Table of contents

Module 1 - Cells as the basis of life

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Functions of Different Organelles
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Microscopes - Technology to Investigate Cells
The Fluid Mosaic Model
Fluid Mosaic Model Diagram
Cell Membrane, Diffusion and Osmosis
Active Transport
Glossary of terms
 Module 1 - Cells as the basis of life

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Outcome: investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:
examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Definition
●​ Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms. For an organism
to be classified as living, it must be made of cells. All cells are either
eukaryotic or prokaryotic.

●​ prokaryote - Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles and

do not have a defined nucleus. Their genetic material (DNA) is found freely in
the cytoplasm.
○​ Simpler structure
○​ DNA is circular and located in the nucleoid region, they float in the
cytoplasm.
○​ Cell wall containing peptidoglcan
○​ Smaller - 1-10 micrometers
○​ Mostly unicellular organisms such as bacteria and archaea. Some
bacteria form colonies
○​ A cell wall and cell membrane are present
○​ Ribosomes are present but smaller in size
○​ Reproduce by binary fission
○​ Examples E. coli, Streptococcus, Salmonella.
●​ eukaryote
○​ Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, meaning their
internal structures are enclosed in membranes. The most significant
feature is the nucleus, which holds the cell's genetic material and
fungi.
○​ They are larger usually 10-100 micrometers
○​ They carry out more complex functions like photosynthesis and cell
respiration.
○​ Complex structure: Includes a variety of organelles such as nucleus,
mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, chloroplasts (in plants), and
endoplasmic reticulum.
○​ DNA is linear and housed within the nucleus.
○​ A cell wall is present on plant (made of cellulose) and fungi cells but
absent in animal cells
○​ Can reproduce sexually (via meiosis) or asexually (via mitosis).
○​ Ribosomes are larger
○​ Examples: Human cells, plant cells, fungal cells, animal cells.
Though they are both very different they both have ribosomes. A cytoplasm and a
cell membrane.

●​ membrane-bound
A membrane-bound organelle is surrounded by a membrane, often referred to as the
plasma membrane. This separates the internal components of the cell from the
external environment. Membrane-bound organelles can have single or double
membranes

●​ organelle - Organelles are tiny structures within the cell to carry out
necessary functions
Functions of Different Organelles

Organelle Function/size type of cell/image

Nucleus The nucleus is the control centre of the cell, Found in eukaryotic cells
containing the genetic material (DNA) that (plants, animals, fungi and
determines the cell's function, growth and protists). It is membrane bound
reproduction. It regulates gene expression and
directs cell activities by sending instructions via
Messenger RNA (mRNA). The nucleus is surrounded
by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope
which has a nuclear pores to control the exchange of
substances with the cytoplasm. The nuclear
envelope connects to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum.

Nucleolus Located inside the nucleus, the nucleolus is Found only eukaryotes in cells.
responsible for producing and assembling ribosomal Not membrane bound.
RNA (rRNA) and ribosome subunits. These ribosomes
are later transported out into the cytoplasm where
they assist in protein synthesis. The nucleolus is not
membrane-bound and can appear as a dense, round
structure within the nucleus.

Ribosome Ribosomes are small structures responsible for They are found in both
protein synthesis. They link amino acids together in prokaryotic and eukaryotic
the order specified by mRNA during translation. cells. They are not
They can either be free-floating in the cytoplasm membrane-bound.
(where they make proteins for use inside the cell) or
attached to the rough ER (where they produce
proteins for secretion or membrane insertion).
Ribosomes are made of rRNA and protein.

Smooth ER and The outer nuclear membrane of the nucleus which They are found in eukaryotic
Rough ER has a network of flattened, interconnected cells. It is membrane bound.
membranes to allow for intracellular transport. This
provides a connection of pathways between the
nucleus and the cell’s environment. The folding of
the membranes increases surface area.

ROUGH ER - have ribosomes attached - folds and

processes proteins made by the cell. Also synthesises
lipids. ​

SMOOTH ER - does not have ribosomes attached. This

is the main site of lipid production (essential for
 membrane repair and manufacture).
In plants, ER can transport substances BETWEEN
cells, and connects through channels in cell walls
called “cell pits”

Golgi body A semi-circular arrangement of membranes which Found in eukaryotic cells. It is

modify proteins and lipids that it receives from the membrane bound.
endoplasmic reticulum. It packages proteins and
other substances into small membrane sacs
(vesicles) for storage or secretion, and tags them
with particular molecules so that they can be
delivered to their correct location by the
cytoskeleton.

The membranes are arranged in stacks and vesicles

“bud off” one end, which evidences golgi bodies
secretory function. One vesicle the golgi body can
produce by “budding off” is a lysosome.

Mitochondria Organelle where cellular respiration occurs. The Found in eukaryotic cells.
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced by It has a double membrane.
respiration carries chemical energy all over the cell
to power the processes of life.
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy
(as ATP)​

The inside of the mitochondria is a folded membrane

with many projections (cristae). This structure
provides a greater surface area, where enzymes for
respiration are attached in the correct sequence for
the steps of this process.

Chloroplast These are found only in the photosynthetic cells in It is found in some eukaryotic
plants or algae. Contain an organised internal cells but not all. It is found in
structure of “grana” - stacked membrane sacs which plants and algae, these are cells
contain chlorophyll (to absorb light energy for ] that require photosynthesis. It
photosynthesis). The stacked membranes increase is membrane-bound.
surface area for light absorption. The liquid part of
the chloroplast is called the “stroma zone” and
contains chemicals for reactions to produce glucose.
Vacuole A vacuole is a fluid-filled sack used for storage of They are found in both
water, nutrients and waste. In plant cells, the large prokaryotic and eukaryotic
central vacuole maintains turgor pressure, keeping cells, though they are larger in
the cell firm. In animal cells, vacuoles are smaller plant cells and smaller in animal
and used for storage. In some unicellular organisms cells. They are membrane
like Amoeba, vacuoles help with digestion and bound. In plant cells this
excretion. membrane is called the
tonoplast.

Cell wall The cell wall is a rigid outer layer that provides Found in plants, fungi and
structural support, shape and protection to plant prokaryotic cells, but not animal
cells. It is mainly composed of cellulose in plants, cells. Since it is an external
Chitin in fungi and peptidoglycan in bacteria. It structure, it is not
prevents excessive water intake and maintains the membrane-bound.
shape of the cell, unlike the cell membrane it is fully
permeable to most substances.

Cell membrane The cell membrane (plasma membrane) is a semi Found in both prokaryotic and
permeable barrier that controls the movement of eukaryotic cells. It is membrane
substances in and out of the cell. It is composed of a bound, though it's more of a
phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, boundary than an internal
cholesterol, and carbohydrates. It plays a role in cell organelle.
communication, transport of nutrients, and waste
removal.
Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance inside the cell Found in both prokaryotic cells
where organelles are suspended. It is composed and eukaryotic cells. It is not
mainly of water, salts and proteins and is the site of membrane-bound.
many biochemical reactions. The cytoskeleton, a
network of protein filaments, provides structures
and helps organelles within the cytoplasm.

Lysosome Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes that break Found in some eukaryotic cells,
down waste, damaged cell parts, and foreign only animal cells (rare in plant
substances. They are sometimes called the “recycling cells. They are
centre” of the cell. If a cell is damaged, lysosomes membrane-bound.
can burst and help break it down in a process called
autolysis.

Plasmid A small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria that Found in prokaryotic cells
can carry genes for antibiotic resistance and other (bacteria). They are free-floating
traits. Plasmids can replicate independently and can DNA molecules, therefore they
be transferred between bacteria through are not membrane-bound.
conjugation.

