Introduction to Research
What is Research?
• Research is a systematic process of collecting, analyzing, and
interpreting information (data) in order to increase the
understanding of a phenomenon about which the community
or organizations are interested or concerned (Leedy and
Ormrod, 2010). It entails collection of data; documentation of
critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies
set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines
(Hampshire College, 2022).
• The primary function of research is the search for
"understanding" or for "knowing" with the aim of contributing
to the body of knowledge or a theory in the domain of the
research. Other broad aims could be to provide insights and
contributions for improving practice, and to inform decision
making and policy development in the domain of education
(Van den Akker, Bannan, and Kelly, 2013)
Criminological Research
•Criminological research is a systematic and
accumulative study of issues related to the causes
and consequences of crime, delinquency, and
victimization, as well as the operation of the
criminal justice system, with an emphasis on
police, courts, and corrections (Britt, 2005). It lies
at the heart of criminological theory, influences
social policy development, as well as informs
criminal justice practice. The ability to collect,
analyze and present empirical data is a core skill
every student of criminology must learn
(Chamberlain, 2013).
Objectives:
Be able to better formulate a research question
Feel more comfortable with the clinical research
process
Understand the ideas of constructs and
operationalization
Understand the major differences between
quantitative and qualitative approaches to doing
educational research
“If we knew what we were
doing, it wouldn’t be called
research, would it?”
Albert Einstein
Developing Your Question
Start with a clear purpose
Know your literature
Be iterative in your approach
Try to specify the who, what, where and when of
your purpose
Ask yourself “What would the answer to this
question add to the literature?” and…
Developing Your Question
Don’t let methodology drive the question!
The Research Process
1. Identification of general problem/question
2. Literature review
3. Specify questions/hypotheses
4. Determination of design/methodology
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis/presentation
7. Interpretation of findings
The Right and the Left
Quantitative research - numbers, numbers, numbers
Qualitative research - words, words, words
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
Assumptions about the World
Based upon the idea of “logical Based on the notion of
positivism”, that is, there is a “constructivism”, which assumes
singular reality with stable, multiple realities that are
social facts that are separate socially constructed through
from the feelings and beliefs of individual and collective
individuals. perceptions or views of the
same situation.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Research
Purpose
Seeks to establish relationships Concern is with the
and explain causes of changes in understanding of the social
measured variables. That is, the phenomenon from the
goal of science is to explain and participants’ perspectives. This
predict. requires, to some degree,
researcher participation.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Methods and
Process
The scientific method, also Use of emergent design utilizing
known as a priori or pre- constant comparison and
established design. revision.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Prototypical
Studies
Experimental or correlational Use of ethnography, which
designs are used to reduce helps readers understand the
error, bias and the influence of multiple perspectives of the
extraneous variables--control of situation by the persons
bias is through design. studied. Subjectivity in data
analysis and interpretation is
acknowledged.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Researcher Role
Detachment from study in order Immersion in
to avoid bias. situation and the phenomenon
being studied.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Context
Context-free generalizations Generalizations are
contextually-bound.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Precision
Obtained through the use of Provided by detailed description
measurement and statistics of phenomenon
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Verification
Results replicated by others. Extension of understandings by
others.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Explanation
Traditionally, parsimonious Summary through narrative--
explanations were sought, but importance is placed on
this may be changing due to reducing complex realities to
technology. simple explanations.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Logical
Reasoning
DEDUCTIVE--What’s the classic INDUCTIVE--anyone have an
example? example?
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Conditional
Conclusions
Statements of statistical Tentative summary
probability. interpretations.
Classification of Research
Basic/Fundamental Research
Basic research is an investigation on basic principles
and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or
process or phenomenon (International Network for
Natural Sciences, n.d.)
The objective of basic research is to gain more
comprehensive knowledge or understanding of the
subject under study, without specific applications in
mind (Purdue University, 2021).
It provides a systematic and deep insight into a
problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and
logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build
new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic
research form the basis for many applied research.
Applied Research
•In applied research one solves certain
problems employing well known and
accepted theories and principles
(International Network for Natural Sciences,
n.d.). It is aimed at gaining knowledge or
understanding to determine the means by
which a specific, recognized need may be
met (Purdue University, 2021). It is meant to
offer knowledge that is applicable and
implementable.
Quantitative Research
• Quantitative research is the process of collecting and
analyzing numerical data. It encompasses a range of
methods concerned with the systematic investigation of
social phenomena, using statistical or numerical data.
• It involves measurement and assumes that the
phenomena under study can be measured (Roger, 2015).
It sets out to analyze data for trends and relationships
and to verify the measurements made. It can be used to
find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal
relationships, and generalize results to wider populations
(Bhandari, 2020).
Qualitative Research
• Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing
non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to
understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can
be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or
generate new ideas for research (Bhandari, 2020). It
focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social
phenomena and relies on the direct experiences of
human beings as meaning-making agents in their
everyday lives (University of Texas Arlington
Libraries,2022).
Mixed Methods Research
• Mixed methods research combines elements of
quantitative research and qualitative research in order
to answer the research question. Mixed methods can
help in gaining a more complete picture than a stand
alone quantitative or qualitative study, as it integrates
benefits of both methods (International Network for
Natural Sciences, n.d.).
• Mixed methods research may be the right choice if the
research process suggests that quantitative or
qualitative data alone will not sufficiently answer the
research question.
Research Design
•Exploratory research is a methodology approach
that investigates research questions that have not
previously been studied in depth. It is often
qualitative in nature. However, a study with a
large sample conducted in an exploratory manner
can be quantitative as well. It is also often
referred to as interpretive research³ or a
grounded theory approach due to its flexible and
open-ended nature (George, 2021).
Descriptive Research
•Descriptive research aims to accurately and
systematically describe population, situation a
or phenomenon. It can answer what, where,
when and how questions, but not why
questions. A descriptive research design can use
a wide variety of research methods to
investigate one or more variables (McCombes,
2019). Descriptive research is an appropriate
choice when the research aim is to identify
characteristics, frequencies, trends, and
categories.
Explanatory Research
• Explanatory research is a research method that
explores why something occurs when limited
information is available. It helps in increasing the
understanding of a given topic, ascertain how or why
a particular phenomenon is occurring, and predict
future occurrences.
• It can also be explained as a "cause and effect" model,
investigating patterns and trends in existing data that
haven't been previously investigated. For this reason,
it is often considered a type of causal research
(George and Merkus, 2021).
Correlational Research
A correlational research design
investigates relationships between
variables without the researcher
controlling or manipulating any of them.
A correlation reflects the strength and/or
direction of the relationship between
two (or more) variables. The direction of
a correlation can be either positive or
negative (Bhandari, 2021).
Longitudinal Research
•Longitudinal research focuses on how certain
measurements change over time without
manipulating any variables (Indeed Editorial
Team, 2021). Researchers repeatedly examine
the same individuals to detect any changes that
might occur over a period of time. It is a type of
correlational research in which researchers
observe and collect data on a number of
variables without trying to influence those
variables (Thomas, 2020).
Cross-sectional Research
•A cross-sectional study is a type of
research design in which the researcher
collects data from many different
individuals at a single point in time. The
variables are observed without influencing
them. Researchers in economics,
psychology, medicine, epidemiology, and
the other social sciences all make use of
cross-sectional studies in their work
(Thomas, 2020)
Types of Quantitative Studies
Descriptive
True experimental
Quasi-experimental
Correlational
Predictive
Research Using Primary Data
Cross-sectional
Case Control
Cohort
Randomized controlled trial
Cross-sectional Study
Data gathered at one point in time
Often used for surveys
Can not make inferences about causality
Robert Johnston’s Project
• Interested in PTSD
• Reviewed literature on PTSD in primary care settings
for his POM1 presentation
• Decided to do a survey to determine prevalence and
associated conditions
• Reviewed existing instruments
• Survey includes 2 PTSD questionnaires, AUDIT, SF-12
and PHQ-9
• Obtained IRB approval June, 2010
• Goal is to survey 100 patients at UMA
Case Control Study
Start with the outcome- identify a sample with the condition of
interest
Identify a similar control group
Look back to determine exposure
Calculate the risk in the cases and controls- odds ratio used
Can not use to establish prevalence
Cohort Study
Start with an identified group
Determine exposure in everyone at the same time
Follow the group to determine who develops the outcome of interest
Can be used to determine prevalence
Association measured as relative risk (rate ratios)
Randomized Controlled Trial
Gold standard for determining associations
Identify a group
Randomly assign individuals to exposure
Only reliable way to control for confounding
Research Using Secondary Data
Literature review
Systematic review
Metanalysis
Analysis of existing data collected for another purpose
Literature Review
Gather articles on a topic of interest
Summarize the findings
Systematic Review
Gather articles using a pre-defined search strategy- may include
unpublished studies
Develop a-priori objective criteria to evaluate the quality of the
studies
Summarize the quality of the data and the results
Metanalysis
Do a systematic review
Obtain the primary data if possible
Summarize the data quantitatively
Analysis of Existing Data
Use administrative data for research
Insurance claims data- Medicare
Central Data Repository (CDR) at UVa
Use regularly collected survey data
National Center for Health Statistics performs multiple surveys periodically-
NAMCS, NHIS, NMCES, NHANES
Use data collected for another study
