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LINEAR MODELS OF COMMUNICATION.

Aristotle's model.

The basic purpose of communication according to Aristotle is persuasion.

The original had speaker to Speech to the Audience. It was later improved to five.

Figure 1: Original Graphical Model by Aristotle

It is the oldest and simplest model of communication.

THE ARISTOTLE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION. (GRAPHICAL

MODEL)

It is a speaker-centered model. The emphasis is on the speaker. The speaker has the most important
role in it and is the only one active.

Figure 2: Later developed to this by other authors

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There are very many reasons. (Why is the linear model speaker-centered)

1. Delivers the speech to the audience. The role of the audience is passive, influenced by the
speaker's speech. Communication goes and doesn't return. It is a good model for politicians.
Making the communication process one way.

2. The speaker must organize the speech beforehand, according to the target audience and the
situation. The speech must be prepared to persuade the audience.

THREE CRITICAL ELEMENTS FOR ANY GOOD COMMUNICATOR.

1. Ethos: the credibility of a communicator. A speaker must be credible in front of the

audience. Without credibility, the audience won't be interested and won't be persuaded.
Expertise and position also give you credibility.

2. Pathos: this is understanding the audience. It is important to know the people you are going
to speak to. If what you say matters to them, then they will connect to it and be more
interested and think that you are more credible. Emotional bonds will make the audience
feel captivated. They are expressions corresponding to the message.

3. Logos: The logical flow of the speech. Logos is logic. People believe in you only if they
understand what you are saying to them. If there is no logic behind the speaker's work, the
audience won't be part of them. Everybody has a sense of reason and can discern. You must
present facts to the audience for them to believe you.

Research Question: As an adult communicator, what are the applications of the linear model in
adult education?

• Persuasion in inception meetings

CRITICISMS OF THE MODEL

1. There is no concept of feedback.

2. It is one way from speaker to audience

3. No concept of communication failure (no noise)

4. Can only be used in public and not interactive speaking.

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LASWELL'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION. (verbal model)

One of the earliest models. Crafted by Harold D Lasswell in 1948. Looked at communication in
form of a question.

• Who

• Say what

• In which channel

• To whom

• With what effect?

This verbal model focused attention on the essential models of communication and identified
areas.

WHO: raise the questions of the identification of the source of the message. (communicator,
sender, originator)

SAYS WHAT: Subject of the message. (Message)

WHICH CHANNEL: a medium through which the message is carried. (Medium)

TO WHOM: deals with the characteristics of the receiver and the audience (Receiver)

TO WHAT EFFECT: Evaluation of the effect of the message. These are the basic elements of
communication. (Effect)
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Research question: Implications of the model in adult education.

Every example of the communication process can be broken down into the terms.

N.B it doesn’t involve a diagrammatic representation. Its representation is in question form.

Which model of communication is not represented in graphical form?

Five Components of the Model

1. WHO: The WHO refers to the person who is sending the message (sender, communicator
or originator.) a person speaking on television, journalist in a newspaper article, blogger,
large media corporations, speaker giving a lecture at the university, preacher, parents, etc.
2. SAYS WHAT: Laswell says that we should analyze what is being said by the sender. This
is the message being communicated. It could be a story about politics, biblical story,
traditional tales etc.
3. IN WHICH CHANNEL: Means by which information is transmitted from the sender to
the receiver, e.g. television, phones, letters, computers, radios, newspapers, etc.
4. TO WHOM: mass media tends to have the following audiences: citizens of a nation,
readership of magazines, new paper, children, adults, women, men, young adults, old
people, etc.
5. WITH WHAT EFFECT: For most communicators in modern capitalistic societies, the
intended effect is for you to spend your money, but there others which include; changing
voting intentions, increased brand awareness,

Friday, March 28, 2025

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Read about Berlo’s SMCR Model of communication. (5 to 6 questions to come from here). It is
also a linear model of communication.

Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Introduction

• Developed by: David K. Berlo in 1960.

• Full Name: Source-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model.

• Nature: A linear model of communication, building on earlier models like Aristotle’s

and Lasswell’s, but with a focus on the components and factors influencing effective
communication.
• Purpose: To provide a structured framework for understanding how communication
occurs, emphasizing the roles of the sender (source), the message, the medium (channel),
and the recipient (receiver).
• Context: Widely used in interpersonal communication, education, and organizational
settings to analyze and improve communication processes.

Overview of the SMCR Model

• Berlo’s model breaks communication into four main components:

1. Source (S): The originator of the message.

2. Message (M): The content being communicated.

3. Channel (C): The medium through which the message is transmitted.

4. Receiver (R): The individual or group for whom the message is intended.
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• Key Idea: Effective communication depends on the alignment and compatibility of these
components, influenced by various factors like skills, attitudes, and knowledge.

Detailed Components of the SMCR Model

culture culture

1. Source (S)

• Definition: The sender or communicator who initiates the message.

