HEAT ENERGY:

Heat energy is a form of energy that flow from a region of high temperature to a
region of low temperature OR it is a form of energy that is transfer from one point to
another due to temperature difference between the two points. Heat can also be
defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles or molecules that
make up the substance. Heat is a vector quantity. Its s.i. unit is Joule.

TEMPERATURE:
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. It can also be
defined as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles or molecules that
make up the substance. It is a scalar quantity. Its s.i.unit is kelvin

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE

HEAT ENERGY TEMPERATURE

 Heat is transferred due to temperatur. Temperature is the degree

of difference. hotness or coldness of a
 Heat is a measure of the average internal Temperature is a measure of the energy of
the molecules of the substance . average kinetic energy of
the molecules of
the substance
 It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity.
 its s.i.unit is Joule. It is s.i. unit is kelvin
 it is represented with letter Q it is represented with symbol θ

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HEAT ENERGY AND TEMPERATURE

 Heat energy and temperature are physical quantities in physics.

 Heat energy and temperature have their units of measurement
 Heat energy and temperature can be calculated using appropriate formulae
 Heat energy and temperature can be measured/ determined using appropriate instruments
 Heat energy and temperature are properties of phenomenons

USING MOLECULAR KINETIC THEORY TO EXPLAIN TEMPERATURE

According to molecular kinetic theory of matter:
matter is made up particles.
Particles are in a state of constant random motion
the particles possess kinetic energy, and so on
Explanation:
when a substance is heated, the kinetic energy of the molecules or particles that
make up the substance is increased and the particle rate of motion is increased. this
increased in the average kinetic energy of the particles is the temperature rise of the
substance.

EFFECT OF HEAT ON A SUBSTANCE

When heat energy is added to a substance or removed from the substance, it have
an effect on the substance which will be discussed below.
The effect of heat energy on a substance are as follow:
Effect of addition of heat to a substance:

 increase in the temperature of the

substance: When is added to a
substance, the average kinetic energy of the particles of the substance is increased. the
increase in the kinetic energy of the particles of the substance causes the temperature of the
substance to increase.
 Expansion of the
substance:
when a substance is heated, the particles of the substance gain more kinetic energy, vibrate
stronger than before, brake away from the inter-molecular force of attraction and move
further apart. this causes the substance to expand.
 change of state of substance or
melting: when a
substance is heated\, the molecule of the substance gained more kinetic energy, vibrate
stronger than before and brake away from the inter molecular force of attraction that hold
the molecules together. the substance then change from solid state to liquid state or the
substance melt. Heating the substance further will cause the substance to change from liquid
state to gaseous state.
 vaporization of the
substance:
when a substance that is the liquid state is heated, the molecule of the substance gained
more kinetic energy vibrate stronger than before and brake away from the inter molecular
force of attraction in the liquid that hold the molecules together. the substance then change
from the liquid state to vapor

Effect of removal of heat from a substance:

when heat is removed from a substance, the opposite effects that happened when
heat was added to the substance will take place as explained below:

 decrease in the temperature of the substance:

 when heat is removed from a substance, the average kinetic energy of the substance is
reduced. this reduction in the average kinetic energy of causes the temperature of the
substance to reduced.

 Contraction of the substance: when heat is removed from a substance, the average kinetic
energy of the particles of the substance is reduced which in turn reduced the ability of the
particles of the substance to move further apart.this therefore caused the substance to
contract.

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY:

according to kinetic molecular theory, matters are made up of particles. The particles
process kinetic energy and are in a state of constant random motion

USING KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY TO EXPLAIN EXPANSION:

When a substance is heated, the molecules of the substance gain more kinetic energy,
vibrate strongly and brake away from the intermolecular force of attraction that hold
the molecules together and move further apart. This further movement of molecules
make the object to expand.

USING KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY TO EXPLAIN MELTING:

When a substance is heated, the molecules of the substance gain more kinetic energy,
vibrate strongly and brake away from the intermolecular force of attraction that hold
the molecules together and move further apart. This then cause the substance to
melt or change from solid state to liquid estate.

USING KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY TO EXPLAIN EVAPORATION:

When a substance is heated, the molecules of the liquid gain more kinetic energy,
vibrate strongly and brake away from the intermolecular force of attraction that hold
the molecules together, move further apart and change to vapour.