Flagella A long whip-like structure that helps with cell Found in some prokaryotic and
movement. It rotates like a propeller, enabling some eukaryotic cells, the
bacteria and some animal cells (like sperm) to swim. structure differs between them.
It is not membrane-bound.
Capsule A protective outer layer found in some bacteria. It Found in some prokaryotic cells.
helps prevent desiccation (drying out) and provides Not membrane-bound, it is an
defence against the immune system. external layer.

Pili Short, hair-like structures on bacterial surfaces that Found in prokaryotic cells. Not
help in attachment to surfaces and exchange of membrane-bound, an external
genetic material (conjugation). structure.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are pound in plants or algae. They have 3 membrane
systems, outer, inner and the thykaloid membrane.

Stroma is the fluid filling up the

inner space of the chloroplasts which
encircle the grana and the
thylakoids. The light independent
reactions happen here, it’s where
carbon dioxide is reduced to form
glucose.

ATP - energy is produced when light

energy excited electrons and the
chemical energy is transported by ATP
(Adenosine Triphosphate) from the light
dependent reactions to the light
independent reactions.

Thylakoids are bound to the membrane

in chloroplsats, they contain
chlorophyll which absorbs light. A stack of thylakoids is called a
grana.
Mitochondria
Cellular respiration is a Biochemical process that occurs in the
mitochondria.
-​ It has two membranes
-​ The surface area of the inner membrane is much greater than the outer
membrane
-​ The inner membrane contains important proteins including those
involved in cellular respiration reactions.
-​ Heart muscle cells contain the most mitochondria
-​ They are found scattered throughout the cytosol (jelly-like
consistency)
-​ The number of mitochondria in a cell varies between cell type,
organisms and tissues.
-​ It generates most of the cells supply of ATP
-​ Glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide, water amd energy
-​ The folded inner membrane is called the cristae

The Golgi body is responsible for modifying proteins before they are
packaged, stored or secreated via membrane bound vesicles.
Microscopes - Technology to Investigate
Cells
– describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and function
– drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells

The light microscope

-​ Living cells in colour
-​ Maximum resolution of 200 nm
-​ Must be able to pass light through the specimen
-​ Can watch movement, cell division and protein synthesis

Fluorescence Microscope
-​ Used to view stained, dyed, or something that contains fluorescent antibodies
-​ The fluorescent substance absorbs light energy and emits and emits light at a visible
wavelength
-​ Views against a black background
-​ Filters block out added light so that you can see the wavelength of the light that the
substance emits

The Electron microscope

-​ Uses an electron beam instead of light & electromagnets instead of
glass lenses
-​ Allows a much clearer view of structures (1/10 nm)
-​ Shows the interaction between the electrons and the object
-​ Shows structure on a cellular and SUBcellular level
-​ Created more understanding for the structure of cellular and subcellular organisms
therefore increasing knowledge scientists have
-​ Allowed for the discovery of many organelles
-​ Does not work on living organisms
-​ Produces black and white images

Scanning electron microscope

Relatively Large surface area
Transmission electron microscope
Internal structures of near atomic resolution

Light microscope Electron microscopes

How do they The light microscope works by using Electron microscopes use a beam of
work? visible light to illuminate the object being electrons instead of light to illuminate
viewed. A beam of light passes through the sample. The electrons are
the object and then through lenses to accelerated, and their wavelength is
magnify the image. The lenses focus and much shorter than that of visible light,
bend the light to form a clearer, magnified which allows for much higher
image for viewing. resolution. Electrons are focused using
magnetic lenses, and the resulting
image is detected on a screen or
photographic plate.

What can it Living cells, tissues, and small organisms Extremely fine details at the molecular
observe? and atomic level
Larger organelles like the nucleus,
mitochondria, and chloroplasts Small organelles, viruses, and
(depending on the size and resolution) structures within the cell (such as
ribosomes)

Can produce 3D images with the

scanning electron microscope (SEM)

magnificatio Maximum magnification and resolution is Can go much higher than light
n ranges 200 nm microscopes. TEM is 0.1 nm and SEM
is 1-10 nm

Pros and Simple to use Very high resolution can resolve

cons structures at the nanometer scale
Can observe living specimens (no need
for sample preparation) Capable of observing detailed cellular
structures like proteins, membranes,
Relatively low cost and viruses

Allows for the use of different staining Provides high magnification and
techniques to highlight cell structures clarity

Lower resolution compared to electron Very expensive

microscopes (usually limited to resolving
structures above ~200 nm) Requires complex sample preparation
 (e.g., fixation, staining, and sometimes
Cannot view very small structures, such coating with metals)
as viruses or the detailed structure of
macromolecules Cannot observe living specimens
Limited to visible light wavelengths (samples must be dead and often
dehydrated)

Requires a vacuum environment,

which means the sample must be
placed in a vacuum chamber

what -​ Ribosomes (in high detail)

organelles -​ The inner structure of mitochondria (like the cristae in mitochondria)
can only the -​ Small vesicles and vacuoles
-​ The ultrastructure of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus
electron
-​ The detailed structure of viruses
microscope -​ The atomic or molecular structure of materials
see?
The Fluid Mosaic Model
How does it get its name - practice drawing - what the cell membrane looks like
-​ Define Phospholipid bilayer - allows for phospholipids to move through the cell membrane
Bilayer - 2 layers of phospholipids. Membranes can move and change shape as well as self repair
-​ Function of the cell membrane - regulates the transport of substances entering and leaving the
cell

-​ The structure and function of the cholesterol, transport proteins and receptor proteins that make
up the cell membrane
The tails made out of fatty (lipids) acids - Hydrophobic - repel water - the water and kept inside the cell
membrane - two tails to one head
The head is made from phosphate and glycerol - Hydrophilic - attract water
So it’s given the name phospholipid

Cholesterol - randomly distributed across the phospholipid bilayer

Ensures that the phospholipids don't separate too far apart (letting unwanted substance in) or compact
too tight (disabling movement). When its cold they compact so cholesterol is important, expand if too
hot

Membrane protein molecules are scattered throughout and embedded into the bilayer
Some are fixed into place while other flow freely

Explain why this model is referred to as the fluid mosaic model

The fluid mosaic model is made up of many different fluids which makes it look like a mosaic where all of
them fit together. The cell membrane is flexible and is able to change shape, therefore it is fluid.
Transport proteins
Proteins occur the entire way through the membrane and form channels that allow some materials to
cross the membrane. They function as pores for passive diffusion
Active carrier systems for transporting specific proteins (carrier proteins)

Adhesion, Receptor and Recognition Proteins

Receptor proteins are different depending on the cell because each type of cell requires different
hormones that bind them, depending on functions required
Adhesion proteins - multicellular organisms
Help cells maintain their 3D shape, they link cells together

Recognition glycoproteins (chains of sugars) have carbohydrates attached

They help Identify the cell, called antigens or marker molecules
Allows for immune system to recognise ‘self’ vs ‘non-self’
The current cell membrane model - HOMEWORK questions
1.​ What is meant by semipermeable?
If something is semipermeable it allows some substances to pass through but not others. The membrane
allows the passage of certain molecules while restricting others typically based on size, charge or
solubility.

2.​ Who proposed the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane?
In 1972, Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson proposed the fluid mosaic model to represent and explain
the structure of the cell membrane.

3.​ Describe the structure of the cell membrane.

The cell membrane is primarily composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol
and carbohydrates. The phospholipids have hydrophilic (water attracting) heads and hydrophobic
(water repelling) tails arranged in a bilayer with the tails on the inside. The membrane also contains
embedded proteins, cholesterol and carbohydrates. These components contribute to the fluidity and
functionally of the membrane.

4.​ What is the function of carbohydrates on the surface of the cell membrane?
Carbohydrates are important in cell to cell recognition. They often bind to proteins to form
glycoproteins or to lipids to form glycolipids which are crucial for identifying cells and signaling
interactions.