• Key Factors Influencing the Source:

o Communication Skills: Ability to speak, write, or use non-verbal cues

effectively.

o Attitudes: The sender’s feelings toward the message, audience, or self (e.g.,
confidence or bias).

o Knowledge: The sender’s understanding of the subject matter.

o Social System: Cultural norms, values, or societal roles that shape the sender’s
perspective.

o Culture: Broader cultural background influencing how the message is framed.

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• Example: A teacher (source) must have strong teaching skills, knowledge of the subject,
and an attitude that engages students to communicate effectively.

2. Message (M)

• Definition: The information, ideas, or emotions the source intends to convey.

• Key Elements:

o Content: The actual substance of the message (facts, opinions, feelings).

o Elements: Words, symbols, or visuals used to express the content.

o Treatment: The way the message is structured or presented (tone, style,

emphasis).

o Structure: The organization of the message (e.g., logical sequence).

o Code: The system of symbols or language used (e.g., English, gestures).

• Example: A lecture (message) includes content (lesson material), structured with an
introduction and conclusion, delivered in a clear tone and language the students
understand.

3. Channel (C)

• Definition: The medium or pathway through which the message travels from source to
receiver.

• Types of Channels:

o Sensory Channels: Sight (visuals), hearing (speech), touch (physical contact),

smell, or taste.

o Media Channels: Face-to-face, written (letters, emails), electronic (TV, radio,

internet).

• Key Consideration: The channel must match the message and be accessible to the
receiver.

• Example: A lecture might use hearing (spoken words) and sight (slides) as channels to
deliver the message effectively.

4. Receiver (R)

• Definition: The individual or group for whom the message is intended.

• Key Factors Influencing the Receiver (Mirror the Source):

o Communication Skills: Ability to listen, read, or interpret the message.

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o Attitudes: Feelings toward the source, message, or context.

o Knowledge: Prior understanding of the topic.

o Social System: Cultural or societal influences on how the message is received.

o Culture: Background that shapes interpretation.

• Example: Students (receivers) need listening skills and some prior knowledge to
understand a teacher’s lecture.

Process of Communication in the SMCR Model

1. Encoding: The source translates thoughts into a message using a chosen code (e.g.,
language, symbols).

2. Transmission: The message is sent through a selected channel.

3. Decoding: The receiver interprets the message based on their skills, knowledge, and
context.

4. Outcome: Successful communication occurs when the receiver understands the message
as intended by the source.

Applications in Adult Education

• Training Programs: Trainers (source) design messages (content) to teach skills, using
channels like workshops or videos, tailored to adult learners (receivers).

• Persuasive Communication: Instructors use credibility (source) and structured

arguments (message) to motivate adult learners.

• Feedback Limitation: Since it’s linear, educators must supplement it with interactive
methods to gauge understanding.

• Cultural Sensitivity: Understanding the receiver’s cultural background ensures the

message resonates (e.g., adapting examples to adult learners’ experiences).

Advantages of Berlo’s SMCR Model

1. Comprehensive: Breaks down communication into clear, manageable components.

2. Focus on Skills: Highlights the importance of communication skills for both source and
receiver.
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3. Adaptable: Applicable to various contexts, from education to advertising.

4. Emphasizes Context: Considers social systems and culture, making it relevant to diverse
audiences.

5. Simplicity: Easy to understand and apply for analyzing communication effectiveness.

Disadvantages of Berlo’s SMCR Model

1. Linear Nature: Lacks feedback, assuming communication is one-way (source to

receiver).

2. No Noise Consideration: Ignores barriers (physical, psychological, or semantic) that

disrupt communication.

3. Static Model: Does not account for dynamic, two-way interactions common in real-life
settings.

4. Over-Simplification: May overlook emotional or situational complexities in

communication.

5. Assumes Similarity: Suggests source and receiver must have similar skills and
knowledge, which isn’t always realistic.

Comparison with Other Models

• Vs. Aristotle’s Model: Berlo expands beyond speaker-audience to include message and
channel, but both are linear and lack feedback.

• Vs. Lasswell’s Model: Berlo’s SMCR aligns with Lasswell’s "Who, Says What, In
Which Channel, To Whom," but adds detailed factors like skills and culture.
• Vs. Osgood’s Model: Unlike Osgood’s circular, interactive approach, Berlo’s is linear
and one-directional.

Practical Example

• Scenario: A manager (source) delivers a policy update (message) via email (channel) to
employees (receivers).

o Source: Manager’s credibility and writing skills shape the email.

o Message: Clear policy details, written in professional language.

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o Channel: Email must be accessible (e.g., employees have internet).

o Receiver: Employees interpret based on their reading skills and prior knowledge
of policies.
o Outcome: Success if employees understand and follow the policy; failure if the
message is unclear or the channel fails.