HEAT ENERGYII :
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to another
due to difference in temperature between the two points. Heat energy
always flow from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower
temperature.
Heat energy can also be defined as a measure of the average
internal energy of the particles of a substance.

UNIT OF HEAT ENEGRY:

The s.I. unit of heat energy is joule.

METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER:

There three methods through which heat energy can be transferred
from one place to another. The three methods of heat!! transfer are :

1. Conduction
2. Convection
3. Radiation

CONDUCTION:
Conduction is a method of heat transfer in solid. The heat energy is
transferred as the heated molecules vibrate about their mean position
and therefore transfer heat energy from one molecules to the other
until the heat energy is transferred from one point to another. It
require a material medium for heat transfer.

CONDUCTORS:
Conductors are substances or materials that conduct heat energy
easily. Conductors are mostly metals.

EXAMPLES OF MATERIALS THAT ARE CONDUCTORS:

Copper (ii) aluminum. (iii). Iron. ( iv). Silver
APPLICATION OF CONDUCTORS:
Conductors are used to make the followings:

1. Cooking utensils
2. Roofing sheets
 3. Cutleries
4. Electrical cables

INSULATORS OR NON CONDUCTORS:

Insulators are materials that do not conduct heat energy. They do not
allow heat energy to pass through them.

EXAMPLES OF INSULATORS:
 Water
 Air
 Plastics
 Wood
 Rubber
 Cotton wool
 Cork, cloth

APPLICATION OF INSULATORS:
Insulators are used to make the follow is:
Handle of cooking pots , hand gloves, foot wares, etc

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:
Thermal conductivity of a material or metal is the ability of the
material to conduct heat energy.

EXPERIMENT TO COMPARE THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF

DIFFERENT MATERIALS:
Aim:
To compare the thermal conductivities of different materials.

APPARATUS:

Wood, lead, iron, brass, copper, wax, water tank and hot water.

SETUP /DIAGRAM:
The set up diagram is as shown by the figure by your right.
PROCEDURES:
Insert equal lenght the materials into the water tank. Coat the
materials with wax. Pour hot water into the water tank.

OBSERVATION:
After sometimes, it is observed that the wax on the materials melted
to different lengths. The wax on copper melted most , followed by
that of brass, iron and lead. The wax on the wood did not melt.

CONCLUSION:
Copper has the highest thermal conductivity followed by brass, iron
and lead. Wood has the lowest thermal conductivity.

USING MOLECULAR KINETIC THEORY TO EXPLAIN

CONDUCTION:
When one end of a metal is heated, the molecules of the metal gain
more kinetic energy and vibrate strongly about their mean position.
As they vibrate faster and faster about their mean positions, they
collide strongly with the neighbouring molecules and therefore
transfer heat energy to the molecules one after the other, from one
end of the metal to the other end.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF LIQUID:

Water and other liquids are poor conductors of heat energy. Only
mercury which is a metal in liquid form conduct heat energy.
EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE THAT WATER IS A POOR
CONDUCTOR:

AIM:
To demonstrate that water is a poor conductor

Apparatus:
Big test tube, metal gauge, water, heat source, metal wire.

SETUP OR DIAGRAM:

The set up diagram is as shown by your right.

PROCEDURES:
Rap a piece of ice block in a metal gauze and put it into a test tube
full of water. Hold the test tube in an incline position and heat the test
tube at the top near the mouth of the tube.

OBSERVATION:
The water at the top of the tube boils. The ice at the bottom of the
tube does not melt for some times.

CONCLUSION:
Water is a poor conductor that was the reason that the ice block at
the bottom of the tube did not melt until after sometimes.

PRECAUTIONS:
Hold the test tube in an incline position.
Heat the water at the tope of the test tube.
Wrap the ice block with metal guaze.
PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF OF GOOD AND BAD
CONDUCTORS:
Blood conductors are used in a situation whereby it is necessary to
immediately conduct heat energy:

COOKING UTENSILS:
Cooking utensils such as pots and frying pans are made of good
conductors such as aluminium, iron so that heat energy is quickly
transferred from the fire to the contents of the pot.

FLOOR TILES FEELS COOL TO THE FEET:

When someone stand on a floor tiles, someone feels cool below the
feet because the floor tiles is a good conductors of heat and conduct
heat energy away from the sole of the feet. This reduced the
temperature of the body and therefore make the body become cool.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF POOR CONDUCTORS:

USE OF RUGS ON FLOORS:
Rugs are poor conductors of heat energy. when someone stands on
Rugs, someone feels warm below the feet because rugs are poor
conductors of heat energy.

COOLING OF HOMES IN THE TROPICS:

Thatched roofed houses are cooler inside than galvanized iron roofed
houses because thatched roof is a poor conductor of heat energy
and therefore does not conduct heat energy from the outside of the
house to the inside of the house unlike galvanized iron roof.

THE USE OF CLOTHES TO KEEP THE BODY WARM:

Clothes keep the body warm by trapping air between the body and
the clothes. Air is a poor conductor of heat energy. Therefore the air
between the body and cloth prevent the conduction of heat energy
from the inside to the outside of the cloth and therefore keep the
body warm.

CONVECTION:
Convection is a method of heat transfer in liquid. The heat energy is
transferred from one place to another by the movement of the heated
molecules. The heated molecules move in a circular pattern. The
movement of the heated molecules set up a convectional current. It
require a material medium for heat transfer.
CONVECTIONAL CURRENT:
Convectional current is the movement of heated fluid molecules in a
repeated circular pattern.

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT IN GASES:

Convectional currents are easily set up in gases because gases
expand much more readily than liquids when their temperatures rise.
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT IN GASES:
Convectional currents are easily set up in gases because gases
expand much more readily than liquids when their temperatures rise.

EXPERIMENT TO DEMONSTRATE CONVECTIONAL CURRENT IN

GAS:

AIM:
To demonstrate convectional current in gas.

APPARATUS:
A wooden box with a plane glass front, two separate chimneys,
candle, smoulder papaper.

SETUP / DIAGRAM:
The setup diagram is as shown by the figure by your right .

PROCEDURES:
Place the two chimneys at the top of the box. Lite the candle and
place it under one of the chimneys. With a smoulder paper, pour
smoke into the inside of the box through the second chimney.

OBSERVATION:
It is observed that the air descends down into the box. The flame of
the candle warm the air, the air expands, become less dense and
rises up out of the box through the other chimney. This process setup
a convectional current.

CONCLUSION:
Convectional current is setup in gas.
 APPLICATION OF CONVECTIN CURRENT IN COOLING DEVICES:

VENTILATION:
Convectional current brings about Good ventilation in house. Air that
is heated by respiration and fires, rises toward the roof and escape
through ventilators near the roof. The warmed escaped air is
replaced by fresh air which enters the house from outside through the
windows and doors.

COOLING OF MOTOR CAR ENGINE:

Car engines are cooled to prevent overheating which will damage the
engine. Connection current is used in the cooling process. The water
circulates around the engine by convention current.

DOMESTIC HOT WATER SYSTEM:

Domestic hot water system works on the principle of conventional
current for water circulation in the system.

EFFECT OF CONVECTIONAL CURRENT IN NATURE:

This are the natural effects that convection current produced by
nature. They are:
Circulation of fresh air in a room

 Ventilation of hot room

 Land and sea breeze

SEA BREEZE:
Sea breeze is the breeze that blow from the sea to the land during
the day.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING SEA BREEZE:

The diagram that illustrates land breeze is as shown in the figure by

your right.
EXPLANATION OF SEA BREEZE:
During the day, the sun heat the land and the sea. The land get
heated up more quickly than the sea. The air above the land become
warmed, expand, become less dense and rises up to the atmosphere.
The cooler and denser air above the sea surface move to the land to
take the place of the warmed, expanded air that rose to the
atmosphere. Also, the cooler and denser air in the atmosphere
descend to the surface of the sea. As the cooler and denser air move
to the land, the process repeat itself again and again. This process
therefore set up a convectional current which causes air to blow from
the sea to the land during the day.

LAND BREEZE:
Land breeze is the breeze that blows from the land to the sea at night.

DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING LAND BEEZE:

The diagram that illustrates land breeze is as shown in the figure by

your right.

EXPLANATION OF LAND BREEZE:

At night, the land get cooler faster than the sea. The land is cool at
night while the sea is warm at night. The warmness of the sea warm
air molecules above the sea surface. The air expand, become less
dense and rise up to the atmosphere. The cooler and denser air
above the land move to the surface of the sea to take the place of the
warmed, expanded air that rose to the atmosphere. Also, the cooler
and denser air in the atmosphere descend to the land. As the cooler
and denser air move to the surface of the sea, the process repeat
itself again and again. This process therefore set up a convectional
current which causes air to blow from the land to the sea at night.

RADIATION:
Radiation is a method of heat transfer through space. The heat
energy is transferred from one place to another without heating the
intervening medium. Radiation does not require a material medium
for heat transfer. Heat energy from a hot surface reaches us by
radiation.

DETECTION OF RADIATION:
Radiometer and thermopile are used to detect radiation. A thermopile
can detect and measure radiant energy. A thermopile measure and
detect radiant energy by deflection of galvanometer ( a sensitive
current measuring instrument) the radiant energy is converted into
electrical energy by a special device. The galvanometer measure the
amount of current produced from the radiant energy.

EMMISION AND ABSORPTION OF RADIANT ENERGY BY

DIFFERENT SURFACES:
Different types of surfaces at the same temperature radiate or emit
different amount of radiant energy. The rate or amount of radiant
energy radiated by a surface depends on the nature of the surface.
At a given temperature, dull black surfaces radiate heat energy
most than a polished surface.

DEMONSTRATION OF RATE OF RADIATION BY DIFFERENT

SURFACES:

AIM:
To demonstrate rate of radiation of surfaces.

APPARATUS:
Leslie cube, thermopile, different colour surfaces, hot water

SETUP / DIAGRAM:

The diagram that illustrates the Leslie cube and thermopile is as

shown by the figure by your right.

PROCEDURES:
Paint the faces of the cube with dull black, grey colour, bright colour.
Pour hot water into the cube. Turn each of the surfaces to face the
thermopile one after the other.
OBSERVATION:
It is observed that the dull black surface produced the
most deflection followed by the grey surface and bright surface.

CONCLUSION:
Since the dull black surface produced the most deflection followed by
the grey surface and bright surface, the dull black surface produced
the most radiation, followed by the grey surface. bright surface
produced the least radiation.

EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT BLACK SURFACE IS ALSO A

BETTER ABSORBER OF HEAT THAN A POLISHED SURFACES:

AIM:
To show that a black surface is a better absorber of heat than a
polished surface.

APPARATUS:
A dull black surface, a polished surface, candle, wax, two pieces of
corks.

SETUP / DIAGRAM:

Heat absorption of different surfaces

The diagram that illustrates the the setup diagram is as shown by the
figure by your right.

PROCEDURES:
Coat the two surfaces with wax and fix a cork on each surfaces.
Place a lit candle at equal distance between the two surfaces.

OBSERVATION:
It is observed that after sometimes, the wax on the dull black surface
melted and the cork fell off the surface. While the corkmon the
polished surface remain in position.

CONCLUSION:
Since the wax on the dull black surface melted earlier than that on
 the polished surface, dull black surface absorbs heat energy
morevthan polished surface.

PRECAUTIONS:
Apply the amount of wax on the surfaces. Place the lit candle at the
centre between the two surfaces. Use the same size of cork.

THE THERMO FLASK OR VACUUM FLASK:

Thermo flask is used to keep the temperature of its contents constant
over a period of time.

CONSTRUCTION OF THERMO FLASK:

Thermo flask is made of a silvered surface and doubled wall vacuum
placed on a cork. The composition is placed in a housing to give it a
perfect design.

DIAGRAM OF THERMO FLASK:

The figure by your right show the construction of thermo flask and the
different parts of the flask.

PARTS OF THERMO FLASK AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

 The doubled wall:

The doubled wall prevent heat loss by conduction and convection.
This is archieved by the lack of medium for the heat to flow from one
place to another.

 Silvered surface:
The silvered surface reduces heat loss by radiation. It help to reflect
back or radiate the heat back into the inside of the flask.

 Cork:
The cork prevent heat loss through conduction. Cork is a poor
conductor of heat and therefore does not allow heat to Ben
conducted from the inside of the flask to the outside.
EXERCISES:
1. Differentiate the three methods of heat energy transfer.
2. What is a thermo flask? Explain the features of a thermo flask
and their functions.
3. What is heat energy? State its unit.
4. What are the applications of conductors.
5. List and explain the natural effects of convection current.
6. How can you show that water is a poor conductor?
7. What is conductivity? Explain an experiment to compare the
conductivities of different metals.
8. Differentiate between a radiometer and a thermopile.
9. What are the composition of a thermopile? How can it be used
to measure the radiant energy of surfaces?