5.​ Why is the model called the 'fluid' model?

Most of the phospholipids and some proteins can drift laterally, making them flexible or fluid. Therefore
the membrane remains flexible and dynamic.

6.​ What is the importance of the 'kinks in the unsaturated hydrocarbon tails of phospholipids?
The ‘kinks’ caused by the presence of double bonds in the unsaturated hydrocarbon tails prevent the
phospholipids from packing tightly together. This helps maintain membrane fluidity especially at lower
temperatures.

7.​ Outline what happens to lipids at low and high temperatures.

At low temperatures lipid molecules may pack more closely together potentially leading to a more rigid
membrane. At higher temperatures lipid molecules move more freely making the membrane more fluid
and less stable.

8.​ Outline the benefits of lipids having high amounts of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
High amounts of unsaturated hydrocarbons with double bonds introduce kinks that prevent the lipids
from packing too tightly. This maintains membrane fluidity and flexibility which is essential for proper
cell function especially at lower temperatures.
 9.​ What are integral membrane proteins?
Integral membrane proteins are proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer. They can span the
entire membrane and play roles in transport, cell signalling and maintaining the cell structure.

10.​ Construct a table to summarise the action of three types of proteins associated with the cell
membrane

Types of Protein Function

Integral proteins span the membrane and facilitate transport, act as

receptors

Peripheral proteins Attach at exterior or interior surface of the

membrane and provide support or signalling

glycoproteins/glycolipids Involved in cell recognition and interaction with

other cells.

11.​ Describe how water crosses the cell membrane.

Water typically crosses the cell membrane through osmosis, either directly through the lipid bilayer
(though inefficient due to the hydrophobic nature of the membrane) or through specialised water
channels called aquaporins.

12.​ Describe how water soluble amino acids cross the cell membrane.
Water-soluble amino acids typically cross the membrane through facilitated diffusion or active transport
using membrane proteins like transporter or channels.

13.​ When is active transport involved in the movement of substances across the cell membrane?
Active transport is involved when substances are moved against their concentration gradient, requiring
energy, typically in the form of ATP. This includes processes like the sodium-potassium pump.

14.​ Explain why some substances cannot cross the cell membrane.
Some substances cannot cross the cell membrane because they are too large, changed or hydrophilic.
The hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer blocks the passage of polar or large molecules with the
help of transport proteins.

15.​ What is the name of the current model of the cell membrane?
(A) Fluid mosaic.
(B) Biprotein layer.
(C) Trilipid layer.
(D) Drifting protein.
 16.​ How does most water cross the cell membrane?
(A) Active transport.
(B) Attached to a large carrier protein.
(C) Dissolving in the phospholipid layer.
(D) Diffusion through aquaporins.

Fluid Mosaic Model Diagram

Cell Membrane, Diffusion and Osmosis

Required things for the cells need to move into the cell and things that are bad for the cell need to move out.
These products enter and exit the cell
Substances needed by cells are gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients like sugars and water
(main solvent in cells)

Wastes
Substances that must leave the cell, they may need to coat the outside of the cell like mucus or may pass
through hormones

Boundaries
Movement of chemicals across the cell boundary. In both plants and animals the cell membrane is in
direct contact with the cytoplasm. It controls the passage of water and other molecules in to and out of
living cells
Human and Animal Cells are selectively permeable because they only allow certain molecules to enter
and leave the cell.
Analogy: School gates - People who are part of the school can enter and exit but others cannot legally.

The pores of the cell allow certain substances based on their molecule size, larger ones will need special
assistance from transport proteins
Analogy: A large truck entering school grounds - it will need special assistance and gates to be opened.
The cell wall in plants is permeable and it allows more substances to enter, it is not selective.
Some cells on the outside of plants need to restrict the loss of water so the plant does not dehydrate.