Key Takeaways

• Berlo’s SMCR Model provides a foundational framework for analyzing communication

by focusing on the source, message, channel, and receiver.
• It emphasizes the importance of skills, knowledge, and context in ensuring effective
message transmission.
• While useful for structured, one-way communication, its lack of feedback and noise
consideration limits its applicability in interactive settings.
• In adult education, it serves as a starting point for designing clear, targeted
communication, but should be paired with interactive methods.

Advantages of Laswell’s model of communication

1. It is very easy to use: it provides a blueprint for breaking down and analyzing any
communication in five steps.
2. It is designed for mass communication. It has a specific usefulness for mass
communication and propaganda analysis. It runs through one-way communication
methods used by powerful governments and corporations. The concept of effect is
well articulated.

Disadvantages.

1. Linear not cyclical: it is a linear model meaning that one doesn’t see communication
as taking place in a two-way fashion. Communication isn’t interactive.
2. It doesn’t account for feedback: because it is a linear model, it doesn’t look at how
people receiving messages can also be senders of messages that go back to the
sender.
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3. It doesn’t account for noise: noise occurs when a message isn’t received properly
by the audience implying that there is a hindrance or interference in the process of
receiving the message.

Research about the applications of the theory in adult education.

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INTERACTIONAL MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Key Terms: (participation, interactive, cyclical, feedback, constructive engagement.)

This model of communication contains all the concepts of the linear model but it adds the
concept of feedback. Feedback is the response from the receiver to the sender about the message.

The addition of the concept of feedback makes the linear model become more circular. Wilber
Schramm.

CHARLES OSGOOD MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

This theory explains how we communicate with on another mainly through speech, writing and
discourse. It emphasizes four key principles.

1. That communication is circular and not linear.

2. Communication involves interpretation
3. All communication requires three steps; encoding, decoding and interpreting a
message.
4. Equal And reciprocal Communication
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1. Circular communication
Each person is both a sender and receiver. They are therefore able to communicate to one
another rather than only in one direction. This circular feature of the model is very different
from other linear models. Like the one of Shannon and Weaver’s or the Laswell’s model of
communication.
2. Communication involves interpretation
In the process of interpretation, a lot of meaning can be lost. We call the lost or
misinterpretation of information semantic noise caused by semantic barriers. The semantic
barriers are specifically the values, beliefs and background knowledge that impact how
someone sends and how someone receives messages. As a two-way communication keeps on
going in circular form, the semantic noise is ideally reduced because the two communicators
can come to a shared meaning and give one another further clarification on what they actually
mean.
Monday, March 31, 2025
3. Communication requires Encoding, decoding and interpretation.
Encoding: When we want to send a message, we need to think about how to craft it, to get our
message across clearly. We need to think of the right words to say. And in what order we
should send our message to communicate the message. (Planning what you are going to say.)
Decoding: when we receive a message, we need to decode it. A message may be packaged as
text, as an image, advertisement, speech. When receiving a message, we need to use our
reading skills, listening skills, etc. to decode the message so it makes sense to us. Sometimes
someone may mishear or misread the message which will interfere with their interpretation
processes. (When you miss the tone, you miss the message).
Interpretation:

4. Equal And reciprocal Communication

Because both members of the communication have the capacity to encode, decode and
interpret, this model views the two members as equal participants. This model therefore works
very well to understand face to face conversations or text message exchange. E.g. both
members of the conversation will have back and forth discussion. This equal communication
model is very different to many others. which see communication as one way street where
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people take the role of either sender or receiver. However, Osgood’s model sees both the
participants as sender and receiver of messages.

Benefits of this model of communication

• It shows how feedback can work. It works well for explaining cyclical feedback. Other
models see communication as being linear in nature or one way street which fail to account
for feedback and dialogue. In this model the speaker can get feedback about their language,
jokes, choice of words, and non-verbal cues, so they can try to communicate more clearly
as the cycle continues.
• It recognizes that communication is complex, by accounting for encoding decoding and
interpretation, this model shows how sometimes we can mishear and misinterpret
information. This model sees us as active communicators because communication is
circular in nature, the roles are equally shared, because there is a lot of interpretation in the
communication process, equal partner in the communication process. In this model unlike
other models that see people as passive recipients, this one shows how active we are in
interpreting the information we receive.

Disadvantages/ weaknesses

• It doesn’t recognize that communication can be unequal. Yet there sometimes when
communication can be unequal. E.g a vice chancellor is communicating with the lectures,
or the first lady is communicating to the students. There many circumstances where
communication may involve one authority figure talking and one or many listeners try to
interpret the message. In such instances, communication is much less equal than in the
Schramm’s model. Therefore, this model doesn’t tend to work in situations where power
balances exist.
• It doesn’t work for mass communication. This is another time communication is unequal,
one person communicating to many looks very different from the circular model proposed
in the Osgood-Schramm approach.

CONVERGENCE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION