3. Cooling - With all of the molten metal in the mold, the mold remains spinning as the metal cools.
Cooling begins quickly at the mold walls and proceeds inwards.

4. Casting removal - After the casting has cooled and solidified, the rotation is stopped and the casting
can be removed.

5. Finishing - While the centrifugal force drives the dense metal to the mold walls, any less dense
impurities or bubbles flow to the inner surface of the casting. As a result, secondary processes such as machining, grinding, or sand-blasting, are required to clean and smooth the inner diameter of the part. Centrifugal casting is used to produce axi-symmetric parts, such as cylinders or disks, which are typically hollow. Due to the high centrifugal forces, these parts have a very fine grain on the outer surface and possess mechanical properties approximately 30% greater than parts formed with static casting methods. These parts may be cast from ferrous metals such as low alloy steel, stainless steel, and iron, or from nonferrous alloys such as aluminum, bronze, copper, magnesium, and nickel. Centrifugal casting is performed in wide variety of industries, including aerospace, industrial, marine, and power transmission. Typical parts include bearings, bushings, coils, cylinder liners, nozzles, pipes/tubes, pressure vessels, pulleys, rings, and wheels.

Centrifugal Casting Return to top Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Thin-walled: Complex Cylindrical Solid: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Part size: Diameter: 1 - 120 in. Length: Up to 50 ft. Weight: Up to 5 tons

Typical

Feasible

Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Nickel Surface finish - Ra: 63 - 500 in 32 - 500 in Tolerance: 0.01 in. 0.002 in. Max wall thickness: 0.1 - 5.0 in. 0.1 - 5.0 in. Quantity: 100 - 10000 1 - 10000 Lead time: Weeks Days Advantages: Can form very large parts Good mechanical properties Good surface finish and accuracy Low equipment cost Low labor cost Little scrap generated Disadvantages: Limited to cylindrical parts Secondary machining is often required for inner diameter Long lead time possible Applications: Pipes, wheels, pulleys, nozzles Compare with: Go
Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Die Casting
Contents 1. Capabilities 2. Process Cycle 3. Equipment 4. Tooling 5. Materials 6. Possible Defects

 7. Design Rules 8. Cost Drivers Die casting is a manufacturing process that can produce geometrically complex metal parts through the use of reusable molds, called dies. The die casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, die casting machine, and die. The metal, typically a non-ferrous alloy such as aluminum or zinc, is melted in the furnace and then injected into the dies in the die casting machine. There are two main types of die casting machines - hot chamber machines (used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc) and cold chamber machines (used for alloys with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum). The differences between these machines will be detailed in the sections on equipment and tooling. However, in both machines, after the molten metal is injected into the dies, it rapidly cools and solidifies into the final part, called the casting. The steps in this process are described in greater detail in the next section.

Die casting hot chamber machine overview

Die casting cold chamber machine overview

The castings that are created in this process can vary greatly in size and weight, ranging from a couple ounces to 100 pounds. One common application of die cast parts are housings - thin-walled enclosures, often requiring many ribs and bosses on the interior. Metal housings for a variety of appliances and equipment are often die cast. Several automobile components are also manufactured using die casting, including pistons, cylinder heads, and engine blocks. Other common die cast parts include propellers, gears, bushings, pumps, and valves. Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex

Feasible Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic

Part size: Weight: 0.5 oz - 500 lb Materials: Metals Aluminum Lead Magnesium Copper

Typical Tin Zinc Surface finish - 32 - 63 in Ra: Tolerance: 0.015 in. Max wall 0.05 - 0.5 in. thickness: Quantity: 10000 - 1000000 Lead time: Months

Feasible

16 - 125 in

0.0005 in. 0.015 - 1.5 in.

1000 - 1000000 Weeks

Advantages: Can produce large parts Can form complex shapes High strength parts Very good surface finish and accuracy High production rate Low labor cost Scrap can be recycled Disadvantages: Trimming is required High tooling and equipment cost Limited die life Long lead time Applications: Engine components, pump components, appliance housing Compare with: Go

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top
Process Cycle The process cycle for die casting consists of five main stages, which are explained below. The total cycle time is very short, typically between 2 seconds and 1 minute.

Clamping - The first step is the preparation and clamping of the two halves of the die. Each die half is first cleaned from the previous injection and then lubricated to facilitate the ejection of the next part. The lubrication time increases with part size, as well as the number of cavities and side-cores. Also, lubrication may not be required after each cycle, but after 2 or 3 cycles, depending upon the material. After lubrication, the two die halves, which are attached inside the die casting machine, are closed and securely clamped together. Sufficient force must be applied to the die to keep it securely closed while the metal is injected. The time required to close and clamp the die is dependent upon the machine - larger machines (those with greater clamping forces) will require more time. This time can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine. Injection - The molten metal, which is maintained at a set temperature in the furnace, is next transferred into a chamber where it can be injected into the die. The method of transferring the molten metal is dependent upon the type of die casting machine, whether a hot chamber or cold chamber machine is being used. The difference in this equipment will be detailed in the next section. Once transferred, the molten metal is injected at high pressures into the die. Typical injection pressure ranges from 1,000 to 20,000 psi. This pressure holds the molten metal in the dies during solidification. The amount of metal that is injected into the die is referred to as the shot. The injection time is the time required for the molten metal to fill all of the channels and cavities in the die. This time is very short, typically less than 0.1 seconds, in order to prevent early solidification of any one part of the metal. The proper injection time can be determined by the thermodynamic properties of the material, as well as the wall thickness of the casting. A greater wall thickness will require a longer injection time. In the case where a cold chamber die casting machine is being used, the injection time must also include the time to manually ladle the molten metal into the shot chamber. Cooling - The molten metal that is injected into the die will begin to cool and solidify once it enters the die cavity. When the entire cavity is filled and the molten metal solidifies, the final shape of the casting is formed. The die can not be opened until the cooling time has elapsed and the casting is solidified. The cooling time can be estimated from several thermodynamic properties of the metal, the maximum wall thickness of the casting, and the complexity of the die. A greater wall thickness will require a longer cooling time. The geometric complexity of the die also requires a longer cooling time because the additional resistance to the flow of heat. Ejection - After the predetermined cooling time has passed, the die halves can be opened and an ejection mechanism can push the casting out of the die cavity. The time to open the die can be estimated from the dry cycle time of the machine and the ejection time is determined by the size of the casting's envelope and should include time for the casting to fall free of the die. The ejection mechanism must apply some force to eject the part because during cooling the part shrinks and adheres to the die. Once the casting is ejected, the die can be clamped shut for the next injection. Trimming - During cooling, the material in the channels of the die will solidify attached to the casting. This excess material, along with any flash that has occurred, must be trimmed from the casting either manually via cutting or sawing, or using a trimming press. The time required to trim the excess material can be estimated from the size of the casting's envelope. The scrap material that results from this trimming is

either discarded or can be reused in the die casting process. Recycled material may need to be reconditioned to the proper chemical composition before it can be combined with non-recycled metal and reused in the die casting process.

Die cast part Return to top Equipment The two types of die casting machines are a hot chamber machine and cold chamber machine.

Hot chamber die casting machine - Hot chamber machines are used for alloys with low melting temperatures, such as zinc, tin, and lead. The temperatures required to melt other alloys would damage the pump, which is in direct contact with the molten metal. The metal is contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. The molten metal then flows into a shot chamber through an inlet and a plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through a gooseneck channel and into the die. Typical injection pressures for a hot chamber die casting machine are between 1000 and 5000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains down, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. Prior to the injection of the molten metal, this unit closes and clamps the two halves of the die. When the die is attached to the die casting machine, each half is fixed to a large plate, called a platen. The front half of the die, called the cover die, is mounted to a stationary platen and aligns with the gooseneck channel. The rear half of the die, called the ejector die, is mounted to a movable platen, which slides along the tie bars. The hydraulically

powered clamping unit actuates clamping bars that push this platen towards the cover die and exert enough pressure to keep it closed while the molten metal is injected. Following the solidification of the metal inside the die cavity, the clamping unit releases the die halves and simultaneously causes the ejection system to push the casting out of the open cavity. The die can then be closed for the next injection.

Hot chamber die casting machine - Opened

Hot chamber die casting machine

Cold chamber die casting machine - Cold chamber machines are used for alloys with high melting temperatures that can not be cast in hot chamber machines because they would damage the pumping system. Such alloys include aluminum, brass, and magnesium. The molten metal is still contained in an open holding pot which is placed into a furnace, where it is melted to the necessary temperature. However, this holding pot is kept separate from the die casting machine and the molten metal is ladled from the pot for each casting, rather than being pumped. The metal is poured from the ladle into the shot chamber through a pouring hole. The injection system in a cold chamber machine functions similarly to that of a hot chamber machine, however it is usually oriented horizontally and does not include a gooseneck channel. A plunger, powered by hydraulic pressure, forces the molten metal through the shot chamber and into the injection sleeve in the die. The typical injection pressures for a cold chamber die casting machine are between 2000 and 20000 psi. After the molten metal has been injected into the die cavity, the plunger remains forward, holding the pressure while the casting solidifies. After solidification, the hydraulic system retracts the plunger and the part can be ejected by the clamping unit. The clamping unit and mounting of the dies is identical to the hot chamber machine. See the above paragraph for details.

Cold chamber die casting machine - Opened

Cold chamber die casting machine

Machine specifications Both hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are typically characterized by the tonnage of the clamp force they provide. The required clamp force is determined by the projected area of the parts in the die and the pressure with which the molten metal is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as maximumshot volume, clamp stroke, minimum mold thickness, and platen size. Die cast parts can vary greatly in size and therefore require these measures to cover a very large range. As a result, die casting machines are designed to each accommodate a small range of this larger spectrum of values. Sample specifications for several different hot chamber and cold chamber die casting machines are given below.

Type

Clamp force (ton)

Max. shot volume (oz.) 74 116 254 35

Clamp stroke (in.) 11.8 15.8 21.7 11.8

Min. mold thickness (in.) 5.9 9.8 11.8 5.9

Hot chamber 100 Hot chamber 200 Hot chamber 400 Cold chamber Cold chamber Cold chamber Cold chamber Cold 100

25

29

38

23

400

166

21.7

11.8

38

800

395

30.0

15.8

55

1600 2000

1058 1517

39.4 51.2

19.7 25.6

74

83

Type chamber
Return to top

Clamp force (ton)

Max. shot volume (oz.)

Clamp stroke (in.)

Min. mold thickness (in.)

Tooling The dies into which the molten metal is injected are the custom tooling used in this process. The dies are typically composed of two halves - the cover die, which is mounted onto a stationary platen, and the ejector die, which is mounted onto a movable platen. This design allows the die to open and close along its parting line. Once closed, the two die halves form an internal part cavity which is filled with the molten metal to form the casting. This cavity is formed by two inserts, the cavity insert and the core insert, which are inserted into the cover die and ejector die, respectively. The cover die allows the molten metal to flow from the injection system, through an opening, and into the part cavity. The ejector die includes a support plate and the ejector box, which is mounted onto the platen and inside contains the ejection system. When the clamping unit separates the die halves, the clamping bar pushes the ejector plate forward inside the ejector box which pushes the ejector pins into the molded part, ejecting it from the core insert. Multiple-cavity dies are sometimes used, in which the two die halves form several identical part cavities.

Die channels The flow of molten metal into the part cavity requires several channels that are integrated into the die and differs slightly for a hot chamber machine and a cold chamber machine. In a hot chamber machine, the molten metal enters the die through a piece called a sprue bushing (in the cover die) and flows around the sprue spreader (in the ejector die). The sprue refers to this primary channel of molten metal entering the die. In a cold chamber machine, the molten metal enters through an injection sleeve. After entering the die, in either type of machine, the molten metal flows through a series of runners and enters the part cavities through gates, which direct the flow. Often, the cavities will contain extra space called overflow wells, which provide an additional source of molten metal during solidification. When the casting cools, the molten metal will shrink and additional material is needed. Lastly, small channels are included that run from the cavity to the exterior of the die. These channels act as venting holes to allow air to escape the die cavity. The molten metal that flows through all of these channels will solidify attached to the casting and must be separated from the part after it is ejected. One type of channel that does not fill with material is a cooling channel. These channels allow water or oil to flow through the die, adjacent to the cavity, and remove heat from the die.

Die assembly - Open (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Closed (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Exploded view (Hot chamber)

Die assembly - Opened (Cold chamber)

Die assembly - Closed (Cold chamber)

Die assembly - Exploded view (Cold chamber)

Die Design In addition to these many types of channels, there are other design issues that must be considered in the design of the dies. Firstly, the die must allow the molten metal to flow easily into all of the cavities. Equally important is the removal of the solidified casting from the die, so a draft angle must be applied to the walls of the part cavity. The design of the die must also accommodate any complex features on the part, such as undercuts, which will require additional die pieces. Most of these devices slide into the part cavity through the side of the die, and are therefore known as slides, or side-actions. The most common type of side-action is a side-core which enables an external undercut to be molded. Another important aspect of designing the dies is selecting the material. Dies can be fabricated out of many different types of metals. High grade tool steel is the most common and is typically used for 100-150,000 cycles. However, steels with low carbon content are more resistant to cracking and can be used for 1,000,000 cycles. Other common materials for dies include chromium, molybdenum, nickel alloys, tungsten, and vanadium. Any side-cores that are used in the dies can also be made out of these materials. Return to top Materials Die casting typically makes use of non-ferrous alloys. The four most common alloys that are die cast are shown below, along with brief descriptions of their properties. (Follow the links to search the material library).

Materials

Properties

Aluminum alloys

Copper alloys

Low density Good corrosion resistance High thermal and electrical conductivity High dimensional stability Relatively easy to cast Requires use of a cold chamber machine High strength and toughness High corrosion and wear resistance High dimensional stability Highest cost

Materials

Properties

Magnesium alloys

Zinc alloys

Low die life due to high melting temperature Requires use of a cold chamber machine Very low density High strength-to-weight ratio Excellent machinability after casting Use of both hot and cold chamber machines High density High ductility Good impact strength Excellent surface smoothness allowing for painting or plating Requires such coating due to susceptibility to corrosion Easiest to cast Can form very thin walls Long die life due to low melting point Use of a hot chamber machine

The selection of a material for die casting is based upon several factors including the density, melting point, strength, corrosion resistance, and cost. The material may also affect the part design. For example, the use of zinc, which is a highly ductile metal, can allow for thinner walls and a better surface finish than many other alloys. The material not only determines the properties of the final casting, but also impacts the machine and tooling. Materials with low melting temperatures, such as zinc alloys, can be die cast in a hot chamber machine. However, materials with a higher melting temperature, such as aluminum and copper alloys, require the use of cold chamber machine. The melting temperature also affects the tooling, as a higher temperature will have a greater adverse effect on the life of the dies. Return to top Possible Defects

Defect

Causes Injection pressure too high Clamp force too low Insufficient shot volume Slow injection Low pouring temperature Injection temperature too high Non-uniform cooling rate Non-uniform cooling rate

Flash

Unfilled sections

Bubbles

Hot tearing

Defect

Causes Cooling time too short Ejection force too high

Ejector marks

Many of the above defects are caused by a non-uniform cooling rate. A variation in the cooling rate can be caused by non-uniform wall thickness or non-uniform die temperature. Return to top Design Rules Maximum wall thickness

Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time and cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Part with thick walls

Part redesigned with thin walls

Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Non-uniform wall thickness (t1 t2)

Uniform wall thickness (t1 = t2)

Corners

Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

INCORRECT

CORRECT

Sharp corner

Rounded corner

Draft

Apply a draft angle to all walls parallel to the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the die. oAluminum: 1 for walls, 2 for inside cores oMagnesium: 0.75 for walls, 1.5 for inside cores oZinc: 0.5 for walls, 1 for inside cores

INCORRECT

CORRECT

No draft angle

Draft angle ()

Undercuts

Minimize the number of external undercuts

oExternal undercuts require side-cores which add to the tooling cost oSome simple external undercuts can be cast by relocating the parting line

Simple external undercut

Die cannot separate

New parting line allows undercut

oRedesigning a feature can remove an external undercut

Part with hinge

Hinge requires side-core

Redesigned hinge

New hinge can be cast

Remove all internal undercuts that require lifters - Jamming of these devices often occurs in die casting

oDesigning an opening in the side of a part can allow a side-core to form an internal undercut

Internal undercut accessible from the side

oRedesigning a part can remove an internal undercut

Part with internal undercut

Die cannot separate

Part redesigned with slot

New part can be cast

Minimize number of side-action directions oAdditional side-action directions will limit the number of possible cavities in the die

Return to top Cost Drivers Material cost

The material cost is determined by the weight of material that is required and the unit price of that material. The weight of material is clearly a result of the part volume and material density; however, the part's maximum wall thickness can also play a role. The weight of material that is required includes the material that fills the channels of the die. A part with thinner walls will require a larger system of channels to ensure that the entire part fills quickly and evenly, and therefore will increase the amount of required material. However, this additional material is typically less than the amount of material saved from the reduction in part volume, a result of thinner walls. Therefore, despite the larger channels, using thinner walls will typically lower the material cost.

Production cost

The production cost is primarily calculated from the hourly rate and the cycle time. The hourly rate is proportional to the size of the die casting machine being used, so it is important to understand how the part design affects machine selection. Die casting machines are typically referred to by the tonnage of the clamping force they provide. The required clamping force is determined by the projected area of the part and the pressure with which the molten metal is injected. Therefore, a larger part will require a larger clamping force, and hence a more expensive machine. Also, certain materials that require high injection pressures may require higher tonnage machines. The size of the part must also comply with other machine specifications, such as clamp stroke, platen size, and shot capacity. In addition to the size of the machine, the type of machine (hot chamber vs. cold chamber) will also affect the cost. The use of materials with high melting temperatures, such as aluminum, will require cold chamber machines which are typically more expensive. The cycle time can be broken down into the injection time, cooling time, and resetting time. By reducing any of these times, the production cost will be lowered. The injection time can be decreased by reducing the maximum wall thickness of the part. Also, certain materials can be injected faster than others, but the injection times are so short that the cost saving are negligible. Substantial time can be saved by using a hot chamber machine because in cold chamber machines the molten metal must be ladled into the machine. This ladling time is dependent upon the shot weight. The cooling time is also decreased for lower wall thicknesses, as they require less time to cool all the way through. Several thermodynamic properties of the material also affect the cooling time. Lastly, the resetting time depends on the machine size and the part size. A larger part will require larger motions from the machine to open, close, and eject the part, and a larger machine requires more time to perform these operations. Also, the use of any side-cores will slow this process.

Tooling cost

The tooling cost has two main components - the die set and the machining of the cavities. The cost of the die set is primarily controlled by the size of the part's envelope. A larger part requires a larger, more expensive, die set. The cost of machining the cavities is affected by nearly every aspect of the part's geometry. The primary cost driver is the size of the cavity that must be machined, measured by the projected area of the cavity (equal to the projected area of the part and projected holes) and its depth. Any other elements that will require additional machining time will add to the cost, including the feature

count, parting

surface, side-cores, tolerance,

and surface

roughness.

The quantity of parts and material used will affect the tooling life and therefore impact the cost. Materials with high casting temperatures, such as copper, will cause a short tooling life. Zinc, which can be cast at lower temperatures, allows for a much longer tooling life. This effect becomes more cost prohibitive with higher production quantities. One final consideration is the number of side-action directions, which can indirectly affect the cost. The additional cost for side-cores is determined by how many are used. However, the number of directions can restrict the number of cavities that can be included in the die. For example, the die for a part which requires 3 side-core directions can only contain 2 cavities. There is no direct cost added, but it is possible that the use of more cavities could provide further savings. Return to top

Investment Casting
Investment casting is one of the oldest manufacturing processes, dating back thousands of years, in which molten metal is poured into an expendable ceramic mold. The mold is formed by using a wax pattern - a disposable piece in the shape of the desired part. The pattern is surrounded, or "invested", into ceramic slurry that hardens into the mold. Investment casting is often referred to as "lost-wax casting" because the wax pattern is melted out of the mold after it has been formed. Lox-wax processes are one-to-one (one pattern creates one part), which increases production time and costs relative to other casting processes. However, since the mold is destroyed during the process, parts with complex geometries and intricate details can be created. Investment casting can make use of most metals, most commonly using aluminum alloys, bronze alloys, magnesium alloys, cast iron, stainless steel, and tool steel. This process is beneficial for casting metals with high melting temperatures that can not be molded in plaster or metal. Parts that are typically made by investment casting include those with complex geometry such as turbine blades or firearm components. High temperature applications are also common, which includes parts for the automotive, aircraft, and military industries. Investment casting requires the use of a metal die, wax, ceramic slurry, furnace, molten metal, and any machines needed for sandblasting, cutting, or grinding. The process steps include the following:

1.

Pattern creation - The wax patterns are typically injection molded into a metal die and are formed as one piece. Cores may be used to form any internal features on the pattern. Several of these patterns are attached to a central wax gating system (sprue, runners, and risers), to form a tree-like assembly. The gating system forms the channels through which the molten metal will flow to the mold cavity.

2.

Mold creation - This "pattern tree" is dipped into a slurry of fine ceramic particles, coated with more coarse particles, and then dried to form a ceramic shell around the patterns and gating system. This process is repeated until the shell is thick enough to withstand the molten metal it will encounter. The shell is then placed into an oven and the wax is melted out leaving a hollow ceramic shell that acts as a onepiece mold, hence the name "lost wax" casting.

3.

Pouring - The mold is preheated in a furnace to approximately 1000C (1832F) and the molten metal is poured from a ladle into the

gating system of the mold, filling the mold cavity. Pouring is typically achieved manually under the force of gravity, but other methods such as vacuum or pressure are sometimes used.

4.

Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the shape of the final casting. Cooling time depends on the thickness of the part, thickness of the mold, and the material used.

5.

Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting removed. The ceramic mold is typically broken using water jets, but several other methods exist. Once removed, the parts are separated from the gating system by either sawing or cold breaking (using liquid nitrogen).

6.

Finishing - Often times, finishing operations such as grinding or sandblasting are used to smooth the part at the gates. Heat treatment is also sometimes used to harden the final part.

Investment Casting Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex

Feasible Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic

Part size: Materials:

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Weight: 0.02 oz - 500 lb Metals Cast Iron Alloy Steel Lead Carbon Steel Magnesium Stainless Steel Tin Aluminum Titanium Copper Zinc Nickel 50 - 125 in 16 - 300 in 0.005 in. 0.002 in. 0.06 - 0.80 in. 0.025 - 5.0 in. 10 - 1000 1 - 1000000 Weeks Days Can form complex shapes and fine details Many material options High strength parts Very good surface finish and accuracy Little need for secondary machining Time-consuming process High labor cost High tooling cost Long lead time possible Turbine blades, armament parts, pipe fittings, lock parts, handtools, jewelry

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Permanent Mold Casting

Permanent mold casting is a metal casting process that shares similarities to both sand casting and die casting. As in sand casting, molten metal is poured into a mold which is clamped shut until the material cools and solidifies into the desired part shape. However, sand casting uses an expendable mold which is destroyed after each cycle. Permanent mold casting, like die casting, uses a metal mold (die) that is typically made from steel or cast iron and can be reused for several thousand cycles. Because the molten metal is poured into the die and not forcibly injected, permanent mold casting is often referred to as gravity die casting. Permanent mold casting is typically used for high-volume production of small, simple metal parts with uniform wall thickness. Non-ferrous metals are typically used in this process, such as aluminum alloys, magnesium alloys, and copper alloys. However, irons and steels can also be cast using graphite molds. Common permanent mold parts include gears and gear housings, pipe fittings, and other automotive and

aircraft

components

such

as

pistons,

impellers,

and

wheels.

The permanent mold casting process consists of the following steps:

1.

Mold preparation - First, the mold is pre-heated to around 300500F (150-260C) to allow better metal flow and reduce defects. Then, a ceramic coating is applied to the mold cavity surfaces to facilitate part removal and increase the mold lifetime.

2.

Mold assembly - The mold consists of at least two parts - the two mold halves and any cores used to form complex features. Such cores are typically made from iron or steel, but expendable sand cores are sometimes used. In this step, the cores are inserted and the mold halves are clamped together.

3.

Pouring - The molten metal is poured at a slow rate from a ladle into the mold through a sprue at the top of the mold. The metal flows through a runner system and enters the mold cavity.

4.
mold.

Cooling - The molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify in the

5.

Mold opening - After the metal has solidified, the two mold halves are opened and the casting is removed.

6.

Trimming - During cooling, the metal in the runner system and sprue solidify attached to the casting. This excess material is now cut away.

Permanent Mold Casting

Using these basic steps, other variations on permanent mold casting have been developed to accommodate specific applications. Examples of these variations include the following:

Slush Casting - As in permanent mold casting, the molten metal is poured into the mold and begins to solidify at the cavity surface. When the amount of solidified material is equal to the desired wall thickness, the remaining slush (material that has yet to completely solidify) is poured out of the mold. As a result, slush casting is used to produce hollow parts without the use of cores. Low Pressure Permanent Mold Casting - Instead of being poured, the molten metal is forced into the mold by low pressure air (< 1 bar). The application of pressure allows the mold to remain filled and reduces shrinkage during cooling. Also, finer details and thinner walls can be molded. Vacuum Permanent Mold Casting - Similar to low pressure casting, but vacuum pressure is used to fill the mold. As a result, finer details and thin walls can be molded and the mechanical properties of the castings are improved. Return to top Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex Part size: Weight: 2 oz - 660 lb Materials: Aluminum Copper Magnesium

Feasible Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time:

125 - 250 in 0.015 in. 0.08 - 2 in. 1000 - 100000 Months

Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Lead Nickel Tin Titanium Zinc 32 - 400 in 0.01 in. 0.08 - 2 in. 500 - 1000000 Weeks

Typical Feasible Advantages: Can form complex shapes Good mechanical properties Many material options Low porosity Low labor cost Scrap can be recycled Disadvantages: High tooling cost Long lead time possible Applications: Gears, wheels, housings, engine components Compare with: Go
Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Shell Mold Casting

Shell mold casting is a metal casting process similar to sand casting, in that molten metal is poured into an expendable mold. However, in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from applying a sand-resin mixture around a pattern. The pattern, a metal piece in the shape of the desired part, is reused to form multiple shell molds. A reusable pattern allows for higher production rates, while the disposable molds enable complex geometries to be cast. Shell mold casting requires the use of a metal pattern, oven, sand-resin mixture, dump box, and molten metal. Shell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-tomedium in size and require high accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms. The shell mold casting process consists of the following steps:

1. Pattern creation - A two-piece metal pattern is created in the shape of the desired part, typically
from iron or steel. Other materials are sometimes used, such as aluminum for low volume production or graphite for casting reactive materials.

2. Mold creation - First, each pattern half is heated to 175-370C (350-700F) and coated with a
lubricant to facilitate removal. Next, the heated pattern is clamped to a dump box, which contains a mixture of sand and a resin binder. The dump box is inverted, allowing this sand-resin mixture to coat the pattern. The heated pattern partially cures the mixture, which now forms a shell around the pattern. Each pattern half and surrounding shell is cured to completion in an oven and then the shell is ejected from the pattern.

3. Mold assembly - The two shell halves are joined together and securely clamped to form the
complete shell mold. If any cores are required, they are inserted prior to closing the mold. The shell mold is then placed into a flask and supported by a backing material.

4. Pouring - The mold is securely clamped together while the molten metal is poured from a ladle into
the gating system and fills the mold cavity.

5. Cooling - After the mold has been filled, the molten metal is allowed to cool and solidify into the
shape of the final casting.

6. Casting removal - After the molten metal has cooled, the mold can be broken and the casting
removed. Trimming and cleaning processes are required to remove any excess metal from the feed system and any sand from the mold.

Shell Mold Casting Return to top Capabilities

Typical Feasible Shapes: Thin-walled: Flat Complex Thin-walled: Solid: Cylindrical Cylindrical Solid: Cubic Thin-walled: Cubic Solid: Complex Part size: Weight: 0.5 oz - 220 lb Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Nickel

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages: Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible 50 - 300 in 32 - 500 in 0.015 in. 0.006 in. 0.06 - 2.0 in. 0.06 - 2.0 in. 1000 - 1000000 100 - 1000000 Weeks Days Can form complex shapes and fine details Very good surface finish High production rate Low labor cost Low tooling cost Little scrap generated High equipment cost Cylinder heads, connecting rods

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Machining
Machining is a term used to describe a variety of material removal processes in which a cutting tool removes unwanted material from aworkpiece to produce the desired shape. The workpiece is typically cut from a larger piece of stock, which is available in a variety of standard shapes, such as flat sheets, solid bars, hollow tubes, and shaped beams. Machining can also be performed on an existing part, such as a casting or forging.

Flat sheet

Rectangular bar

Round tube

I-beam

Parts that are machined from a pre-shaped workpiece are typically cubic or cylindrical in their overall shape, but their individual features may be quite complex. Machining can be used to create a variety of features including holes, slots, pockets, flat surfaces, and even complex surface contours. Also, while machined parts are typically metal, almost all materials can be machined, including metals, plastics, composites, and wood. For these reasons, machining is often considered the most common and versatile of all manufacturing processes.

Milled part - Chuck jaw

Turned part - Stub axle

As a material removal process, machining is inherently not the most economical choice for a primary manufacturing process. Material, which has been paid for, is cut away and discarded to achieve the final part. Also, despite the low setup and tooling costs, long machining times may be required and therefore be cost prohibitive for large quantities. As a result, machining is most often used for limited quantities as in the fabrication of prototypes or custom tooling for other manufacturing processes. Machining is also very commonly used as a secondary process, where minimal material is removed and the cycle time is short. Due to the high tolerance and surface finishes that machining offers, it is often used to add or refine precision features to an existing part or smooth a surface to a fine finish. As mentioned above, machining includes a variety of processes that each removes material from an initial workpiece or part. The most common material removal processes, sometimes referred to as conventional or traditional machining, are those that mechanically cut away small chips of material using a sharp tool. Nonconventional machining processes may use chemical or thermal means of removing material. Conventional machining processes are often placed in three categories - single point cutting, multi-point cutting, and abrasive machining. Each process in these categories is uniquely defined by the type of cutting tool used and the general motion of that tool and the workpiece. However, within a given process a variety of operations can be performed, each utilizing a specific type of tool and cutting motion. The machining of a part will typically require a variety of operations that are performed in a carefully planned sequence to create the desired features. Material removal processes Mechanical oSingle-point cutting Turning Planing and shaping

oMulti-point cutting Milling Drilling Broaching Sawing oAbrasive machining Grinding Honing Lapping Ultrasonic machining Abrasive jet machining Chemical oChemical machining oElectrochemical machining (ECM) Thermal oTorch cutting oElectrical discharge machining (EDM) oHigh energy beam machining

Single point cutting refers to using a cutting tool with a single sharp edge that is used to remove material from the workpiece. The most common single point cutting process is turning, in which the workpiece rotates and the cutting tool feeds into the workpiece, cutting away material. Turning is performed on a lathe or turning machine and produces cylindrical parts that may have external or internal features. Turning operations such as turning, boring, facing, grooving, cut-off (parting), and thread cutting allow for a wide variety of features to be machined, including slots, tapers, threads, flat surfaces, and complex contours. Other single point cutting processes exist that do not require the workpiece to rotate, such as planing and shaping.

Turning

Boring

Grooving

Thread cutting

Multi-point cutting refers to using a cutting tool with many sharp teeth that moves against the workpiece to remove material. The two most common multi-point cutting processes are milling and drilling. In both processes, the cutting tool is cylindrical with sharp teeth around its perimeter and rotates at high speeds. In milling, the workpiece is fed into the rotating tool along different paths and depths to create a variety of features. Performed on a milling machine, milling operations such as end milling, chamfer milling, and face milling are used to create slots, chamfers, pockets, flat surfaces, and complex contours. Milling machines can also perform drilling and other hole-making operations as well.

End milling

Face milling

In drilling, the rotating tool is fed vertically into the stationary workpiece to create a hole. A drill press is specifically designed for drilling, but milling machines and turning machines can also perform this process. Drilling operations such as counterboring, countersinking, reaming, and tapping can be used to create recessed holes, high precision holes, and threaded holes. Other multi-point cutting processes exist that do not require the tool to rotate, such as broaching and sawing.

Drilling

Counterboring

Reaming

Tapping

Abrasive machining refers to using a tool formed of tiny abrasive particles to remove material from a workpiece. Abrasive machining is considered a mechanical process like milling or turning because each particle cuts into the workpiece removing a small chip of material. While typically used to improve the

surface finish of a part, abrasive machining can still be used to shape a workpiece and form features. The most common abrasive machining process is grinding, in which the cutting tool is abrasive grains bonded into a wheel that rotates against the workpiece. Grinding may be performed on a surface grinding machine which feeds the workpiece into the cutting tool, or a cylindrical grinding machine which rotates the workpiece as the cutting tool feeds into it. Other abrasive machining processes use particles in other ways, such as attached to a soft material or suspended in a liquid. Such processes include honing, lapping, ultrasonic machining, and abrasive jet machining.

Milling
Contents 1. Capabilities 2. Process Cycle 3. Equipment 4. Tooling 5. Materials 6. Possible Defects 7. Design Rules 8. Cost Drivers Milling is the most common form of machining, a material removal process, which can create a variety of features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material. The milling process requires a milling machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutter. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the milling machine. The cutter is a cutting tool with sharp teeth that is also secured in the milling machine and rotates at high speeds. By feeding the workpiece into the rotating cutter, material is cut away from this workpiece in the form of small chips to create the desired shape. Milling is typically used to produce parts that are not axially symmetric and have many features, such as holes, slots, pockets, and even three dimensional surface contours. Parts that are fabricated completely through milling often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed fasteners or brackets. Another application of milling is the fabrication of tooling for other processes. For example, three-dimensional molds are typically milled. Milling is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that milling can offer, it is ideal for adding precision features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed. Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Solid: Cubic Solid: Complex

Feasible Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Thin-walled: Complex Solid: Cylindrical

Part size: Length: 0.04 - 72 in Width: 0.04 - 72 in Materials: Metals

Ceramics

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Alloy Steel Composites Carbon Steel Lead Cast Iron Nickel Stainless Steel Tin Aluminum Titanium Copper Elastomer Magnesium Thermoplastics Zinc Thermosets 32 - 125 in 8 - 500 in 0.001 in. 0.0005 in. 0.04 - 40 in. 0.04 - 72 in. 1 - 1000 1 - 1000000 Days Hours All materials compatible Very good tolerances Short lead times Limited shape complexity Part may require several operations and machines High equipment cost Significant tool wear Large amount of scrap Machine components, engine components

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top
Process Cycle The time required to produce a given quantity of parts includes the initial setup time and the cycle time for each part. The setup time is composed of the time to setup the milling machine, plan the tool movements (whether performed manually or by machine), and install the fixture device into the milling machine. The cycle time can be divided into the following four times:

1. Load/Unload time - The time required to load the workpiece into the milling machine and secure it
to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load timecan depend on the size, weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of fixture.

2. Cut time - The time required for the cutter to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each
operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total cut length for that operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the cutter relative to the workpiece.

3. Idle time - Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks that occur
during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore remove material. This idle time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece, tool movements between features, adjusting machine settings, and changing tools.

4. Tool replacement time - The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime and
therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in every cycle, but rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by multiplying by the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the tool lifetime. Following the milling process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However, secondary processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required. The scrap material, in the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled away from the workpiece by the motion of the cutter and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore, no process cycle step is required to remove the scrap material, which can be collected and discarded after the production. Cutting parameters

In milling, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and more.

Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle and tool, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool. Cutting speed - The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM). Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and tool in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the tool. Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM). Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its axis in the workpiece as it makes a cut. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.

 Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along its radius in the workpiece as it makes a cut. If the radial depth of cut is less than the tool radius, the tool is only partially engaged and is making a peripheral cut. If the radial depth of cut is equal to the tool diameter, the cutting tool is fully engaged and is making a slot cut. A large radial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over the step-over distance, and makes another cut at the radial depth of cut.

Peripheral cut
Operations

Slot cut

During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield the desired part shape. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.

End milling - An end mill makes either peripheral or slot cuts, determined by the step-over distance, across the workpiece in order to machine a specified feature, such as a profile, slot, pocket, or even a complex surface contour. The depth of the feature may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.

Chamfer milling - A chamfer end mill makes a peripheral cut along an edge of the workpiece or a feature to create an angled surface, known as a chamfer. This chamfer, typically with a 45 degree angle, can be machined on either the exterior or interior of a part and can follow either a straight or curved path.

Face milling - A face mill machines a flat surface of the workpiece in order to provide a smooth finish. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.

Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. A drilling operation can produce a blind hole, which extends to some depth inside the workpiece, or a through hole, which extends completely through the workpiece.

Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different features. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions.

Counterboring - An counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit below the surface of a part. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the existing hole.

Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees.

Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.

Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap. Threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the hole (bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through hole (through tap).

Return to top Equipment Milling machines can be found in a variety of sizes and designs, yet they still possess the same main components that enable the workpiece to be moved in three directions relative to the tool. These components include the following:

Base and column - The base of a milling machine is simply the platform that sits on the ground and supports the machine. A large column is attached to the base and connects to the other components. Table - The workpiece that will be milled is mounted onto a platform called the table, which typically has "T" shaped slots along its surface. The workpiece may be secured in a fixture called a vise, which is secured into the T-slots, or the workpiece can be clamped directly into these slots. The table provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the X-direction by sliding along a platform beneath it, called the saddle. Saddle - The saddle is the platform that supports the table and allows its longitudinal motion. The saddle is also able to move and provides the horizontal motion of the workpiece in the Y-direction by sliding transversely along another platform called the knee. Knee - The knee is the platform that supports the saddle and the table. In most milling machines, sometimes called column and knee milling machines, the knee provides the vertical motion (Z direction) of the workpiece. The knee can move vertically along the column, thus moving the workpiece vertically while the cutter remains stationary above it. However, in a fixed bed machine, the knee is fixed while the cutter moves vertically in order to cut the workpiece.

Manual vertical milling machine The above components of the milling machine can be oriented either vertically or horizontally, creating two very distinct forms of milling machine. A horizontal milling machine uses a cutter that is mounted on a horizontal shaft, called an arbor, above the workpiece. For this reason, horizontal milling is sometimes referred to as arbor milling. The arbor is supported on one side by an overarm, which is connected to the column, and on the other side by the spindle. The spindle is driven by a motor and therefore rotates the arbor. During milling, the cutter rotates along a horizontal axis and the side of the cutter removes material from the workpiece. A vertical milling machine, on the other hand, orients the cutter vertically. The cutter is secured inside a piece called a collet, which is then attached to the vertically oriented spindle. The spindle is located inside the milling head, which is attached to the column. The milling operations performed on a vertical milling machine remove material by using both the bottom and sides of the cutter. Milling machines can also be classified by the type of control that is used. A manual milling machine requires the operator to control the motion of the cutter during the milling operation. The operator adjusts the position of the cutter by using hand cranks that move the table, saddle, and knee. Milling machines are also able to be computer controlled, in which case they are referred to as a computer numerical control (CNC) milling machine. CNC milling machines move the workpiece and cutter based on commands that are preprogrammed and offer very high precision. The programs that are written are often called G-codes or NC-codes. Many CNC milling machines also contain another axis of motion besides the standard X-Y-Z motion. The angle of the spindle and cutter can be changed, allowing for even more complex shapes to be milled. Return to top Tooling The tooling that is required for milling is a sharp cutter that will be rotated by the spindle. The cutter is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the workpiece. The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better surface finish. The cutters that can be used for milling operations are highly diverse, thus allowing for

the formation of a variety of features. While these cutters differ greatly in diameter, length, and by the shape of the cut they will form, they also differ based upon their orientation, whether they will be used horizontally or vertically. A cutter that will be used in a horizontal milling machine will have the teeth extend along the entire length of the tool. The interior of the tool will be hollow so that it can be mounted onto the arbor. With this basic form, there are still many different types of cutters that can be used in horizontal milling, including those listed below.

Plane (helical) mill Form relieved mill Staggered tooth mill Double angle mill

Another operation known as a straddle milling is also possible with a horizontal milling machine. This form of milling refers to the use of multiple cutters attached to the arbor and used simultaneously. Straddle milling can be used to form a complex feature with a single cut. For vertical milling machines, the cutters take a very different form. The cutter teeth cover only a portion of the tool, while the remaining length is a smooth surface, called the shank. The shank is the section of the cutter that is secured inside the collet, for attachment to the spindle. Also, many vertical cutters are designed to cut using both the sides and the bottom of the cutter. Listed below are several common vertical cutters.

Flat end mill Ball end mill Chamfer mill Face mill Twist drill Reamer Tap

All cutters that are used in milling can be found in a variety of materials, which will determine the cutter's properties and the workpiece materials for which it is best suited. These properties include the cutter's hardness, toughness, and resistance to wear. The most common cutter materials that are used include the following:

High-speed steel (HSS) Carbide Carbon steel Cobalt high speed steel

The material of the cutter is chosen based upon a number of factors, including the material of the workpiece, cost, and tool life. Tool life is an important characteristic that is considered when selecting a cutter, as it greatly affects the manufacturing costs. A short tool life will not only require additional tools to be purchased, but will also require time to change the tool each time it becomes too worn. The cutters listed above often have the teeth coated with a different material to provide additional wear resistance, thus extending the life of the tool. Tool wear can also be reduced by spraying a lubricant and/or coolant on the cutter and workpiece during milling. This fluid is used to reduce the temperature of the cutter, which can get quite hot during milling, and reduce the friction at the interface between the cutter and the workpiece, thus increasing the tool life. Also, by spraying a fluid during milling, higher feed rates can be used, the surface

finish can be improved, and the material chips can be pushed away. Typical cutting fluids include mineral, synthetic, and water soluble oils. Return to top Materials In milling, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut. This stock is available in a variety of shapes such as flat sheets, solid bars (rectangular, cylindrical, hexagonal, etc.), hollow tubes (rectangular, cylindrical, etc.), and shaped beams (I-beams, L-beams, T-beams, etc.). Custom extrusions or existing parts such as castings or forgings are also sometimes used.

Rectangular bar

Rectangular tube

I-beam

Milling can be performed on workpieces in variety of materials, including most metals and plastics. Common materials that are used in milling include the following:

Aluminum Brass Magnesium Nickel Steel Thermoset plastics Titanium Zinc

When selecting a material, several factors must be considered, including the cost, strength, resistance to wear, and machinability. The machinability of a material is difficult to quantify, but can be said to posses the following characteristics:

Results in a good surface finish Promotes long tool life Requires low force and power to mill Provides easy collection of chips

Return to top Possible Defects Most defects in milling are inaccuracies in a feature's dimensions or surface roughness. There are several possible causes for these defects, including the following: Incorrect cutting parameters - If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle speed, or axial depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than desired and may

contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may result in vibration of the cutter and cause inaccuracies in the cut. Dull cutter - As a cutter is used, the teeth will wear down and become dull. A dull cutter is less capable of making precision cuts. Unsecured workpiece - If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction of milling may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts. Return to top Design Rules Workpiece Select a material that minimizes overall cost. An inexpensive workpiece may result in longer cut times and more tool wear, increasing the total cost Minimize the amount of milling that is required by pre-cutting the workpiece close to the desired size and shape Select the size of the workpiece such that a large enough surface exists for the workpiece to be securely clamped. Also, the clamped surface should allow clearance between the tool and the fixture for any cuts Features Minimize the number of setups that are required by designing all features on one side of the workpiece, if possible Design features, such as holes and threads, to require tools of standard sizes Minimize the number of tools that are required Ensure that the depth of any feature is less than the tool length and therefore will avoid the collet contacting the workpiece Lower requirements for tolerance and surface roughness, if possible, in order to reduce costs Design internal vertical edges to have a corner radius equal to that of a standard tool. If another component with an external sharp edge must fit, then drill a hole to provide a relief area Avoid very long and thin features Use chamfers rather than a corner radius for outside horizontal edges Avoid undercuts Return to top Cost Drivers Material cost The material cost is determined by the quantity of material stock that is required and the unit price of that stock. The amount of stock is determined by the workpiece size, stock size, method of cutting the stock, and the production quantity. The unit price of the material stock is affected by the material and the workpiece shape. Also, any cost attributed to cutting the workpieces from the stock also contributes to the total material cost. Production cost The production cost is a result of the total production time and the hourly rate. The production time includes the setup time, load time, cut time, idle time, and tool replacement time. Decreasing any of these time

components will reduce cost. The setup time and load time are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cut time, however, is dependent upon many factors that affect the cut length and feed rate. The cut length can be shortened by optimizing the number of operations that are required and reducing the feature size if possible. The feed rate is affected by the operation type, workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and various cutting parameters such as the axial depth of cut. Lastly, the tool replacement time is a direct result of the number of tool replacements which is discussed regarding the tooling cost. Tooling cost The tooling cost for machining is determined by the total number of cutting tools required and the unit price for each tool. The quantity of tools depends upon the number of unique tools required by the various operations to be performed and the amount of wear that each of those tools experience. If the tool wear exceeds the lifetime of a tool, then a replacement tool must be purchased. The lifetime of a tool is dependant upon the tool material, cutting parameters such as cutting speed, and the total cut time. The unit price of a tool is affected by the tool type, size, and material. Return to top

Turning
Contents 1. Capabilities 2. Process Cycle 3. Equipment 4. Tooling 5. Materials 6. Possible Defects 7. Design Rules 8. Cost Drivers Turning is a form of machining, a material removal process, which is used to create rotational parts by cutting away unwanted material. The turning process requires a turning machine or lathe, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to the turning machine, and allowed to rotate at high speeds. The cutter is typically a single-point cutting tool that is also secured in the machine, although some operations make use of multi-point tools. The cutting tool feeds into the rotating workpiece and cuts away material in the form of small chips to create the desired shape. Turning is used to produce rotational, typically axi-symmetric, parts that have many features, such as holes, grooves, threads, tapers, various diameter steps, and even contoured surfaces. Parts that are fabricated completely through turning often include components that are used in limited quantities, perhaps for prototypes, such as custom designed shafts and fasteners. Turning is also commonly used as a secondary process to add or refine features on parts that were manufactured using a different process. Due to the high tolerances and surface finishes that turning can offer, it is ideal for adding precision rotational features to a part whose basic shape has already been formed. Capabilities

Typical Shapes: Thin-walled: Cylindrical Solid: Cylindrical Part size: Diameter: 0.02 - 80 in Materials: Metals Alloy Steel Carbon Steel Cast Iron Stainless Steel Aluminum Copper Magnesium Zinc Surface finish - 16 - 125 in Ra: Tolerance: 0.001 in. Max wall 0.02 - 2.5 in. thickness: Quantity: 1 - 1000 Lead time: Days

Feasible

Ceramics Composites Lead Nickel Tin Titanium Elastomer Thermoplastics Thermosets 2 - 250 in

0.0002 in. 0.02 - 80 in.

1 - 1000000 Hours

Advantages: All materials compatible Very good tolerances Short lead times Disadvantages: Limited to rotational parts Part may require several operations and machines High equipment cost Significant tool wear Large amount of scrap Applications: Machine components, shafts, engine components Compare with: Go

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top
Process Cycle The time required to produce a given quantity of parts includes the initial setup time and the cycle time for each part. The setup time is composed of the time to setup the turning machine, plan the tool movements (whether performed manually or by machine), and install the fixture device into the turning machine. The cycle time can be divided into the following four times:

Load/Unload time - The time required to load the workpiece into the turning machine and secure it to the fixture, as well as the time to unload the finished part. The load time can depend on the size, weight, and complexity of the workpiece, as well as the type of fixture. Cut time - The time required for the cutting tool to make all the necessary cuts in the workpiece for each operation. The cut time for any given operation is calculated by dividing the total cut length for that operation by the feed rate, which is the speed of the tool relative to the workpiece. Idle time - Also referred to as non-productive time, this is the time required for any tasks that occur during the process cycle that do not engage the workpiece and therefore remove material. This idle time includes the tool approaching and retracting from the workpiece, tool movements between features, adjusting machine settings, and changing tools. Tool replacement time - The time required to replace a tool that has exceeded its lifetime and therefore become to worn to cut effectively. This time is typically not performed in every cycle, but rather only after the lifetime of the tool has been reached. In determining the cycle time, the tool replacement time is adjusted for the production of a single part by multiplying by the frequency of a tool replacement, which is the cut time divided by the tool lifetime. Following the turning process cycle, there is no post processing that is required. However, secondary processes may be used to improve the surface finish of the part if it is required. The scrap material, in the form of small material chips cut from the workpiece, is propelled away from the workpiece by the motion of the cutting tool and the spraying of lubricant. Therefore, no process cycle step is required to remove the scrap material, which can be collected and discarded after the production. Cutting parameters

In turning, the speed and motion of the cutting tool is specified through several parameters. These parameters are selected for each operation based upon the workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and more.

 Cutting feed - The distance that the cutting tool or workpiece advances during one revolution of the spindle, measured in inches per revolution (IPR). In some operations the tool feeds into the workpiece and in others the workpiece feeds into the tool. For a multi-point tool, the cutting feed is also equal to the feed per tooth, measured in inches per tooth (IPT), multiplied by the number of teeth on the cutting tool. Cutting speed - The speed of the workpiece surface relative to the edge of the cutting tool during a cut, measured in surface feet per minute (SFM). Spindle speed - The rotational speed of the spindle and the workpiece in revolutions per minute (RPM). The spindle speed is equal to the cutting speed divided by the circumference of the workpiece where the cut is being made. In order to maintain a constant cutting speed, the spindle speed must vary based on the diameter of the cut. If the spindle speed is held constant, then the cutting speed will vary. Feed rate - The speed of the cutting tool's movement relative to the workpiece as the tool makes a cut. The feed rate is measured in inches per minute (IPM) and is the product of the cutting feed (IPR) and the spindle speed (RPM). Axial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along the axis of the workpiece as it makes a cut, as in a facing operation. A large axial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is typically machined in several passes as the tool moves to the specified axial depth of cut for each pass.

Radial depth of cut - The depth of the tool along the radius of the workpiece as it makes a cut, as in a turning or boring operation. A large radial depth of cut will require a low feed rate, or else it will result in a high load on the tool and reduce the tool life. Therefore, a feature is often machined in several steps as the tool moves over at the radial depth of cut.

Operations During the process cycle, a variety of operations may be performed to the workpiece to yield the desired part shape. These operations may be classified as external or internal. External operations modify the outer

diameter of the workpiece, while internal operations modify the inner diameter. The following operations are each defined by the type of cutter used and the path of that cutter to remove material from the workpiece.

External operations

Turning - A single-point turning tool moves axially, along the side of the workpiece, removing material to form different features, including steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. These features are typically machined at a small radial depth of cut and multiple passes are made until the end diameter is reached.
o

Facing - A single-point turning tool moves radially, along the end of the workpiece, removing a thin layer of material to provide a smooth flat surface. The depth of the face, typically very small, may be machined in a single pass or may be reached by machining at a smaller axial depth of cut and making multiple passes.
o

Grooving - A single-point turning tool moves radially, into the side of the workpiece, cutting a groove equal in width to the cutting tool. Multiple cuts can be made to form grooves larger than the tool width and special form tools can be used to create grooves of varying geometries.
o

Cut-off (parting) - Similar to grooving, a single-point cut-off tool moves radially, into the side of the workpiece, and continues until the center or inner diameter of the workpiece is reached, thus parting or cutting off a section of the workpiece.
o

Thread cutting - A single-point threading tool, typically with a 60 degree pointed nose, moves axially, along the side of the workpiece, cutting threads into the outer surface. The threads can be cut to a specified length and pitch and may require multiple passes to be formed.
o

Internal operations

Drilling - A drill enters the workpiece axially through the end and cuts a hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool.
o

Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along an internal surface to form different features, such as steps, tapers, chamfers, and contours. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head. Boring is commonly performed after drilling a hole in order to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions.
o

Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially through the end and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.
o

Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially through the end and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap.
o

Return to top Equipment Turning machines, typically referred to as lathes, can be found in a variety of sizes and designs. While most lathes are horizontal turning machines, vertical machines are sometimes used, typically for large diameter workpieces. Turning machines can also be classified by the type of control that is offered. A manual lathe requires the operator to control the motion of the cutting tool during the turning operation. Turning machines are also able to be computer controlled, in which case they are referred to as a computer numerical control (CNC) lathe. CNC lathes rotate the workpiece and move the cutting tool based on commands that are preprogrammed and offer very high precision. In this variety of turning machines, the main components that enable the workpiece to be rotated and the cutting tool to be fed into the workpiece remain the same. These components include the following:

Manual lathe Bed - The bed of the turning machine is simply a large base that sits on the ground or a table and supports the other components of the machine.

Headstock assembly - The headstock assembly is the front section of the machine that is attached to the bed. This assembly contains the motor and drive system which powers the spindle. The spindle supports and rotates the workpiece, which is secured in a workpiece holder or fixture, such as a chuck or collet. Tailstock assembly - The tailstock assembly is the rear section of the machine that is attached to the bed. The purpose of this assembly is to support the other end of the workpiece and allow it to rotate, as it's driven by the spindle. For some turning operations, the workpiece is not supported by the tailstock so that material can be removed from the end. Carriage - The carriage is a platform that slides alongside the workpiece, allowing the cutting tool to cut away material as it moves. The carriage rests on tracks that lay on the bed, called "ways", and is advanced by a lead screw powered by a motor or hand wheel. Cross slide - The cross slide is attached to the top of the carriage and allows the tool to move towards or away from the workpiece, changing the depth of cut. As with the carriage, the cross slide is powered by a motor or hand wheel. Compound - The compound is attached on top of the cross slide and supports the cutting tool. The cutting tool is secured in a tool post which is fixed to the compound. The compound can rotate to alter the angle of the cutting tool relative to the workpiece. Turret - Some machines include a turret, which can hold multiple cutting tools and rotates the required tool into position to cut the workpiece. The turret also moves along the workpiece, feeding the cutting tool into the material. While most cutting tools are stationary in the turret, live tooling can also be used. Live tooling refers to powered tools, such as mills, drills, reamers, and taps, which rotate and cut the workpiece.

Return to top Tooling The tooling that is required for turning is typically a sharp single-point cutting tool that is either a single piece of metal or a long rectangular tool shank with a sharp insert attached to the end. These inserts can vary in size and shape, but are typically a square, triangle, or diamond shaped piece. These cutting tools are inserted into the turret or a tool holder and fed into the rotating workpiece to cut away material. These single point cutting tools are available in a variety of shapes that allow for the formation of different features. Some common types of tools are as follows:

Style A - 0 degree lead-angle turning tools Style B - 15 degree lead-angle turning tools Style C - 0 degree square nose tools Style D - 80 degree included angle pointed-nose tools Style E - 60 degree included angle pointed-nose tools Cutoff tools Form tools

The above tools are often specified as being right or left handed, which indicates in which direction they move along the workpiece while making a cut. As described in the previous section, live tooling can also be used for turning, which includes the use of mills, drills, reamers, and taps. These are cylindrical multi-point cutting tools that have sharp teeth spaced around the exterior. The spaces between the teeth are called flutes and allow the material chips to move away from the workpiece. The teeth may be straight along the side of the cutter, but are more commonly arranged in a helix. The helix angle reduces the load on the teeth by distributing the forces. Also, the number of teeth on a cutter varies. A larger number of teeth will provide a better surface finish. The cutter teeth cover only a portion of the tool, while the remaining length is a smooth surface, called the shank. The shank is the section of the cutter that is secured inside the tool holder. All cutting tools that are used in turning can be found in a variety of materials, which will determine the tool's properties and the workpiece materials for which it is best suited. These properties include the tool's hardness, toughness, and resistance to wear. The most common tool materials that are used include the following:

High-speed steel (HSS) Carbide Carbon steel Cobalt high speed steel

The material of the tool is chosen based upon a number of factors, including the material of the workpiece, cost, and tool life. Tool life is an important characteristic that is considered when selecting a tool, as it greatly affects the manufacturing costs. A short tool life will not only require additional tools to be purchased, but will also require time to change the tool each time it becomes too worn. Return to top Materials In turning, the raw form of the material is a piece of stock from which the workpieces are cut. This stock is available in a variety of shapes such as solid cylindrical bars and hollow tubes. Custom extrusions or existing parts such as castings or forgings are also sometimes used.

Round bar

Round tube

Custom extrusions

Turning can be performed on a variety of materials, including most metals and plastics. Common materials that are used in turning include the following:

Aluminum Brass Magnesium Nickel Steel Thermoset plastics Titanium Zinc

When selecting a material, several factors must be considered, including the cost, strength, resistance to wear, and machinability. The machinability of a material is difficult to quantify, but can be said to posses the following characteristics:

Results in a good surface finish Promotes long tool life Requires low force and power to turn Provides easy collection of chips

Return to top Possible Defects Most defects in turning are inaccuracies in a feature's dimensions or surface roughness. There are several possible causes for these defects, including the following:

Incorrect cutting parameters - If the cutting parameters such as the feed rate, spindle speed, or depth of cut are too high, the surface of the workpiece will be rougher than desired and may contain scratch marks or even burn marks. Also, a large depth of cut may result in vibration of the tool and cause inaccuracies in the cut. Dull cutting tool - As a tool is used, the sharp edge will wear down and become dull. A dull tool is less capable of making precision cuts. Unsecured workpiece - If the workpiece is not securely clamped in the fixture, the friction of turning may cause it to shift and alter the desired cuts.

Return to top Design Rules

Workpiece

Select a material that minimizes overall cost. An inexpensive workpiece may result in longer cut times and more tool wear, increasing the total cost Minimize the amount of turning that is required by pre-cutting the workpiece close to the desired size and shape Select the size of the workpiece such that a large enough surface exists for the workpiece to be securely clamped. Also, the clamped surface should allow clearance between the tool and the fixture for any cuts Features

Minimize the number of setups that are required by designing all features to be accessible from one setup Design features, such as holes and threads, to require tools of standard sizes Minimize the number of tools that are required Ensure that the depth of any feature is less than the tool length and therefore will avoid the tool holder contacting the workpiece Lower requirements for tolerance and surface roughness, if possible, in order to reduce costs Avoid undercuts Return to top Cost Drivers Material cost The material cost is determined by the quantity of material stock that is required and the unit price of that stock. The amount of stock is determined by the workpiece size, stock size, method of cutting the stock, and the production quantity. The unit price of the material stock is affected by the material and the workpiece shape. Also, any cost attributed to cutting the workpieces from the stock also contributes to the total material cost. Production cost The production cost is a result of the total production time and the hourly rate. The production time includes the setup time, load time, cut time, idle time, and tool replacement time. Decreasing any of these time components will reduce cost. The setup time and load time are dependent upon the skill of the operator. The cut time, however, is dependent upon many factors that affect the cut length and feed rate. The cut length can be shortened by optimizing the number of operations that are required and reducing the feature size if possible. The feed rate is affected by the operation type, workpiece material, tool material, tool size, and various cutting parameters such as the radial depth of cut. Lastly, the tool replacement time is a direct result of the number of tool replacements which is discussed regarding the tooling cost. Tooling cost The tooling cost for machining is determined by the total number of cutting tools required and the unit price for each tool. The quantity of tools depends upon the number of unique tools required by the various operations to be performed and the amount of wear that each of those tools experience. If the tool wear

exceeds the lifetime of a tool, then a replacement tool must be purchased. The lifetime of a tool is dependant upon the tool material, cutting parameters such as cutting speed, and the total cut time. The unit price of a tool is affected by the tool type, size, and material. Return to top

vvvvvvvvHole-making
Contents 1. Machined holes 2. Hole-making operations Hole-making is a class of machining operations that are specifically used to cut a hole into a workpiece. Machining, a material removal process, creates features on a part by cutting away the unwanted material and requires a machine, workpiece, fixture, and cutting tool. Hole-making can be performed on a variety of machines, including general machining equipment such as CNC milling machines or CNC turning machines. Specialized equipment also exists for hole-making, such as drill presses or tapping machines. The workpiece is a piece of pre-shaped material that is secured to the fixture, which itself is attached to a platform inside the machine. The cutting tool is a cylindrical tool with sharp teeth that is secured inside a piece called a collet, which is then attached to the spindle, which rotates the tool at high speeds. By feeding the rotating tool into the workpiece, material is cut away in the form of small chips to create the desired feature. Hole-making operations are typically performed amongst many other operations in the machining of a part. However, hole-making may be performed as a secondary machining process for an existing part, such as a casting or forging. This can be done to add features that were too costly to form during the primary process or to improve the tolerance or surface finish of existing holes. Machined holes In machining, a hole is a cylindrical feature that is cut from the workpiece by a rotating cutting tool that enters the workpiece axially. The hole will have the same diameter of the cutting tool and match the geometry (which may include a pointed end). Non-cylindrical features, or pockets, can also be machined, but they require end milling operations not hole-making operations. While all machined holes have the same basic form they can still differ in many ways to best suit a given application. A machined hole can be characterized by several different parameters or features which will determine the hole-making operation and tool that is required.

Diameter - Holes can be machined in a wide variety of diameters, determined by the selected tool. The cutting tools used for hole-making are available in standard sizes that can be as small as 0.0019 inches and as large as 3 inches. Several standards exist including fractional sizes, letter sizes, number sizes, and metric sizes. A custom tool can be created to machine a non-standard diameter, but it is more cost effective to use the closest standard sized tool. Tolerance - In any machining operation, the precision of a cut can be affected by several factors, including the sharpness of the tool, any vibration of the tool, or the build up of chips of material. The specified tolerance of a hole will determine the method of hole-making used, as some methods are suited for tight-tolerance holes.

 Depth - A machined hole may extend to a point within the workpiece, known as a blind hole, or it may extend completely through the workpiece, known as a through hole. A blind hole may have a flat bottom, but typically ends in a point due to the pointed end of the tool. When specifying the depth of a hole, one may reference the depth to the point or the depth to the end of the full diameter portion of the hole. The total depth of the hole is limited by the length of the cutting tool. Recessed top - A common feature of machined holes is to recess the top of the hole into the workpiece. This is typically done to accommodate the head of a fastener and allow it to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Two types of recessed holes are a counterbore, which has a cylindrical recess, and a countersink, which has a cone-shaped recess. Threads - Threaded holes are machined to accommodate a threaded fastener and are typically specified by their outer diameter and pitch. The pitch is a measure of the spacing between threads and may be expressed in the English standard, as the number of threads per inch (TPI), or in the metric standard, as the distance in millimeters (mm) between threads. Return to top Hole-making operations Several hole-making operations exist, each using a different type of cutting tool and forming a different type of hole.

Drilling - A drill bit enters the workpiece axially and cuts a blind hole or a through hole with a diameter equal to that of the tool. A drill bit is a multi-point tool and typically has a pointed end. A twist drill is the most commonly used, but other types of drill bits, such as a center drill, spot drill, or tap drill can be used to start a hole that will be completed by another operation

Reaming - A reamer enters the workpiece axially and enlarges an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. A reamer is a multi-point tool that has many flutes, which may be straight or in a helix. Reaming removes a minimal amount of material and is often performed after drilling to obtain both a more accurate diameter and a smoother internal finish.

Tapping - A tap enters the workpiece axially and cuts internal threads into an existing hole. The existing hole is typically drilled by the required tap drill size that will accommodate the desired tap. The tap is selected based on the major diameter and pitch of the threaded hole. Threads may be cut to a specified depth inside the hole (bottom tap) or the complete depth of a through hole (through tap).

Boring - A boring tool enters the workpiece axially and cuts along the internal surface of an existing hole to enlarge the diameter or obtain more precise dimensions. The boring tool is a single-point cutting tool, which can be set to cut the desired diameter by using an adjustable boring head.

Counterboring - A counterbore tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to the diameter of the tool. Counterboring is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a bolt, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. The counterboring tool has a pilot on the end to guide it straight into the existing hole.

Countersinking - A countersink tool enters the workpiece axially and enlarges the top portion of an existing hole to a cone-shaped opening. Countersinking is often performed after drilling to provide space for the head of a fastener, such as a screw, to sit flush with the workpiece surface. Common included angles for a countersink include 60, 82, 90, 100, 118, and 120 degrees.
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About CustomPartNet

Sheet Metal Fabrication

Sheet metal fabrication is a classification of manufacturing processes that shape a piece of sheet metal into the desired part through material removal and/or material deformation. Sheet metal, which acts as the workpiece in these processes, is one of the most common forms of raw material stock. The material thickness that classifies a workpiece as sheet metal is not clearly defined. However, sheet metal is generally considered to be a piece of stock between 0.006 and 0.25 inches thick. A piece of metal much thinner is considered to be "foil" and any thicker is referred to as a "plate". The thickness of a piece of sheet metal is often referred to as its gauge, a number typically ranging from 3 to 38. A higher gauge indicates a thinner piece of sheet metal, with exact dimensions that depend on the material. Sheet metal stock is available in a wide variety of materials, which include the following:

Aluminum

Stainless steel

Brass Bronze Copper Magnesium Nickel

Steel Tin Titanium Zinc

Sheet metal can be cut, bent, and stretched into a nearly any shape. Material removal processes can create holes and cutouts in any 2D geometric shape. Deformation processes can bend the sheet numerous times to different angles or stretch the sheet to create complex contours. The size of sheet metal parts can range from a small washer or bracket, to midsize enclosures for home appliances, to large airplane wings. These parts are found in a variety of industries, such as aircraft, automotive, construction, consumer products, HVAC, and furniture. Sheet metal fabrication processes can mostly be placed into two categories - forming and cutting. Forming processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. Such processes are able to bend or stretch the sheet into the desired shape. Cutting processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to fail and separate, allowing the material to be cut or removed. Most cutting processes are performed by applying a great enough shearing force to separate the material, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes. Other cutting processes remove material by using heat or abrasion, instead of shearing forces.

Forming o Bending o Roll forming o Spinning o Deep Drawing o Stretch forming Cutting with shear o Shearing o Blanking o Punching Cutting without shear o Laser beam cutting o Plasma cutting o Water jet cutting

Return to top Capabilities

Typical

Shapes: Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Area: Up to 80 ft Weight: 0.5 oz - 100 lb Materials: Metals Lead Alloy Steel Magnesium Carbon Steel Nickel

Feasible Thin-walled: Complex

Surface finish - Ra: Tolerance: Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible Stainless Steel Tin Aluminum Titanium Copper Zinc 32 - 125 in 16 - 250 in 0.01 in. 0.002 in. 0.08 - 0.5 in. 0.001 - 1.0 in. 1000 - 100000 1 - 1000000 Weeks Hours Can form complex shapes Many material options High production rate Low labor cost Short lead time possible Limited to constant part thickness Part may require several operations and machines Large amount of scrap Brackets, panels, cans, utensils

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Sheet Metal Fabrication

Sheet metal fabrication is a classification of manufacturing processes that shape a piece of sheet metal into the desired part through material removal and/or material deformation. Sheet metal, which acts as the workpiece in these processes, is one of the most common forms of raw material stock. The material thickness that classifies a workpiece as sheet metal is not clearly defined. However, sheet metal is generally considered to be a piece of stock between 0.006 and 0.25 inches thick. A piece of metal much thinner is considered to be "foil" and any thicker is referred to as a "plate". The thickness of a piece of sheet metal is often referred to as its gauge, a number typically ranging from 3 to 38. A higher gauge indicates a thinner piece of sheet metal, with exact dimensions that depend on the material. Sheet metal stock is available in a wide variety of materials, which include the following:

Aluminum Brass Bronze Copper Magnesium Nickel

Stainless steel Steel Tin Titanium Zinc

Sheet metal can be cut, bent, and stretched into a nearly any shape. Material removal processes can create holes and cutouts in any 2D geometric shape. Deformation processes can bend the sheet numerous times to different angles or stretch the sheet to create complex contours. The size of sheet metal parts can range from a small washer or bracket, to midsize enclosures for home appliances, to large airplane wings. These parts are found in a variety of industries, such as aircraft, automotive, construction, consumer products, HVAC, and furniture. Sheet metal fabrication processes can mostly be placed into two categories - forming and cutting. Forming processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. Such processes are able to bend or stretch the sheet into the desired shape. Cutting processes are those in which the applied force causes the material to fail and separate, allowing the material to be cut or removed. Most cutting processes are performed by applying a great enough shearing force to separate the material, and are therefore sometimes referred to as shearing processes. Other cutting processes remove material by using heat or abrasion, instead of shearing forces.

Forming o Bending o Roll forming o Spinning o Deep Drawing o Stretch forming Cutting with shear o Shearing o Blanking o Punching Cutting without shear o Laser beam cutting o Plasma cutting o Water jet cutting

Return to top Capabilities

Typical

Shapes: Flat Thin-walled: Cylindrical Thin-walled: Cubic Part size: Area: Up to 80 ft Weight: 0.5 oz - 100 lb Materials: Metals Lead Alloy Steel Magnesium Carbon Steel Nickel Stainless Steel Tin Aluminum Titanium Copper Zinc Surface finish - Ra: 32 - 125 in 16 - 250 in Tolerance: 0.01 in. 0.002 in.

Feasible Thin-walled: Complex

Max wall thickness: Quantity: Lead time: Advantages:

Disadvantages:

Applications: Compare with: Go

Typical Feasible 0.08 - 0.5 in. 0.001 - 1.0 in. 1000 - 100000 1 - 1000000 Weeks Hours Can form complex shapes Many material options High production rate Low labor cost Short lead time possible Limited to constant part thickness Part may require several operations and machines Large amount of scrap Brackets, panels, cans, utensils

Disclaimer: All process specifications reflect the approximate range of a process's capabilities and should be viewed only as a guide. Actual capabilities are dependent upon the manufacturer, equipment, material, and part requirements.

Return to top

Sheet Metal Forming

Sheet metal forming processes are those in which force is applied to a piece of sheet metal to modify its geometry rather than remove any material. The applied force stresses the metal beyond its yield strength, causing the material to plastically deform, but not to fail. By doing so, the sheet can be bent or stretched into a variety of complex shapes. Sheet metal forming processes include the following:

Bending Roll forming Spinning Deep Drawing Stretch forming Return to top Bending Bending is a metal forming process in which a force is applied to a piece of sheet metal, causing it to bend at an angle and form the desired shape. A bending operation causes deformation along one axis, but a sequence of several different operations can be performed to create a complex part. Bent parts can be quite small, such as a bracket, or up to 20 feet in length, such as a large enclosure or chassis. A bend can be characterized by several different parameters, shown in the image below.

Bending Diagram

Bend line - The straight line on the surface of the sheet, on either side of the bend, that defines the end of the level flange and the start of the bend. Outside mold line - The straight line where the outside surfaces of the two flanges would meet, were they to continue. This line defines the edge of a mold that would bound the bent sheet metal. Flange length - The length of either of the two flanges, extending from the edge of the sheet to the bend line. Mold line distance - The distance from either end of the sheet to the outside mold line. Setback - The distance from either bend line to the outside mold line. Also equal to the difference between the mold line distance and the flange length. Bend axis - The straight line that defines the center around which the sheet metal is bent. Bend length - The length of the bend, measured along the bend axis. Bend radius - The distance from the bend axis to the inside surface of the material, between the bend lines. Sometimes specified as the inside bend radius. The outside bend radius is equal to the inside bend radius plus the sheet thickness. Bend angle - The angle of the bend, measured between the bent flange and its original position, or as the included angle between perpendicular lines drawn from the bend lines. Bevel angle - The complimentary angle to the bend angle.

The act of bending results in both tension and compression in the sheet metal. The outside portion of the sheet will undergo tension and stretch to a greater length, while the inside portion experiences compression and shortens. The neutral axis is the boundary line inside the sheet metal, along which no tension or compression forces are present. As a result, the length of this axis remains constant. The changes in length to the outside and inside surfaces can be related to the original flat length by two parameters, the bend allowance and bend deduction, which are defined below.

Neutral Axis

Neutral axis - The location in the sheet that is neither stretched nor compressed, and therefore remains at a constant length. K-factor - The location of the neutral axis in the material, calculated as the ratio of the distance of the neutral axis (measured from the inside bend surface) to the material thickness. The K-factor is dependent upon several factors (material, bending operation, bend angle, etc.) and is typically greater than 0.25, but cannot exceed 0.50. Bend allowance - The length of the neutral axis between the bend lines, or in other words, the arc length of the bend. The bend allowance added to the flange lengths is equal to the total flat length. Bend deduction - Also called the bend compensation, the amount a piece of material has been stretched by bending. The value equals the difference between the mold line lengths and the total flat length.

When bending a piece of sheet metal, the residual stresses in the material will cause the sheet to springback slightly after the bending operation. Due to this elastic recovery, it is necessary to over-bend the sheet a precise amount to achieve the desired bend radius and bend angle. The final bend radius will be greater than initially formed and the final bend angle will be smaller. The ratio of the final bend angle to the initial bend angle is defined as the springback factor, KS. The amount of springback depends upon several factors, including the material, bending operation, and the initial bend angle and bend radius.

Springback

Bending is typically performed on a machine called a press brake, which can be manually or automatically operated. For this reason, the bending process is sometimes referred to as press brake forming. Press brakes are available in a range of sizes (commonly 20-200 tons) in order to best suit the given application. A press brake contains an upper tool called the punch and a lower tool called the die, between which the sheet metal is located. The sheet is carefully positioned over the die and held in place by the back gauge while the punch lowers and forces the sheet to bend. In an automatic machine, the punch is forced into the sheet under the power of a hydraulic ram. The bend angle achieved is determined by the depth to which the punch forces the sheet into the die. This depth is precisely controlled to achieve the desired bend. Standard tooling is often used for the punch and die, allowing a low initial cost and suitability for low volume production. Custom tooling can be used for specialized bending operations but will add to the cost. The tooling material is chosen based upon the production quantity, sheet metal material, and degree of bending.

Naturally, a stronger tool is required to endure larger quantities, harder sheet metal, and severe bending operations. In order of increasing strength, some common tooling materials include hardwood, low carbon steel, tool steel, and carbide steel.

Press Brake (Open)

Press Brake (Closed)

While using a press brake and standard die sets, there are still a variety of techniques that can be used to bend the sheet. The most common method is known as V-bending, in which the punch and die are "V" shaped. The punch pushes the sheet into the "V" shaped groove in the V-die, causing it to bend. If the punch does not force the sheet to the bottom of the die cavity, leaving space or air underneath, it is called "air bending". As a result, the V-groove must have a sharper angle than the angle being formed in the sheet. If the punch forces the sheet to the bottom of the die cavity, it is called "bottoming". This technique allows for more control over the angle because there is less springback. However, a higher tonnage press is required. In both techniques, the width of the "V" shaped groove, or die opening, is typically 6 to 18 times the sheet thickness. This value is referred to as the die ratio and is equal to the die opening divided by the sheet thickness.

V Bending

In addition to V-bending, another common bending method is wipe bending, sometimes called edge bending. Wipe bending requires the sheet to be held against the wipe die by a pressure pad. The punch then presses against the edge of the sheet that extends beyond the die and pad. The sheet will bend against the radius of the edge of the wipe die.

Wipe Bending

Design rules

Bend location - A bend should be located where enough material is present, and preferably with straight edges, for the sheet to be secured without slipping. The width of this flange should be equal to at least 4 times the sheet thickness plus the bend radius. Bend radius o Use a single bend radius for all bends to eliminate additional tooling or setups o Inside bend radius should equal at least the sheet thickness o Bend direction - Bending hard metals parallel to the rolling direction of the sheet may lead to fracture. Bending perpendicular to the rolling direction is recommended. o Any features, such as holes or slots, located too close to a bend may be distorted. The distance of such features from the bend should be equal to at least 3 times the sheet thickness plus the bending radius. o In the case of manual bending, if the design allows, a slot can be cut along the bend line to reduce the manual force required. Return to top Roll forming Roll forming, sometimes spelled rollforming, is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is progressively shaped through a series of bending operations. The process is performed on a roll forming line in which the sheet metal stock is fed through a series of roll stations. Each station has a roller, referred to as a roller die, positioned on both sides of the sheet. The shape and size of the roller die may be unique to that station, or several identical roller dies may be used in different positions. The roller dies may be above and below the sheet, along the sides, at an angle, etc. As the sheet is forced through the roller dies in each roll station, it plastically deforms and bends. Each roll station performs one stage in the complete

bending of the sheet to form the desired part. The roller dies are lubricated to reduce friction between the die and the sheet, thus reducing the tool wear. Also, lubricant can allow for a higher production rate, which will also depend on the material thickness, number of roll stations, and radius of each bend. The roll forming line can also include other sheet metal fabrication operations before or after the roll forming, such as punching or shearing.

Roll Forming Line

The roll forming process can be used to form a sheet into a wide variety of cross-section profiles. An open profile is most common, but a closed tube-like shape can be created as well. Because the final form is achieved through a series of bends, the part does not require a uniform or symmetric cross-section along its length. Roll forming is used to create very long sheet metal parts with typical widths of 1-20 inches and thicknesses of 0.004-0.125 inches. However wider and thicker sheets can be formed, some up to 5 ft. wide and 0.25 inches thick. The roll forming process is capable of producing parts with tolerances as tight as 0.005 inches. Typical roll formed parts include panels, tracks, shelving, etc. These parts are commonly used in industrial and commercial buildings for roofing, lighting, storage units, and HVAC applications. Return to top Spinning Spinning, sometimes called spin forming, is a metal forming process used to form cylindrical parts by rotating a piece of sheet metal while forces are applied to one side. A sheet metal disc is rotated at high speeds while rollers press the sheet against a tool, called a mandrel, to form the shape of the desired part. Spun metal parts have a rotationally symmetric, hollow shape, such as a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere. Examples include cookware, hubcaps, satellite dishes, rocket nose cones, and musical instruments. Spinning is typically performed on a manual or CNC lathe and requires a blank, mandrel, and roller tool. The blank is the disc-shaped piece of sheet metal that is pre-cut from sheet stock and will be formed into the part. The mandrel is a solid form of the internal shape of the part, against which the blank will be

pressed. For more complex parts, such as those with reentrant surfaces, multi-piece mandrels can be used. Because the mandrel does not experience much wear in this process, it can be made from wood or plastic. However, high volume production typically utilizes a metal mandrel. The mandrel and blank are clamped together and secured between the headstock and tailstock of the lathe to be rotated at high speeds by the spindle. While the blank and mandrel rotate, force is applied to the sheet by a tool, causing the sheet to bend and form around the mandrel. The tool may make several passes to complete the shaping of the sheet. This tool is usually a roller wheel attached to a lever. Rollers are available in different diameters and thicknesses and are usually made from steel or brass. The rollers are inexpensive and experience little wear allowing for low volume production of parts.

Spinning Lathe

There are two distinct spinning methods, referred to as conventional spinning and shear spinning. In conventional spinning, the roller tool pushes against the blank until it conforms to the contour of the mandrel. The resulting spun part will have a diameter smaller than the blank, but will maintain a constant thickness. In shear spinning, the roller not only bends the blank against the mandrel, it also applies a downward force while it moves, stretching the material over the mandrel. By doing so, the outer diameter of the spun part will remain equal to the original blank diameter, but the thickness of the part walls will be thinner.

Conventional Spinning vs. Shear Spinning Return to top Deep Drawing Deep drawing is a metal forming process in which sheet metal is stretched into the desired part shape. A tool pushes downward on the sheet metal, forcing it into a die cavity in the shape of the desired part. The tensile forces applied to the sheet cause it to plastically deform into a cup-shaped part. Deep drawn parts are characterized by a depth equal to more than half of the diameter of the part. These parts can have a variety of cross sections with straight, tapered, or even curved walls, but cylindrical or rectangular parts are most common. Deep drawing is most effective with ductile metals, such as aluminum, brass, copper, and mild steel. Examples of parts formed with deep drawing include automotive bodies and fuel tanks, cans, cups, kitchen sinks, and pots and pans. The deep drawing process requires a blank, blank holder, punch, and die. The blank is a piece of sheet metal, typically a disc or rectangle, which is pre-cut from stock material and will be formed into the part. The blank is clamped down by the blank holder over the die, which has a cavity in the external shape of the part. A tool called a punch moves downward into the blank and draws, or stretches, the material into the die cavity. The movement of the punch is usually hydraulically powered to apply enough force to the blank. Both the die and punch experience wear from the forces applied to the sheet metal and are therefore made from tool steel or carbon steel. The process of drawing the part sometimes occurs in a series of operations, called draw reductions. In each step, a punch forces the part into a different die, stretching the part to a greater depth each time. After a part is completely drawn, the punch and blank holder can be raised and the part removed from the die. The portion of the sheet metal that was clamped under the blank holder may form a flange around the part that can be trimmed off.

Deep Drawing

Deep Drawing Sequence Return to top Stretch Forming Stretch forming is a metal forming process in which a piece of sheet metal is stretched and bent simultaneously over a die in order to form large contoured parts. Stretch forming is performed on a stretch press, in which a piece of sheet metal is securely gripped along its edges by gripping jaws. The gripping jaws are each attached to a carriage that is pulled by pneumatic or hydraulic force to stretch the sheet. The tooling used in this process is a stretch form block, called a form die, which is a solid contoured piece against which the sheet metal will be pressed. The most common stretch presses are oriented vertically, in which the form die rests on a press table that can be raised into the sheet by a hydraulic ram. As the form die is driven into the sheet, which is gripped tightly at its edges, the tensile forces increase and the sheet plastically deforms into a new shape. Horizontal stretch presses mount the form die sideways on a stationary press table, while the gripping jaws pull the sheet horizontally around the form die.

Stretch Forming

Stretch formed parts are typically large and possess large radius bends. The shapes that can be produced vary from a simple curved surface to complex non-uniform cross sections. Stretch forming is capable of shaping parts with very high accuracy and smooth surfaces. Ductile materials are preferable, the most commonly used being aluminum, steel, and titanium. Typical stretch formed parts are large curved panels such as door panels in cars or wing panels on aircraft. Other stretch formed parts can be found in window frames and enclosures. Return to top