The detailed chemical structure of the cell membrane cannot be seen, even with a microscope

Fluid mosaic model published in 1972 by Singer and Nicholson, it replaced a model published in 1935

Carbohydrates
Glycoproteins and Glycolipids
Antigens on proteins or lipids - detectors
Microtubules - involved in mitosis, cell motility, intracellular transport, and maintenance of cell shape

Passive Transport
A type of membrane transport that does not require energy to move substances in and out of the cell.
The cell wants an equal amount of the substance in and out of the cell

Diffusion
Movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
Eg. Like spraying perfume

Osmosis
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules from a higher concentration of water to a lower
concentration of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
Putting sultanas in hot water

Dilute - low concentration of the solute - Concentrated - high concentration of the solute

Tonicity
•Hypotonic Solution - (Hypo means lower or less)
One solution has a lower concentration of solute than another.
If placed in a hypotonic solution, a red blood cell will bloat up and may explode.
•Hypertonic Solution - (Hyper means high)
One solution has a higher concentration of solute than another, like a low concentration of water.
A red blood cell in a hypertonic solution, will shrivel—making the cytoplasm dense and its contents
concentrated—and may die.
•Isotonic Solution - both solutions have the same concentrations of solute. Human and animal cells are
ideally isotonic
Active Transport
Definition: Active transport is the movement of substances across the cell membrane against their
concentration gradient (from low to high concentration) using energy (usually ATP).
Concentration Gradient: The difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas (e.g., inside
and outside of the cell).
Energy Requirement: Active transport requires energy because substances are moving against the gradient,
which doesn't happen spontaneously.
Examples of Substances Involved in Active Transport:
-​ Sodium (Na⁺) and Potassium (K⁺): The sodium-potassium pump actively transports Na⁺ out of the cell
and K⁺ into the cell, maintaining proper cell function.
-​ Glucose: Cells actively transport glucose into the cell using glucose transporters, especially in the small
intestine.
-​ Calcium ions (Ca²⁺): Cells use active transport to pump Ca²⁺ ions out of the cell or into specialised
organelles like the endoplasmic reticulum.

Endocytosis
Definition: Endocytosis is the process by which a cell engulfs substances from the outside environment by
folding the cell membrane around them, forming a vesicle.
Types of Endocytosis:
-​ Phagocytosis: "Cell eating" – the cell engulfs large particles like debris or microorganisms (e.g., white
blood cells engulfing bacteria).
-​ Pinocytosis: "Cell drinking" – the cell takes in extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes (e.g., nutrients).
-​ Receptor-mediated endocytosis: Specific molecules (like hormones or LDL cholesterol) bind to
receptors on the cell surface before being engulfed.

Exocytosis
Definition: Exocytosis is the process by which substances exit the cell when vesicles containing the substances
fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their contents to the outside.
Process:
1.​ A vesicle containing the substance moves toward the cell membrane.
2.​ The vesicle fuses with the cell membrane.
3.​ The contents are released to the outside of the cell.
Examples:
-​ Neurotransmitters: Released from neurons into synaptic clefts during nerve signaling.
-​ Hormones: Released from endocrine cells (e.g., insulin from pancreatic cells).
-​ Digestive enzymes: Secreted from cells in the pancreas or stomach lining.
 Glossary of terms

Word Definition

Prokaryote A type of cell that lacks membrane-bound organelles and a defined

nucleus. Genetic material is free in the cytoplasm, and examples include
bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryote A type of cell that contains membrane-bound organelles, including a

nucleus that holds genetic material. Found in plants, animals, fungi, and
protists.

Membrane-bound Refers to organelles enclosed by a membrane that separates their internal

structures from the surrounding environment. Examples include the
nucleus and mitochondria.

Organelle A tiny structure within a cell that performs specific functions necessary for
cell life, such as protein synthesis or energy production.

Nucleus The control center of the cell, containing DNA, which regulates cell
functions and reproduction. It is membrane-bound and has a nuclear
envelope with pores for exchange of materials

Nucleolus A structure within the nucleus responsible for producing ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and assembling ribosome subunits. It is not membrane-bound.

Ribosome Small structures that synthesize proteins by linking amino acids together
in response to mRNA. Found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and
not membrane-bound.

Smooth ER A network of membranes involved in lipid production and detoxification.

Lacks ribosomes and is involved in the synthesis of lipids and steroid
hormones.

Rough ER A network of membranes studded with ribosomes that synthesize proteins

for secretion or insertion into membranes.

Golgi Body A membrane-bound organelle that modifies, sorts, and packages proteins
and lipids for storage or secretion. It is involved in producing lysosomes

Mitochondria Membrane-bound organelles where cellular respiration occurs, producing

ATP, the energy currency of the cell. Found in eukaryotic cells.

Chloroplast Organelles in plant cells and algae that carry out photosynthesis. They
contain chlorophyll and have an internal structure of stacked membranes
 for light absorption.

Vacuole A fluid-filled sac in plant and animal cells used for storing water, nutrients,
and waste. Plant cells have a large central vacuole that maintains turgor
pressure.

Cell Wall A rigid outer layer found in plant, fungal, and some bacterial cells. It
provides structural support and protection and is composed of cellulose
(in plants) or peptidoglycan (in bacteria).

Cell Membrane A semi-permeable barrier that surrounds the cell, controlling the
movement of substances in and out. It is composed of a phospholipid
bilayer with proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

Cytoplasm A gel-like substance inside the cell where organelles are suspended. It
contains water, salts, and proteins, and is the site of many biochemical
reactions.

Lysosome Membrane-bound organelles containing digestive enzymes. They break

down waste, damaged parts of the cell, and foreign substances. Also
involved in autolysis.

Plasmid Small, circular DNA molecules found in prokaryotic cells (bacteria). They
can carry genes for antibiotic resistance and replicate independently of
the bacterial chromosome.

Flagella Long, whip-like structures that help some cells, including bacteria and
sperm cells, move by rotating like a propeller.

Capsule A protective outer layer found in some bacteria. It helps prevent drying out
and protects the bacteria from the immune system.

Pili Short, hair-like structures on bacterial surfaces that aid in attachment to

surfaces and facilitate the exchange of genetic material (conjugation).

Cristae The folded inner membrane of the mitochondrion that increases surface
area for the enzymes involved in cellular respiration.

Stroma The fluid-filled space inside the chloroplast surrounding the grana and
thylakoids. The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis occur here,
converting CO2 into glucose.

ATP (Adenosine A molecule that stores and transports chemical energy within cells. It is
Triphosphate) produced during light-dependent reactions and used in light-independent
reactions for glucose formation.

Thylakoids Membrane-bound sacs within the chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll.

They are the site of the light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis.

Grana Stacks of thylakoids within the chloroplast. The grana increase surface
area for light absorption during photosynthesis.
Cellular Respiration The biochemical process in which glucose and oxygen are used to
produce ATP, carbon dioxide, and water. Occurs mainly in the
mitochondria.

ATP Production The process by which mitochondria generate ATP through cellular
respiration, providing energy for cellular activities.

Heart Muscle Cells Cells with a high number of mitochondria, as they require large amounts
of energy for continuous contraction.

Light Microscope A microscope that uses visible light to magnify objects. It has a maximum
resolution of 200 nm and allows for the observation of living cells in colour.

Fluorescence A type of microscope that uses fluorescent dyes or antibodies to view

Microscope specific cell components against a dark background, emitting light at
visible wavelengths.

Electron Microscope A microscope that uses a beam of electrons instead of light to produce
high-resolution images of cellular and subcellular structures, with a
resolution as small as 1 nm.

Scanning Electron A type of electron microscope that provides high-resolution 3D images of

Microscope (SEM) the surface of cells and tissues.

Transmission Electron An electron microscope that provides detailed views of internal cell
Microscope (TEM) structures at near-atomic resolution.

Phospholipid Bilayer A two-layer membrane structure made of phospholipids. The hydrophilic

heads face outward while the hydrophobic tails face inward, creating a
barrier to water-soluble substances.

Hydrophilic Water-attracting part of a molecule, such as the "heads" of phospholipids

in the membrane.

Hydrophobic Water-repelling part of a molecule, such as the "tails" of phospholipids,

that avoids interaction with water.

Cholesterol A lipid molecule embedded in the phospholipid bilayer that helps maintain
the membrane's fluidity by preventing the phospholipids from packing too
tightly or becoming too fluid.

Transport Proteins Proteins embedded in the membrane that form channels or carriers,
allowing specific substances to pass through the membrane via facilitated
diffusion or active transport.

Receptor Proteins Membrane proteins that bind to specific molecules (e.g., hormones),
triggering a response within the cell.

Glycoproteins Proteins with carbohydrate chains attached that help with cell recognition
and communication, acting as cell markers or antigens.
Recognition Proteins Glycoproteins or glycolipids that help the immune system distinguish "self"
from "non-self" cells.

Semipermeable A property of the cell membrane where only certain substances can pass
through, typically based on size, charge, or solubility.

Integral Membrane Proteins that span the entire membrane, playing a role in transport,
Proteins signaling, and maintaining cell structure.

Peripheral Membrane Proteins located on the inner or outer surface of the membrane that help
Proteins with cell signaling and structural support.

Osmosis The passive movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from

an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute
concentration.

Aquaporins Specialised membrane proteins that facilitate the movement of water

molecules across the cell membrane.

Active Transport The movement of substances across the cell membrane against their
concentration gradient, requiring energy (usually in the form of ATP).

Carrier Proteins Transport proteins that change shape to move substances across the
membrane, often involved in active transport

Facilitated Diffusion A passive form of transport where substances move across the
membrane via specific carrier or channel proteins without the need for
energy.

Fluid Mosaic Model A model describing the structure of the cell membrane, where lipids and
proteins move fluidly, creating a mosaic-like pattern.

Phospholipid Bilayer Two layers of phospholipids that form the fundamental structure of the cell
membrane.

Glycolipids Lipids with carbohydrate chains attached, playing a role in cell recognition.

Microtubules Protein structures involved in maintaining cell shape, mitosis, and

intracellular transport.

Antigens Molecules on proteins or lipids that help identify cells, often involved in
immune responses.

Passive Transport Movement of substances across the cell membrane without the use of
energy, typically following a concentration gradient.

Diffusion The movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area

of low concentration.

Tonicity The relative concentration of solutes in two solutions, affecting the

movement of water across membranes.
Hypotonic Solution A solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared to another,
which can cause cells to swell.

Hypertonic Solution A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to another,

which can cause cells to shrink.

Isotonic Solution A solution where the concentration of solutes is equal inside and outside
the cell, maintaining cell stability.

Concentration Gradient The difference in the concentration of a substance between two areas,
such as inside and outside the cell.

Endocytosis The process by which a cell engulfs substances from the outside
environment by folding the cell membrane around them, forming a vesicle.

Phagocytosis "Cell eating" – the cell engulfs large particles like debris or
microorganisms.

Pinocytosis "Cell drinking" – the cell takes in extracellular fluid and dissolved solutes.

Receptor-mediated Specific molecules bind to receptors on the cell surface before being
Endocytosis engulfed.

Exocytosis The process by which substances exit the cell when vesicles containing
the substances fuse with the cell membrane, releasing their contents to
the outside.

Neurotransmitters Chemical substances released from neurons into synaptic clefts during
nerve signaling.

Hormones Chemical messengers released from endocrine cells (e.g., insulin from
pancreatic cells).

Digestive Enzymes Enzymes secreted from cells in the pancreas or stomach lining to aid in
digestion.